Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

Striking up a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/older-people-distracted-conversation/">conversation</a> with a stranger can be interesting and rewarding, but it can also be downright intimidating and can cause us to question if our conversation partners like us or not. A new study has revealed that people do not usually give themselves enough credit when it comes to how likable they are to others. 

“We found that following interactions, people systematically underestimated how much their conversation partners liked them and enjoyed their company, an illusion we call the liking gap,” wrote the study authors.

“We observed the liking gap as strangers got acquainted in the laboratory, as first-year college students got to know their dorm mates, and as formerly unacquainted members of the general public got to know each other during a personal development workshop.”

In one experiment, college dorm mates were observed over the course of an academic year as they developed new relationships. After meeting and conversing, the individuals were asked to rate their own performance in conversation as well as that of their partners. 

The conversations varied in length, and the topics were sometimes provided by the researchers. The study revealed that people consistently rated their conversation partner as more likable than they rated themselves.

The experts found that the liking gap persisted in some cases for several months. 

Study co-author Gus Cooney is a social psychologist at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>. He explained that shy people had the greatest tendency toward the liking gap. 

Ultimately, the team found that people like us more than we think they do. Cooney suggests that one possible explanation for the liking gap is that we are so focused on our side of a conversation that we are unable to accurately measure our partner's feelings. 

“We don’t know what other people are thinking, and so we substitute our own thoughts about ourselves for what other people think,” said Cooney. “We’re basically projecting what we think of our own performance, and assume that’s what other people think of us.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/home/pss">Psychological Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

You are more likeable than you think, new study reveals

Striking up a conversation with a stranger can be interesting...

Droughts will become twice as costly if global warming continues. An economic assessment from the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> has found that if <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/switzerland-loses-20-percent-snow/">global warming</a> is not limited to 1.5 degrees Celsius, the increasing drought intensity will cause economic losses to double.

Around 20 percent of China's direct economic losses related to weather and climate are caused by drought. The researchers analyzed 30 years of economic loss statistics across 31 provinces and cities in an effort to identify the intensity, location, and duration of drought events in <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/historic-flooding-has-killed-hundreds-across-china/">China.</a>

From 1949-2017, around one-sixth of the total arable land was affected by drought. In addition, annual direct economic losses reached more than seven billion US dollars during the time period from 1984 to 2017.

For the investigation, the scientists projected drought losses in China under a global temperature increase of 1.5°C and 2.0°C.Droughts will become twice as costly if global warming continues

Study first author Professor SU Buda is a researcher with the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography (XIEG).

“Estimated loss in a sustainable development pathway at the 1.5°C warming level increases tenfold in comparison to the reference period 1986-2005, and nearly three-fold, relative to the interval 2006-2015,” said Professor Su. “More efforts on mitigation are needed, so that the 1.5°C warming limit is not exceeded."

According to the study, the annual average drought loss for the 2.0°C warming level is estimated to be approximately two times the loss projected under 1.5°C warming.

Study co-author Professor JIANG Tong is an expert at the National <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=climate&amp;cvid=98032ec15d764376ad21c4ff58b1a987&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Climate</a> Center of China Meteorological Administration.

“Keeping the global average temperature increase under or equal to 1.5°C above pre-industrial level can reduce the annual drought losses by several tens of billions of USD,” explained Professor Jiang.

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Droughts will become twice as costly if global warming continues

Droughts will become twice as costly if global warming continues....

The more familiar we get with a person, the better our brain becomes trained to recognize their face, according to a new study. 

Researchers from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a> conducted the study which sheds insight into how the brain learns to process faces and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pigs-recognize-human-faces/">recognize</a> an individual or familiar person. The study was published in the journal eNeuro. 

The research expands on previous research that found across our visual frame of reference or visual field, attributes of a face can be interpreted differently depending on where we see it. 

For example, a face with androgynous features may appear more masculine in one area of the visual field or more feminine in another area.

