Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

Spending time in space takes a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-dust-toxic-health/">toll on astronauts</a>, and living in microgravity can impact the way the body’s fluids move. 

A new study has found that in space, an astronaut’s brain floats higher in the skull due to the amount of fluid build up at the base of the cerebellum.

The research, conducted by researchers at the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>, also produced brain scans of astronauts both before and after spaceflight that show changes in the brain’s white matter that corresponds with aging over the long term. 

Short spaceflights can cause as much damage to the brain as aging, and the researchers found changes in the areas of the brain responsible for processing sensory information and control.

However, the researchers also found that these changes were more severe during short missions, which indicates that astronauts may be able to adapt to the impacts of spaceflight during longer missions. 

The study was published in the journal JAMA Neurology and the researchers examined the brain scans of 15 astronauts before and after spending time in space. 

Brain scans taken post-spaceflight showed that fluid built up at the base of the cerebellum in space which pushed the brain higher up in the skull. The scans also showed white-matter deterioration during shorter missions that correlated with balance issues back on Earth. 

Although balance issues are typically only temporary for astronauts after spending time in space, the researchers hope to study brain scans of astronauts after six-month missions to see if the white matter changes last. 

As the world’s space agencies are laying the groundwork for manned missions to Mars, it’s crucial to understand how long-term spaceflight will impact astronauts. 

The researchers also say that the study has implications for people who lead sedentary lifestyles on Earth. 

“We have an increasingly sedentary lifestyle. It’s not the same as the effects on limbs in space, but if we’re laying around and not using our bodies, could the integrity of white matter pathways in the brain be affected?” Rachael Seidler, an author of the study, said in a University of Florida <a href="http://news.ufl.edu/articles/2019/01/spaceflight-changes-your-brain-pathways-.php">news release</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Time spent in space causes changes in the brain

Spending time in space takes a toll on astronauts, and...

A new study from <a href="https://www.nm.org/">Northwestern Medicine</a>, published January 28th in <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine">JAMA Internal Medicine</a>, has uncovered a massive difference in healthcare quality between patients who have a primary care doctor and those who don’t. This is the first study to examine the quality of outpatient care between adults with and without a primary care physician.

Those with a primary care <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/miss-doctor-appointments-risk-death/">doctor</a> often received higher-value healthcare such as getting recommendations for flu shots and cancer screenings. They also reported a better healthcare experience and better access to necessary healthcare options.

In the study, patients who stated they had primary care had a single doctor or physician outside of the emergency department “to whom they "usually go if [they] are sick or need advice about [their] health." These patients could also answer “yes” to the “four C’s” regarding their primary care: 
<ol>
 	<li> First Contact (new health problems) </li>
 	<li> Comprehensive (preventive health care, like general checkups, examinations and immunizations) </li>
 	<li> Continuous: (ongoing health problems) </li>
 	<li> Coordinated (referrals to other health professionals if and when needed)</li>
</ol>
"People who have primary care are fundamentally different from those who do not; they tend to be older, better insured, more white, etc.," said senior study author Dr. Jeffrey Linder, chief of general internal medicine and geriatrics in <a href="https://www.medicine.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University’s Department of Medicine</a>. "Our advance was to look at healthcare for Americans who were otherwise as similar as possible — but did or did not have primary care." 

To do so, researchers analyzed data from a nationally representative survey of the U.S. population and compared the patients with primary care to Americans with a similar demographic and health status, yet without a primary care doctor. Researchers then established a control for potential surprise factors, including socioeconomic status, physical health and mental health to make comparison between the two groups as unbiased and equivalent as possible.

The results showed that even though the two groups may have received similar care, those with a primary care doctor have higher-quality healthcare and better access to screening, preventative services, and testing. However, those with primary care are also slightly more likely to receive low-care in specific areas like prescriptions (being prescribed unnecessary antibiotics).

"We have further work to do to optimize the amount of high-value care and minimize the amount of low-value care we are delivering to patients," Linder said.

However, overall, primary care has been proven to be effective and beneficial to the public. Therefore, the researchers argue that policymakers should invest in primary care to increase the overall value of the country.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why having a primary care doctor makes a big difference

A new study from Northwestern Medicine, published January 28th in...

The air quality on cruise ships could pose a threat to passengers young and old as a <a href="https://www.stand.earth/sites/default/files/2019-an-investigation-of-air-pollution-on-the-decks-of-4-cruise-ships.pdf">new report </a>has found that some cruise ships have high levels of particulate matter comparable to large polluted cities. 

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cruise-ship-harm-environment/">cruise ship</a> industry is only growing despite the many mishaps that have occurred in recent years including ships being set adrift due to power outages and engine fires, disease outbreaks, bouts of food poisoning, and damages incurred during rough weather. 