This means that the same face could be interpreted as two different faces depending on where in the visual field it was seen. The researchers set out to examine how typical day-to-day interactions with people influenced the way we perceive familiar faces.


Graduate students were asked to participate in the study and the researchers showed the participants different photographs of their peers on a screen.

The pictures would appear in different locations around one fixed point on the screen.

Those students that were familiar with each other or had closer relationships were better at consistently recognizing a familiar face no matter where it showed up on the screen. 

After monitoring the participants, the researchers discovered that repeated social interactions with another person trains different groups of neurons to recognize a face no matter where it appears in our visual field.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How your brain learns to recognize familiar faces

The more familiar we get with a person, the better...

For many women who want <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-childrens-respiratory/">children</a>, there’s a question of how old is too old to start a family? What are the health risks associated with having a child at 35 or older compared to your 20s? 

Birth rates have generally been on a decline with more and more women putting off pregnancy or remaining childless compared to previous generations. Researchers have also noticed a simultaneous rise in women who are getting pregnant in their <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/05/the-rise-of-older-mothers/560555/">late 30s and early 40s</a>. 

But studies have shown that having a baby in your late 30s is not <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/getting-pregnant/in-depth/pregnancy/art-20045756">without its risks</a>, including an increased chance of gestational diabetes, high blood pressure and pregnancy loss. 

Now, a new study has found that delaying pregnancy can also increase the risk of heart disease, both for women and their children. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a> conducted the study and recently presented their findings at an <a href="http://www.the-aps.org/">American Physiological Society </a>conference.

Advanced maternal age, or pregnancy at 35 or older, increases the risk of degraded blood vessels and reduced blood flow to the placenta which can be dangerous for the growth and development of a fetus, according to previous studies. 

The researchers set out to determine the extent to which advanced maternal age increases the risk of cardiovascular disease for a woman and her child later in life. 

To do this, the team monitored three groups of rats as a model for advanced maternal age.

One group had rats that had never been pregnant, the second group consisted of rats that were postpartum or who had recently given birth, and the third group was labeled “pregnancy loss.” 

The pregnancy loss group had more dilated blood vessels than the other two groups. Constricted blood vessels can increase the risk of blood flow problems and damage heart health. 

What’s more, the researchers noticed gender-specific health risks in the offspring of older rats. Male rats born to older rats had a higher prevalence of blood vessel function impairment and an increase in cardiac risk factors. 

“These data demonstrate mechanisms which may lead to worsened outcomes at an advanced maternal age, including early pregnancy termination, and later life cardiovascular dysfunction,” the researchers wrote in their study. “Given the increasing trend toward delaying pregnancy, our findings have significant population and healthcare implications and further illustrate pregnancy as a window of opportunity to assess cardiovascular health," the researchers wrote.
--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pregnancy over 35 can increase risk of cardiovascular disease

For many women who want children, there’s a question of...

Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone and it’s a key part of the female reproductive system. Menopause causes a decrease in hormones that impact the function of the ovaries leading the eventual end of a woman's menstruation cycle. 

Menopause also lowers <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tea-tree-lavender-oils-hormones/">estrogen</a> levels in the brain, and a new study has found that this drop in estrogen supply may lead to memory problems and anxiety. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.georgetown.edu/">Georgetown University</a>, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_University_of_Ouro_Preto">Federal University of Ouro Preto</a> in Brazil conducted a study with rats to explore links between menopause and the development of anxiety and impaired memory function. 

It was theorized that because estrogen binds to proteins in the brain that are involved with mood, behavior, and cognition, menopause may increase the risk of anxiety related mood problems and forgetfulness. 

To test this, the researchers monitored a group of female rats that didn’t have ovaries so as to mirror the effects of human menopause. The rats were given different tests to measure anxiety, short-term memory recognition, and spatial memory. 

Menopause impacted short-term recognition and increased anxiety in the rats. Compared to a control group of rats that were the same age, the menopausal rats had higher levels of anxiety but both groups had the same spatial memory ability. 