In 2017 there were nearly 27 million cruise ship passengers, according to the <a href="https://res.cloudinary.com/dix5tzpvs/image/upload/v1543606314/CLIA/404%20Image%20backups/clia_2017_annualreport_9x7-65_final3_singlepages_5-7_web.pdf">Cruise Lines International Association annual report</a>, and Carnival, Royal Caribbean International, and Norwegian Cruise Lines dominate the industry. 

Ryan David Kennedy, a researcher from <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">John Hopkins University</a>, conducted an undercover study measuring air pollution on four different Carnival cruise ships over the course of two years. 

The study was funded by the campaign group <a href="https://www.stand.earth/">Stand.earth </a>which is currently working on getting major cruise ship liners to stop using heavy fuel oil (HFO).

According to the recently published report, HFO generates exhaust with harmful levels of sulfur and metals that are toxic or carcinogenic. This exhaust poses a threat to passengers, crew and also port communities. 

Kennedy boarded four cruise ships for the study and unbeknownst to the crew or passengers took measurements of pollutants on different parts of the ship like the bow and stern. Particulate measurements were made using a P-TRAK Ultrafine Particle Counter. 

The measurements all showed higher concentrations of particulate matter at the back of the ship compared to the other areas of the ship that were tested. 

In some areas of the ship, the air quality was so poor that Kennedy compared it to the highly polluted city Beijing. 

“The average PM readings in the stern areas of each ship were significantly higher than the average readings measured fore of the smokestacks (towards the bow),” Kennedy wrote in the report. “The findings of this study demonstrate that a source of PM – likely, in part from the ship's exhaust system – is contributing to poorer air quality in the stern areas of these cruise ships. Despite being on the open water and in open air, vacationers and cruise ship staff may be exposed to elevated concentrations of PM.”

It is important to note that the report was not published in a peer-reviewed journal and that there may be a conflict of interest. A spokesperson from Carnival told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/travel_news/article-6632099/The-air-cruise-ships-polluted-smog-ridden-Beijing-new-study-claims.html">Daily Mail</a> that the cruise line is dedicated to the safety and wellbeing of its passengers. 

“We test the air quality of our ships, and they meet or exceed every requirement,” the spokesperson told the Daily Mail. “The air quality on our ship decks when in port compares favorably with a typical urban or suburban environment. Independent testing on our funnels - which is the area where the exhaust originates- further validates our claims.”

However, the report is still a cause for concern as it shows that pollution on cruise ships is potentially harmful and could increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and respiratory problems for those exposed.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/about/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Air quality on cruise ships may reach unhealthy levels, report finds

The air quality on cruise ships could pose a threat...

Researchers have identified 226 food production shocks across 134 nations in the last five decades, with an increasing frequency of shocks occurring in all sectors. Study lead author Richard Cottrell noted that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-weather-worse/">extreme weather</a> was a major cause of shocks to both crops and livestock, which highlights the vulnerability of food production to weather volatility.

“In recent decades we have become increasingly familiar with images in the media of disasters such as drought and famine around the world,” said Cottrell. “Our study confirms that food production shocks have become more frequent, posing a growing danger to global food production.”

"We looked at the full range of global food production systems, covering crops, livestock, fisheries and aquaculture. We found that crops and livestock are slightly more shock-prone than fisheries and aquaculture, and some regions, such as South Asia, are more frequently affected than others.”

"While the number of food shocks fluctuates from year to year, the long-term trend shows they are happening more often."

According to Cottrell, the increasing frequency of food shocks allows for less recovery time between events and negatively affects the resilience of communities. “Reduced recovery time hinders coping strategies such as accumulating food or assets for use during times of hardship,” he explained.

Since 2010, conflict-related shocks to food production across sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East have combined with poor weather conditions to cause a rise in global hunger. 

“Land-based crop and livestock production are particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events such as drought, which are expected to become more frequent and intense with climate change,” said Cottrell. “However, marine-based food production is not immune from shocks.”

“Overfishing was responsible for 45 percent of shocks detected in landing data, while disruptions to aquaculture production have risen faster and to a higher level than any other sector since the 1980s.”

"Globalized trade and the dependence of many countries on food imports mean that food shocks are a global problem, and the international community faces a significant challenge to build resilience.”

Cottrell said resilience can be achieved by investing in climate-smart food systems and and by establishing food reserves in import-dependent nations.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/natsustain">Nature Sustainability</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Climate change, conflict are major causes of increasing food shocks

Researchers have identified 226 food production shocks across 134 nations...

You’d never know it simply by judging from accounts of dramatic winter weather, but the western United States actually had a record low snowpack last year, according to <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dry-warm-winter-leaves-western-u-s-snowpack-at-record-low-levels/">Scientific American</a>.  Even more unfortunate, this doesn’t seem to be a fluke but part of an overall downward trend in winter snow for the western US.  

Of course, there are nuances and despite the trend the short term weather remains unpredictable.  A ski resort near my hometown in western Colorado was recently sold and the new owners experienced an unexpected large amount of snow this winter, bucking the trend.  Nevertheless, reduced snow appears to be the new norm for western states despite such brief reprieves. 

<a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/03/180302124830.htm">Science Daily</a> reported last March on a study from Oregon State University that found 90% of sites sampled in the western US showed declines in snowpack, a third of those were determined to have significant declines.  Since 1915, overall the snowpack in western states has declined by 15 to 30% on average. The most obvious impact on the loss of snow is to the tourism industry. 

It’s obvious that places like Colorado, Wyoming and Utah draw tourists to their ski resorts along with other western states like California and Oregon.  In an article from 2012, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2012/02/no-business-like-snow-business-the-economics-of-big-ski-resorts/252180/">The Atlantic</a> reported that the ski resorts in the US have an accumulated 60 million ski and snowboard days.  All of that skiing spread across the United States equated to $3 billion in business. At the time of the report in The Atlantic, the winter was the driest so far on record with snowfall down 80% at Vail Ski Resorts.  Despite less visits to the resort properties, profits didn’t drop. The same is true of last year, another record low snowfall year, according to <a href="https://www.sltrib.com/news/business/2018/03/08/vail-ski-resorts-keep-making-money-even-with-pitiful-snowfall-in-utah-and-across-the-west/">The Salt Lake Tribune</a>.  

Part of the secret is offering ski passes at a relatively low price, making the sport accessible to more and creating more demand.  The bottom line is a profit increase of 6.6% through January 2018. Other sources of income such as lodging, food and retail at the resorts did decline despite profits in lift tickets and ski lessons.  Overall, the ski industry seems to be hanging on and making a profit for now, but it serves to highlight the delusional attitude towards water (whether it’s snow or a river) prominent in the western US.  How long can a ski resort be a viable business as snowfall continues to decline? Reality seems to be catching up to ski resorts. An article in <a href="https://www.coloradoan.com/story/news/2018/01/26/weather-and-climate-we-fearhow-climate-change-alter-skiing-colorado/1038318001/">The Coloradan</a> reports that many resorts expect profit declines this year.                                     

The drop in western snowpack is the equivalent water loss of <a href="https://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/educate/edpack3.html">Lake Mead</a>, the west’s largest reservoir holding approximately 29 million acre feet of water.  Besides ski resorts, mountain snowpack ends up feeding western rivers and agriculture as it melts in the spring.  Snow is melting earlier in the spring, making the runoff feeding habitats, farms and cities less predictable. 

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/water-shortages-reservoir-levels/">Lake Mead</a> is fed by snowmelt that runs into the Colorado River; 90% of the water used in Las Vegas comes from the famed reservoir.  An article from 2014 in <a href="http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2014/03/las_vegas_water_conservation_it_s_a_mirage.html">The Slate</a> reports on water conservation efforts in Las Vegas, pointing out that water usage goals in Nevada are unimpressive.  

The Slate reported that at that time, Las Vegas was still using more water per capita than almost any US city.  Front lawns are illegal in Las Vegas but golf courses still remain, as they do in other desert cities such as Tucson, Arizona. The Water Authority of Las Vegas has a goal of reducing water consumption to 199 gallons per person per day by 2035 which is twice the water usage of California in 2014.  Ironically, newer houses in Las Vegas consume less water than older houses, promoting more building to reach a goal of less consumption per household in Sin City. 

Of course, more houses may mean overall more water consumption, no matter how much the water usage is reduced on average per person.  The water that Las Vegas doesn’t use is pumped back into the Colorado River, meaning that how much water the city consumes has real consequences for people and wildlife downstream.  One of the unfortunate realities of the situation is farmers and fish miss out on water for what amounts to a desert mirage.

The mantra, ‘What happens in Vegas stays in Vegas’ creates the idea of a place where actions have no long term consequences.  You can get married by an Elvis impersonator and divorced the same day and it doesn’t matter. Fortunes are thrown away and won with the roll of a dice or the spin of a wheel.  Water is tossed into the Nevada desert with the same disregard of wealth and morality. <a href="https://www.bellagio.com/en/entertainment/fountains-of-bellagio.html">The Bellagio</a> hotel and casino advertises their fountains saying:

“There is nothing like seeing them in person. The Fountains of Bellagio were destined to romance your senses. Take in a spectacular show of thoughtfully interwoven water, music and light designed to mesmerize its admirers. It is the most ambitious, choreographically complex water feature ever conceived and it’s absolutely free for any visitor to enjoy… Fall in love with this unprecedented aquatic accomplishment”            