The results, which were presented at the <a href="http://www.the-aps.org/">American Physiological Society’s</a> Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolic Diseases: Sex-Specific Implications for Physiology conference, show that hormonal imbalances due to menopause can cause anxiety and problems with short-term memory. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lack of estrogen due to menopause linked to anxiety

Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone and it’s a...

The Superior National Forest located in northern Minnesota contains a vast boreal forest ecosystem, but it is perhaps most well known for its Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. 

Over 445,000 acres of the forest is water, as 1,300 miles of cold water streams run throughout the National Park. Many species of fish call the boundary waters home and the forest is also a habitat for 300 to 400 wolves, according to the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/main/superior/about-forest">United States Department of Agriculture. </a>

Both the Superior National Forest and its Canoe Wilderness are noted for pristine waters and breathtaking expanses of pine and spruce forests. The Boundary Waters area is also a popular destination for fishing, camping, and hiking. 

However, in yet another reversal of previous Obama Era proposals and mandates, the Trump Administration has recently opened the door to potential mining and mineral leasing in the area, threatening the natural wilderness. 

Already, the Trump Administration has <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/trump-policies-cost-deaths/">reversed several</a> of former President Obama’s mandates that were implemented to help mitigate the impacts of climate change. 

Earlier in August, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced plans to rescind Obama-era emissions standards, instead allowing states to regulate fossil fuel emissions and pollutants from coal-fired plants. 

Before that, President Trump announced that the administrations released a proposal to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/trump-administration-to-freeze-fuel-efficiency-standards-and-fight-states/2018/07/24/cfad0a58-8f38-11e8-8322-b5482bf5e0f5_story.html?utm_term=.4e750e17d175">freeze fuel efficiency standards</a> and limit state’s rights in setting their tailpipe standards. 

Both new proposals go directly in the face of the previous administration's goals to combat climate change and there are concerns that the environment and public health will suffer as a result. 

This new reversal is in a similar vein for President Trump and could potentially pave the way for new mineral leasing, mining operations, and pollution in the Superior National Forest. 

Along the southern edge of the boundary waters in the Superior National Forest lies what is believed to be one of the richest untapped deposits of copper, gold, and palladium in the world, according to <a href="https://www.mprnews.org/story/2018/09/06/boundary-waters-mining">Minnesota Public Radio News (MPR)</a>. 

This trifecta of mining metals yet to be mined is known as the Duluth Complex. 

MPR also stated that although mining companies have been scoping out the areas for decades, no copper mines have been opened in the area. 

Which brings us to the real crux of the Duluth Complex and Superior National Forest issue. Do the new decisions to allow mineral leasing and permits really put the Boundary Waters in jeopardy? 

The short answer is no, because the proposal does not impact the current mining restrictions within the Boundary Waters Canoe Wilderness area. The same cannot be said for the Rainy River Watershed. 

Instead, earlier this September, the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA)</a> canceled a proposed 20-year mining withdrawal announced in 2016 within the Superior National Forest and the Rainy River Watershed. 

It was agreed that a study would be conducted reviewing the potential environmental impact of mining in the area to see if a mining withdrawal was warranted. 

However, earlier this month, the Department of Agriculture canceled the withdrawal and its study after 15 months because there was no new information about the watershed or area that would prompt a mining moratorium. 

Instead, the USDA Forest Service said that it was confident that environmental conservation and economic growth could thrive side by side in the Superior National Forest. 

“It’s our duty as responsible stewards of our environment to maintain and protect our natural resources,” Agriculture Secretary Sonny Perdue said in a <a href="https://www.usda.gov/media/press-releases/2018/09/06/usda-removes-roadblock-mineral-exploration-rainy-river-watershed">statement</a>. “At the same time, we must put our national forests to work for the taxpayers to support local economies and create jobs.” 

Much like the fuel efficiency standards pit car companies and California against each other, with automotive manufacturers welcoming a rollback on tailpipe regulations, this news is overdue and welcomed with open arms by mining companies but maligned by environmentalists. 

“The Trump administration broke its word to us, to Congress, and to the American people when it said it would finish the environmental assessment and base decisions on facts and science,” Alex Falconer, Executive Director of the <a href="https://www.savetheboundarywaters.org/">Campaign to Save the Boundary Waters</a>, told MPR News. 

Canceling the withdrawal allows companies to apply for permits for mineral leasing within 365 square miles of forest and Rainy River Watershed. 

This is where many environmentalists and Minnesotans (like myself) are concerned. If a mining operation is approved, it could mean significant pollution and hazardous runoff into the watershed, putting the diverse and abundant ecosystem of the Superior National Forest at risk.

One might argue it’s a matter of economic growth versus environmental preservation. On the one hand, as the USDA stated, opening up the area to mineral leasing and mining permits could provide thousands of new jobs and positively impact nearby communities. 

However, in August, <a href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/stock/files/snf_withdrawal_ea_stock_and_bradt_aug6_2018.pdf">a group of Harvard economists</a> conducted a thorough review of the potential economic impacts of mining and mineral leasing in the Superior National Forest and found that opening up mining would negatively impact the economy in the long run. 

One important thing to note and which might make people view the canceled withdrawal more favorably is that although the new policy allows companies to apply for permits, it does not automatically grant mining rights. 

This is why some people called the 20-year withdrawal redundant because no matter what, any new mining ventures would have to undergo a thorough and lengthy environmental impact process. 

But let’s consider for a minute what could happen if a mining company did start operating in the areas? 

According to a report published by <a href="https://www.savetheboundarywaters.org/sites/default/files/public/attachments/wilderness_character_report.pdf">Save the Boundary Waters</a>, a nonprofit dedicated to protecting the Superior National Forest, previous environmental impact statements found that mining poses many risks to watersheds including groundwater contamination and damaging surrounding wetlands. 

If this were to happen in the Rainy River Watershed it could be catastrophic for the wildlife that call the area home. 

Time will tell if the Superior National Forest will become the next Iron Range or if the USDA’s final analysis of the environmental impact of mineral leasing actually holds true and the potential risks for pollution or contamination are very low. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Trump admin opens the door to mining in the Boundary Waters

The Superior National Forest located in northern Minnesota contains a...

As years have passed, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/operation-icebridge-holes-arctic-ice/">melting ice</a> in the Arctic has opened up shipping routes and made it easier for ships to navigate the once ice-covered seas. This has been great for the shipping industry, but bad for the Arctic environment. Almost all ships are powered by fossil fuels, and many use heavy fuel oil, which emits black soot when burned and creates a destructive, toxic mess when it’s spilled. While few international rules have been passed to protect the Arctic ecosystem from these threats, a proposal for a heavy fuel oil ban in the region has been gaining support.

“For a long time, we weren’t looking at the Arctic as a viable option for a shortcut for Asia-to-Europe, or Asia-to-North America traffic, but that’s really changed, even over the last couple of years,” Bryan Comer, a senior researcher with the <a href="https://www.theicct.org/">International Council on Clean Transportation</a> marine program, told <a href="https://grist.org/article/shipping-giants-look-lustily-at-the-warming-arctic/">Grist</a>. “It’s just increasingly concerning.”

With the Arctic region warming almost twice as fast as the rest of the planet, this ecosystem has become increasingly fragile. In the past, only enormous, nuclear-powered icebreakers were able to forge through these frozen seas. But these days, even commercial ships are able to move through this region from around July to October – although sometimes with icebreaker escorts.

“Because of climate change, because of the melting of sea ice, these ships can operate for longer periods of time in the Arctic and the shipping season is already longer than it used to be,” Scott Stephenson, an assistant geography professor at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, told <a href="https://grist.org/article/shipping-giants-look-lustily-at-the-warming-arctic/">Grist</a>. 