The Bellagio isn’t alone in creating this fantasy either.  There are hotels in Las Vegas fashioned after castles with moats of water evaporating slowly into the desert air.  There are pirate ships on the famed Las Vegas strip which battle several times a day and sink into illusory oceans made of real water.  So much water is used for pure entertainment and luxury and it doesn’t matter so much if it’s recycled grey water or not because that water could be passed down stream to those who need it.  As the west continues to dry out and we use up aquifers and water levels at reservoirs drop to record low levels, it’s time we stop thinking of places like Las Vegas or the Colorado Mountains as places to party.  Instead, we need to look at these places as homes, for us and for wildlife. What happens to the snow will affect an entire interconnected region, even the hot desert cities. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

The consequences of declining snowpack in the western United States

You’d never know it simply by judging from accounts of...

Scientists are beginning to explore the presence of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-sea-turtle-species/">microplastic</a> contamination in groundwater systems. A new study from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> is the first to reveal the discovery of microplastics in fractured limestone aquifers, an underground freshwater source that supplies 25 percent of drinking water worldwide. 

In two aquifer systems in Illinois, the team found microplastic fibers and a variety of medicines and household contaminants.

“Plastic in the environment breaks down into microscopic particles that can end up in the guts and gills of marine life, exposing the animals to chemicals in the plastic,” said study co-author John Scott, a researcher at the Illinois Sustainable Technology Center. “As the plastics break down, they act like sponges that soak up contaminants and microbes and can ultimately work their way into our food supply.”

According to Scott, groundwater flows through the cracks in the limestone, potentially transporting sewage and runoff from roads, landfills, and agricultural areas into the aquifers below.

The research team collected 17 groundwater samples from wells and springs, including 11 samples from a highly-fractured limestone aquifer near St. Louis and six from an aquifer that had much smaller fractures in northwestern Illinois.

Overall, 16 out of 17 samples contained microplastic particles. The highest concentration, which was 15.2 particles per liter, was collected from a spring in the St. Louis area. Scott said that it is hard to understand what this concentration implies because there are no published risk assessment studies or safety standards. 

Study lead author Samuel V. Panno, a researcher at the Illinois State Geological Survey, said that the concentrations from the field area were comparable to surface water concentrations found in the rivers and streams of Chicago,

“The research on this topic is at a very early stage, so I am not convinced we have a frame of reference to state expectations or bounds on what is considered low or high levels,” said study co-author Professor Tim Hoellein of Loyola University. “Our questions are still basic - how much is there and where is it coming from?”

Scott explained that there is still a lot of work to be done, and he expects microplastic contamination will remain an issue for many years.

“Even if we quit plastics cold turkey today, we will still deal with this issue for years because plastic never really goes away,” said Scott. “It is estimated that 6.3 billion metric tons of plastic waste have been produced since the 1940s, and 79 percent of that is now in landfills or the natural environment. To me, it is such a weird concept that these materials are intended for single use, yet they are designed to last forever.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17456584">Groundwater</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microplastic contamination found in common groundwater sources

Scientists are beginning to explore the presence of microplastic contamination...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> are reporting that individuals who identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual are at a higher risk for several different health problems. The experts found that sexual minorities were more prone to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/depression-anxiety-harm-health/">anxiety</a> and depressive disorders, cardiovascular disease, and drug and alcohol abuse.

Study co-author Cara Rice explained that stress associated with discrimination and prejudice may contribute to these outcomes. 

“It's generally believed that sexual minorities experience increased levels of stress throughout their lives as a result of discrimination, microaggressions, stigma and prejudicial policies,” said Rice. “Those increased stress levels may then result in poor health in a variety of ways, like unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.”

Professor Stephanie Lanza said the findings shed light on health risks that have been understudied.

“Discussions about health disparities often focus on the differences between men and women, across racial and ethnic groups, or between people of different socioeconomic backgrounds,” said Professor Lanza. “However, sexual minority groups suffer substantially disproportionate health burdens across a range of outcomes including poor mental health and problematic substance use behaviors.”


It has been previously documented that sexual minorities have an increased risk of substance abuse or anxiety disorders, but Rice said that studies have not yet established whether these health risks remain constant across age.

“As we try to develop programs to prevent these disparities, it would be helpful to know which specific ages we should be targeting,” said Rice. “Are there ages where sexual minorities are more at risk for these health disparities, or are the disparities constant across adulthood?”

The investigation was focused on data from over 30,000 participants in the National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions-III, who were between the ages of 18 and 65. The survey collected information about alcohol, tobacco, and drug use, as well as any history of depression, anxiety, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), or cardiovascular disease.