Sian Prior, a lead advisor to the <a href="https://www.hfofreearctic.org/en/front-page/">HFO-Free Arctic Campaign</a>, told <a href="https://grist.org/article/shipping-giants-look-lustily-at-the-warming-arctic/">Grist</a> that the best way to move forward now is to get rid of fossil fuels entirely in the Arctic region. He suggests installing electric systems with possibly battery storage or hydrogen fuel cells. But because these technologies are not currently available for ocean-going ships, the next option would be to run ships on liquefied natural gas. 

This is still a long way off, however, as many ships still run on heavy fuel oil, which is made from the residues of petroleum refining. In 2015, this fuel made up 57 percent of total fuel consumption in the Arctic, and accounted for 68 percent of ships’ black carbon emissions – according to the International Council on Clean Transportation.

Although black carbon usually makes up only a small share of total emissions, these small black particles absorb the sun’s heat and thus directly contribute to warming the atmosphere. After a few days, the particles fall back down to earth, darkening the snow and resulting in it absorbing more sunlight, causing snowmelt and even more warming. “It’s dirtier when you burn it, the options to clean it up are limited, and the length it’s likely to persist in the environment is longer,” Prior told <a href="https://grist.org/article/shipping-giants-look-lustily-at-the-warming-arctic/">Grist</a>.

Beginning in April, the International Maritime Organization – the U.N. body that regulates the shipping industry, began laying the groundwork to ban ships from carrying and using heavy fuel oil in the Arctic region. But due to the length of the rulemaking process, no policy will take effect before 2021. 

While easier shipping paths make for better business and trade, its effect on the environment is clear and dangerous. If we’re looking to protect our environment while also allowing these shipping lanes to remain open, it’s imperative that policies be put in place to allow for both.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Melting ice, opening shipping lanes, and environmental threats

As years have passed, melting ice in the Arctic has...

According to the <a href="https://www.healthyagingpoll.org/">National Poll on Healthy Aging</a>, more than half of people in their 50s and 60s are interested in having their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dna-test-illegal-ivory-poachers/">DNA</a> tested to find out more about their ancestry, understand various health risks, and to improve medical care.

On the other hand, two thirds of those polled said that DNA testing would probably cause them to worry too much about their future health.

The poll, which included 993 adults between the ages of 50 and 64, was conducted by the University of Michigan <a href="http://ihpi.umich.edu/healthcare-policy-innovation">Institute for Healthcare Policy and Innovation</a>.

Survey respondents were asked if they would be interested in taking tests to learn their genetic risk for three later-life disorders including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, or macular degeneration. Around two-thirds of the respondents had at least some interest in each test.


The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has recently approved several disease-specific tests to be marketed directly to the public. Only one in 10 respondents  reported taking genetic tests offered directly to consumers, while one in 20 had taken genetic tests ordered by a doctor.


Dr. Scott Roberts worked on both the design and the analysis of the survey. He has studied the use of direct-to-consumer genetic testing and found that people who take these tests with the primary goal of learning about their ancestral heritage often end up being “blindsided” by findings that show they have a high risk of developing diseases such as Alzheimer's.

“Compared to previous findings in the general adult population, this age group appears to be a little more lukewarm about their views of the benefits versus the risks of genetic testing overall,” said Dr. Roberts. “The majority said they might be interested in knowing their risk for specific conditions, but on other hand they were worried about potential psychological distress from the results.”

According to Dr. Roberts, the accuracy of any genetic test is not 100 percent. He also pointed out that testing ordered by a physician often includes a genetic counselor who can help to prepare patients for handling the results and can help them understand what the test results actually mean. 

Dr. Preeti Malani is the director of the poll and a professor of Internal Medicine at the U-M Medical School who has special training in geriatric medicine.

“Patients may not think about the downstream effects of direct-to-consumer genetic testing. An unexpected positive result may lead to several additional tests that may or may not be covered by insurance,” explained Dr. Malani.

More than 70 percent of the participants who had taken a direct-to-consumer test said they were interested in learning more about their ancestry, while just under 10 percent said they got tested to find out more about their health in general or their risk of a particular disease.

“We're living in an era when advances like DNA testing are providing an amazing amount of useful health information,” said Dr. Alison Bryant, senior vice president of research for <a href="https://www.aarp.org/">AARP</a>. “As genetic testing becomes even more sophisticated and common among older adults, the challenge will be to ensure that people understand the benefits and limitations of these tests.”

This research was funded by the University of Michigan and AARP.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study: Most older adults are interested in DNA testing results

According to the National Poll on Healthy Aging, more than...

A new study published by the <a href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association</a> has revealed that fluctuations in weight, blood pressure, cholesterol, or blood sugar levels are linked to a greater risk of heart attack or stroke among otherwise healthy individuals. 

The research is the first of its kind to report that high variability of these risk factors has a negative impact on relatively healthy people. The study also demonstrates that high variability among multiple factors adds to the risk.

Compared to individuals who had stable measurements over an average of 5.5 years, those with the highest amount of variability on all measurements were found to be 127 percent more likely to die,
43 percent more likely to have a heart attack, and 41 percent more likely to have a stroke.


The researchers used data from the Korean National Health Insurance system, which involved 6,748,773 people who had no previous heart attacks and no history of diabetes, high blood pressure, or high cholesterol.

The participants received at least three health examinations between 2005 and 2012. Body weight, fasting blood sugar, systolic blood pressure, and total cholesterol were all documented. 

Among people who had either improved or worsened in each measurement by at least five percent, this variability was associated with a significantly higher risk of death.

“Healthcare providers should pay attention to the variability in measurements of a patient's blood pressure, cholesterol and glucose levels as well as body weight,” said study senior author Seung-Hwan Lee. “Trying to stabilize these measurements may be an important step in helping them improve their health.”

Because the study was observational, no cause-and-effect relationship between high variability and the risk of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/depression-anxiety-heart-attack/">heart attacks</a>, strokes, or death from any cause was established. In addition, the researchers did not identify the potential reasons behind the health fluctuations.

“It is not certain whether these results from Korea would apply to the United States,” said Dr. Lee. “However, several previous studies on variability were performed in other populations, suggesting that it is likely to be a common phenomenon.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/journal/circ">Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Yo-yo weight and blood pressure increase heart attack risk

A new study published by the American Heart Association has...

An investigation into mortality rates across 42 years in Shanghai, China, has revealed that socio-economic development contributed to lower death rates for most diseases. For cancer and diabetes, however, death rates were found to be higher.

The research was focused on fatalities among residents of Yangpu, an area of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shanghai-plans-limit-population/">Shanghai</a> with a relatively stable population. The study period included several key events in recent Chinese history, including the rise of polluting industries from 1949 to the 1980s, the Great Chinese Famine from 1959 to 1961, the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, and economic reforms from 1979 to present day. 

Out of nearly 42 million person-years, there were over 290,000 deaths categorized into groups based on their specific causes. Group 1 includes deaths from infectious diseases or maternal, perinatal, and nutritional issues. Group 2 includes fatalities from chronic disease, and group 3 includes deaths from injuries.

The researchers found that deaths from causes in groups 1 and 3 have significantly dropped over the last four decades. After 1988, age-standardized deaths in group 1 decreased due to major improvements in public health and health care, and also due to the removal of polluting industries. 

Prior to 1994, Shanghai was classified as a low-income region according to World Bank figures, but the region became an upper-middle income area by 2006.

“Socio-economic development has contributed to a decrease in deaths from most diseases in China,” said Dr. Guangwen Cao. “However, for cancer and diabetes, the benefits from socioeconomic development appear to be overridden by new risk factors, such as changing diets and alcohol consumption, smoking, lack of physical activity, overweight and obesity.”