To analyze the data, the researchers used a method developed at Penn State called time-varying effect modeling.

“Using the time-varying effect model, we revealed specific age periods at which sexual minority adults in the U.S. were more likely to experience various poor health outcomes, even after accounting for one's sex, race or ethnicity, education level, income, and region of the country in which they reside,” explained Professor Lanza.

Overall, sexual minorities were found to be more likely to experience all of the health outcomes. For example, these individuals had about twice the risk of anxiety, depression, and STIs in the previous year compared to heterosexuals.

The experts also determined that risks for some health problems were higher at different ages. An increased risk for anxiety and depression was highest among sexual minorities in their early twenties, while an increased risk for poor cardiovascular health was higher in their forties and fifties.

“We also observed that odds of substance use disorders remained constant across age for sexual minorities, while in the general population they tend to be concentrated in certain age groups,” said Rice. “We saw that sexual minorities were more likely to have these substance use disorders even in their forties and fifties when we see in the general population that drug use and alcohol use start to taper off.”

Rice said the results of the study could potentially be used to develop programs to help prevent these health problems before they start.

“A necessary first step was to understand how health disparities affecting sexual minorities vary across age,” said Rice. “These findings shed light on periods of adulthood during which intervention programs may have the largest public health impact. Additionally, future studies that examine possible drivers of these age-varying disparities, such as daily experiences of discrimination, will inform the development of intervention content that holds promise to promote health equity for all people.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/annals-of-epidemiology">Annals of Epidemiology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

LGB people face higher risk of anxiety, depression, substance abuse

Researchers at Penn State are reporting that individuals who identify...

Even before the government shutdown, there were problems for many women working in the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/index.htm">National Park Service</a>.  The main voices and leadership in mainstream conservation and more broadly in the environment movement have been white and male.  From Thoreau to Abbey, Teddy Roosevelt to John Muir, the environmentalists with the most clout in the US are usually men. 

It’s not that these people haven’t moved the movement forward or had real contributions to make, they have. The unfortunate part of this scenario is that it alienates many people including <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/women-optimistic-older/">women</a> and people of color.  The environment is important for everyone human and non-human so it’s unfortunate when anyone is excluded from environmental discussion. As unfortunate as it is, organizations have sometimes become ‘boys clubs’ and this is evident even in government organizations like the National Park Service.

<a href="https://www.hcn.org/articles/a-legacy-of-harassment-national-park-service-reveals-sexual-harassment-survey-results">High Country News</a> reported in 2017 that an internal survey in the National Park Service found that 40% of the organization's employees experienced some level of harassment over a 12 month period.  The survey broke down the numbers more, 19% of those surveyed said they experienced gender based harassment and 10% reported sexual harassment. Almost 1% reported actual sexual assault.  Roughly half of the National Park Service employees responded to the survey. <a href="https://www.outsideonline.com/2252396/sexual-harassment-report-tip-iceberg">Outside Online</a> reports that these numbers are a small part of a much bigger problem.  It seems that the National Park Service has a long history of ignoring or downplaying complaints by female employees.

It’s not just the National Parks either.  Many occupations that involve working outdoors in remote locations suffer from high rates of harassment.  I think most are unsurprised by sexual misconduct in the military, a largely macho and male dominated organization but conservation organizations across the board are plagued by these problems.  <a href="https://www.outsideonline.com/2252396/sexual-harassment-report-tip-iceberg">Outside Online</a> cites a survey of female scientists that found 71% had been harassed in the field.    

As a man who’s worked for long periods of time in field locations from Alaska to Africa as well as in the continental US, these findings are disturbing and also completely believable.  Unfortunately the problem seems to be part of an unspoken credo that seems to say this type of behavior is acceptable and to be expected from men. There’s often little to no accountability in remote regions, especially in male dominated career fields.  Though my own behavior hasn’t been criminal, I haven’t always been as understanding to females working in the field with me as I should have been. The apathy that too often greets women in conservation and the outdoors is inexcusable. 

Not only is harassment unfortunately common, access to jobs and career advancement for women in conservation organizations.  An article from <a href="http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/how-a-yosemite-official-is-leading-the-fight-on-sexual-harassment/">Wharton</a> cites numbers that 90% of wildland firefighters are male and only 10% are female.  Even the military does better than this with women making up 16% of US military recruits and 18% of the officer corps according to the <a href="https://www.cfr.org/article/demographics-us-military">Council on Foreign Relations</a>.  A <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/few-women-fight-wildfires-thats-not-because-theyre-afraid-of-flames/2016/11/19/452c6cba-ac19-11e6-977a-1030f822fc35_story.html?utm_term=.4293ca13d650">Washington Post</a> article reports that almost 45 years ago female firefighters sued for better access to jobs.  Under order from the Supreme Court the US Forest Service increased female recruitment in the western US.  The order expired more than a decade ago and female recruitment fell off, representing a step backwards for equality.  Women have reported quitting the forest service due to sexual harassment but little has been done to confront the problem.             

The National Park Service under Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke took small steps to change their problem.  Besides the survey to determine the proportion of the problem, Zinke created a zero tolerance policy on harassment.  Critics such as Lesa Donnelly, a former US Forest Service employee currently vice president of <a href="http://www.agcoalition.org/index.html">USDA Coalition of Minority Employees</a>, have doubts.  The changes amount to making things look good rather than confronting the root of the problem.  Now that Zinke has been ousted, it’s uncertain what stance the Department of the Interior will take on workplace harassment.  

The problem goes beyond workplace or bureaucratic sexism.  Women recreating outdoors are often faced with hostility the same as those working in the outdoors.  <a href="https://www.runnersworld.com/training/a18848270/running-while-female/#survey">One survey</a> found that 43% of 2500 female runners questioned reported regular unwanted sexual attention.  Another survey cited by <a href="https://www.outsideonline.com/2099921/how-gender-affects-your-experience-climbing-gym">Outside Online</a> found that women new to climbing, just learning to climb in gyms often feel discriminated against.  64% of women said they felt, “uncomfortable, insulted, or dismissed at some point during their training” compared with only 29% of men surveyed.  This information includes 32% of women who said they received unwanted advice compared to only 14% of men. Clearly women don’t feel as respected as men when they’re learning a challenging skill that everyone struggles with in the beginning.  

In a conversation I had with <a href="http://www.danenberg.org/">Sophia Danenberg</a>, first African American woman to summit Mount Everest, she told me she often felt dismissed by male climbers.  She also told me that being treated with a dismissive attitude is more likely to hurt a woman or minority who already feels like she doesn’t fit the stereotype for climbers.    

Unfortunately, sexual harassment is a pervasive issue in America and the world reaching into nearly all facets of life.  Environmentalism and the outdoors are no different than other parts of society despite often being thought of as more progressive.  

As a white male I can’t comment directly on others experiences as if they were my own.  I can encourage others like me to be part of the solution rather than part of the problem.  It’s important to always look upon others around you with empathy and to question your own actions and pay attention to behavior.  Something as simple as giving unsolicited advice or staring a little too long can be uncomfortable. If environmental and outdoor communities are going to thrive and be a positive force in the world, they must be as welcoming as possible to everyone.  It’s also important to listen. The reason that the main voices in the environmental movement have been predominantly male isn’t because there are no female voices but simply because they’re often ignored. It’s time that we look to women to be leaders in the environmental movement, especially as the earth faces great challenges caused in many ways by the actions of men.               

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Sexual harassment persists in the outdoors

Even before the government shutdown, there were problems for many...

<a href="https://thebulletin.org/">The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a>, an organization comprised of scientists and Nobel Laureates, recently announced that the world’s Doomsday Clock remains at two minutes to midnight. 

While the clock <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-clock-midnight-apocalypse/">hasn’t moved since last year</a>, two minutes to midnight is the closest the clock has come to the apocalypse since the 1950s when the world was locked in a nuclear arms race. 

The clock remaining in place is anything but comforting, and the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists call this new environment of political unrest and upheaval, “the new abnormal.” 

“It’s a state as worrisome as the most dangerous times of the Cold War, a state that features an unpredictable and shifting landscape of simmering disputes that multiply the chances for major military conflict to erupt,” the Bulletin wrote in their <a href="https://thebulletin.org/doomsday-clock/current-time/">2019 Clock Statement</a>. 

“This new abnormal is simply too volatile and dangerous to accept as a continuing state of world affairs.”

Comparisons to the Cold War are not unwarranted as the US has pulled out of the Iran Nuclear Deal and recently announced its withdrawal from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). 

The INF was a treaty signed by Ronald Reagan and Russia with the aim of stopping the production of certain ballistic missiles. According to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/24/world/doomsday-clock-2019/index.html">CNN</a>, thousands of missiles were destroyed after the treaty was signed, but the US has recently accused Russia of violating the treaty. 

The Iran Nuclear Deal, similarly, was put in place to limit Iran’s ability to make nuclear weapons. 

Nuclear weapons are not the only things pushing the Doomsday Clock closer and closer to midnight. The Bulletin also reported that climate change poses one of the biggest threats to humanity. 

“The existential threat from human-caused global warming is ominous and getting worse,” the 2019 Clock Statement reads. “Every year that human activities continue to add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere irreversibly ratchets up the future level of human suffering and ecosystem destruction that will be wrought by global climate disruption.”