This is one of only a few studies to examine the effect of socioeconomic events on deaths from specific causes. The researchers hope the study will help with health-system planning and disease-control strategies.

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.cmaj.ca/">Canadian Medical Association Journal</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shanghai economic improvement linked to fewer deaths from disease

An investigation into mortality rates across 42 years in Shanghai,...

Cyberbullying epidemic: 59 percent of teens have been targets. Nearly 60 percent of teenagers in the U.S. have been harassed online in what is becoming a cyberbullying epidemic, a new survey reports.

A vast majority of teens – 90 percent – say that online bullying is an issue most teens face, and almost two-thirds called it a major problem, the <a href="http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/09/27/a-majority-of-teens-have-experienced-some-form-of-cyberbullying/">Pew Research Center</a> found. And while the teens think parents are addressing the cyberbullying epidemic, they feel let down by teachers, politicians and social media companies.

“The most common type of harassment youth encounter online is name-calling. Some 42 percent of teens say they have been called offensive names online or via their cellphone,” the report said.Cyberbullying epidemic: 59 percent of teens have been targets

Other teens reported seeing false rumors spread about them, someone besides their parents constantly demanding their attention or to know where they are, and bullies making physical threats, Pew said. And 7 percent said they’d been sent sexually explicit messages without their consent.

A separate survey of parents found that 57 percent worried about their teens becoming victims of the cyberbullying epidemic.

Pew sent surveys to 743 teens ages 13 to 17, and 1,058 parents in the United States between March 7 and April 10, 2018. The surveys showed that teens of both genders are targeted by online bullying in fairly equal numbers – but girls are more likely to be the victims of false rumors or sexually explicit harassment.

“Name-calling and rumor-spreading have long been an unpleasant and challenging aspect of adolescent life, but the proliferation of smartphones and the rise of social media has transformed where, when and how bullying takes place,” study lead researcher Monica Anderson told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/">Daily Mail</a>.

Teens who are more connected become victims of the cyberbullying epidemic more frequently, the survey found. The 52 percent of teens who only checked their accounts a couple of times a day or less were less likely to be targeted.

Cyberbullying epidemic: 59 percent of teens have been targets

Cyberbullying epidemic: 59 percent of teens have been targets. Nearly...

A survey of over 3,000 high school students has revealed that most 10th-graders who have tried <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/medical-marijuana-chronic-nerve-pain/">cannabis</a> have used the drug in more than one form, including products that were combustible, edible, or vaporized.

Many people associate marijuana with smoking a joint or smoking out of a pipe, which are forms of combustible marijuana use. There are also noncombustible types of marijuana use, such as eating an edible or inhaling vapor.

Research has shown that cannabis use in adolescents is associated with an increased risk of impaired cognitive development, lower educational attainment, and chronic use throughout adulthood. 

As more states are legalizing both medical and recreational cannabis, there is an increasing normalization of cannabis use in society. The abundance of new cannabis products is raising concerns about pediatric health.

The research team, which was led by Dr. Adam M. Leventhal of the University of Southern California <a href="https://keck.usc.edu/">Keck School of Medicine</a>, surveyed 3,177 10th-graders at ten Los Angeles area high schools from January to October 2015. 

The participants self-reported on their sex, race, and socioeconomic status; if they had ever used marijuana; past 30-day use of cannabis; and the frequency of use in past 30 days of combustible, edible, and vaporized cannabis.

Out of the 33.9 percent of 10th-graders who reported using cannabis, combustible products were used the most, followed by cannabis products that were edible or vaporized. The study also revealed that 61.7 percent of 10th-graders who had ever used marijuana had tried more than one cannabis product.

It is not clear whether the 10th-graders who used two or more different cannabis products first used noncombustible products and then transitioned to combustible cannabis or vice versa. The survey also did not distinguish between the potency, strain, or types of cannabis products.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen">JAMA Network Open</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Most teens who use cannabis have tried different types

A survey of over 3,000 high school students has revealed...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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