Both nuclear war and climate change could collapse infrastructure, severely limit crop yields and food production, and cause untold fatalities. 

The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists reports that it is not too late to correct the course of climate change, but limiting carbon emissions and reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas levels will require a major global effort. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Doomsday clock remains at two minutes to midnight

The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, an organization comprised of...

An environmental impact report created by Apple last year suggests that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-impact-babies-born/">climate change</a> may cause people to value their iPhones more. In a document prepared for the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP), Apple explained that the phone will become increasingly useful as a siren, radio, flashlight, and as a source of first-aid instructions.

The British nonprofit group CDP collected reports from about 7,000 companies to demonstrate the powerful impact that President Trump’s environmental policies could have on the economy, according to <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/">Bloomberg</a>. The reports include various “risks and opportunities” that are presented by climate change.

Apple recognizes an opportunity, writing: “As people begin to experience severe weather events with greater frequency, we expect an increasing need for confidence and preparedness in the arena of personal safety and the well-being of loved ones.”

The report also points out that iPhones can be charged for many days using car batteries or hand cranks. 

Apple, however, is not just sitting idly by waiting to take advantage of the difficult circumstances that come along with climate change. In fact, the company is actually making huge strides to help prevent climate disasters. In 2018, Apple achieved a major milestone when they succeeded in powering all of their facilities with 100 percent renewable energy. 

“To power all our corporate offices, retail stores, and data centers worldwide using only renewable energy, we need to produce a lot of it ourselves,” the company's website states. “So we’re developing our own solar, water, wind, and biogas fuel cell projects.”

Apple has also been very vocal in its commitment to the Paris Agreement. After President Trump made the decision to withdraw, Apple responded with a $1 billion green bond, which will be used specifically for environmental projects. 


According to Bloomberg, the CDP released letter grades to represent how aware companies are about the issue of climate change and how well they are preparing for it. Overall, 30 U.S.-based companies received top scores, including Apple, Johnson &amp; Johnson, and Home Depot.

--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer


Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Apple expects climate change to increase the value of iPhones

An environmental impact report created by Apple last year suggests...

We all know <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-not-one-disease/">Alzheimer’s</a> to be characterized by mental deterioration as the disease destroys neurons and unhealthy plaques of proteins build up over time in the brain. 

But now, a new study published in the journal Science has found an important link between sleep deprivation and the accumulation of a protein called tau in the brain.

Getting enough sleep is crucial for health and wellbeing, and research has shown that as we sleep the brain flushes out unhealthy levels of tau and beta-amyloid proteins. 

While the latter, beta-amyloid, has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease risk, researchers from the <a href="https://medicine.wustl.edu/">Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis</a> found that sleep disruptions and sleep deprivation result in the accumulation of tau proteins in brain fluid. 

Tau is a protein in neurons, and during periods of wakefulness, neuron signaling releases tau into the brain’s interstitial fluid (ISF). Once tau starts building up in one region of the brain, it can spread to other parts of the brain. 

To better understand how sleep deprivation impacts tau accumulation, the researchers examined tau levels in the brain ISF of sleep-deprived mice. 

When the mice were awake 70 percent of their day, tau protein levels doubled and the longer the mice stayed awake, the quicker and more widespread the accumulation of tau became.  

The researchers also analyzed cerebrospinal fluid from humans that were sleep deprived and found that tau levels had increased even more than amyloid-beta levels in the samples. 

Studies have shown that sleep deprivation can increase the risk of Alzheimer’s, but this study indicates that tau levels, as well as amyloid-beta levels, should be considered in future Alzheimer’s research. 

The researchers also say that treating sleep deprivation could be an important preventative measure against developing Alzheimer’s disease.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sleep deprivation can cause proteins to accumulate in the brain

We all know Alzheimer’s to be characterized by mental deterioration...

Mainstream environmentalism is mainly the realm of relatively wealthy, white, heterosexual males.  I’m all of those including relatively wealthy if you look at things from a global perspective instead of a US perspective.  What many other environmentalists like me may not fully understand is that destruction of the environment often hurts people of color more than white people.  Mainstream environmentalism is also deeply out of touch with how to connect and engage with racial minorities.

Thinkers such as Dr. Nathan Hare argue that there are different brands of environmentalism varying by the race and background of those involved.  In poorer communities, mainly of people of color, environment is as important as in white communities but the day to day realities are drastically different.  As an article in <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2014/07/white-black-environmentalism-racism/">Mother Jones</a> points out, concepts such as overpopulation are sometimes concerns among people of color, but concerns of overall justice are often more important.  

When it comes to overpopulation, there is a history of experiments with eugenics in America that largely hurt communities of color.  The question that comes to mind when a white environmentalist talks about overpopulation is who will be allowed to survive? Only the white?  Only the wealthy? Mother Jones quotes University of Michigan professor Dorceta Taylor who makes the difference between environmental perspectives of whites and people of color more clear:

“It’s just that our lived experiences with environment are different. White people bring their experience to the discussion — that’s why they focus on the birds, trees, plants, and animals, because they don’t have the experience of being barred from parks and beaches. It’s just a different frame. But overall, we want the same thing: safe places to live, work and play, clean spaces and sustainable, long-lasting communities.”            

Given the different realities in the lives of many people of color and many white people, it’s not surprising that environmental regulation affects each group differently.  As I <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wheeler-environmental-injustice-epa/">reported last year</a>, a more lax Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is likely to hurt minorities more than whites.  Hispanic and black people are more likely to be exposed to toxic pollutants than white people, even when other factors such as income are taken into account.  Look no further than the horrific Flint Water Crisis which was prompted by a shameful business decision made by a Republican governor that exposed a community that is 57 percent black to toxic drinking water.

The reasons for this disparity is complex and connected to the uglier parts of American history.  To be clear, America was founded by wealthy, white slave owning males and the rest of American society has had to fight hard to get even token recognition by the government.  It is also true that people of color have a harder time finding places to live with the same basic levels of safety others take for granted. It is estimated that if people of color breathed the same amount of NO2 as white counterparts, as many as 5,000 deaths could be prevented.  

A previous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-air-pollution-puts-minorities-and-low-income-populations-at-risk/">Earth.com</a> piece elaborates on the problem, citing research showing communities of color are more likely to be in areas exposed to higher traffic air pollution than white communities.  An opinion piece on <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/energy-environment/381936-for-people-of-color-the-next-elections-could-mean-life-or-death?amp">The Hill</a> equates this day to day reality of how lax environmental regulations hurt minorities as a struggle for survival.  

The piece from The Hill emphasizes voting as a weapon to create a livable environment for many people of color.  One of the main problems being of course that voting isn’t always fair. In Florida, Andrew Gillum would have been the state’s first black governor but recently conceded the election, one he lost by a bare 0.4%, according to <a href="https://www.cnn.com/election/2018/results/florida/governor">CNN</a>.  

Other parts of the country often unfairly restrict voting with voter ID laws that are shown to target minorities disproportionately, as the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/02/15/do-voter-identification-laws-suppress-minority-voting-yes-we-did-the-research/?utm_term=.e0f4f6648bb2">Washington Post</a> reported in 2017.  <a href="https://www.vox.com/">Vox</a> reported that in the recent midterm elections republicans in Georgia and North Dakota benefited from voter restrictions, including voter ID laws.  Arkansas and North Carolina also just approved voter ID laws. In Georgia, the election for governor was especially troubling.

While Republican Brian Kemp ran for governor in Georgia, he maintained his place as Georgia’s Secretary of State, the office overseeing elections in the state.  Kemp’s office purged voter rolls and put 53,000 voter registrations on hold, nearly 70% of which were black. This is in a state that the U.S. Census says has only a 32.2% black population overall and 2.1% population of two or more races.

<a href="https://www.sej.org/publications/backgrounders/2018-elections-could-be-game-changer-environment-energy">The Society for Environmental Journalists</a> reported that the now past midterm elections could improve environmental regulations in one way: by changing the consensus of power from one so strongly republican, less anti-environment judges could be confirmed.  

The question is in an election that <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/energy-environment/381936-for-people-of-color-the-next-elections-could-mean-life-or-death?amp">The Hill</a> said, ‘could mean life or death’ for people of color. Was the midterm election enough?  Only time will tell the full consequences of the election just held but there are some small positive notes to be made.  

A record number of women were elected to the House of Representatives in the midterms.  The first two Native American women were elected to congress as well as the first two Muslim women.  In my home state of Colorado, Democrat Jared Polis was elected as the first elected openly gay governor.  Texas elected the state’s first two Hispanic congresswomen. 

As encouraging as these examples are, it’s clear there’s still a fight for justice and a livable environment happening in the US.  Despite the rhetoric coming from Trump’s White House, the midterm election wasn’t a full repudiation of a Republican Party run by Donald.  The Senate is still controlled by Republicans with a 51 to 47 lead. Meanwhile, Democrats now control The House with a 232 majority to 198 minority.  The main issue is whether more disenfranchised people are actually gaining significant portions of the government in the long term or if this is a short term gain?  If our government can truly be one that fairly represents the needs of the people, we might be able to maintain a livable and hopefully beautiful planet.            

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://erath.com">Earth.com</a>

Environmental destruction disproportionately hurts people of color

Mainstream environmentalism is mainly the realm of relatively wealthy, white,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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