Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

A new study is shedding light on the range of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/exercise-improve-mental-health/">mental health</a> challenges and increased risk of stressful events that are associated with the college years, particularly the risk of suicide. The analysis of more than 67,000 college students enrolled at over 100 institutions has revealed that suicide risk and suicidal thoughts affect all ethnic, sexual, and gender groups.

Study lead author Dr. Cindy Liu is an expert in the Department of Psychiatry at <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/">Brigham and Women's Hospital</a>.

“Colleges and family members who are sending students off to college need to remember that this is a phase of life where young people are confronted with expectations from new relationships and living situations and other encounters that are stressful,” said Dr. Liu.

“Some stressful events cannot be prevented and, in some cases, are completely normal. But for others, a plan should be in place for family, friends, and colleges to provide support. Our study highlights an urgent need to help students reduce their experience of overwhelming levels of stress during college.”


The investigation was focused on the results of a survey conducted in the spring of 2015, the American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA). 

The students were asked to report on a variety of issues related to depression and anxiety. Questions included whether they had been diagnosed or treated for a mental health issue; if they had engaged in self harm, considered suicide, or attempted suicide; and how many stressful events they had experienced in the last year.

The study revealed high rates of stressful life events, or traumatic and difficult circumstances, that were linked to mental health issues. Exposure to stress was also strongly associated with self-harm and suicidal thoughts. 

Three out of four students reported having experienced at least one stressful life event in the last year, while more than 20 percent of students reported experiencing six or more stressful life events in the last year.


There was a common connection between mental health diagnoses and suicidality, and one in four students reported being diagnosed with or treated for a mental health disorder in the prior year. 

One-fifth of all students surveyed had thought about suicide. Overall, nine percent had attempted suicide and nearly 20 percent had inflicted self-injury.


The study is published in the journal <a href="https://adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/depression">Depression &amp; Anxiety</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study: 1 in 5 college students thought about suicide in past year

A new study is shedding light on the range of...

Today’s younger generations barely remember a time without cell phones, WiFi, and constant connectivity. While technology has helped us stay connected over large geographic distances, has it simultaneously caused us to lose touch with our immediate surroundings?

I’m right at the cusp of the Millennial and Gen Z generations, which puts me at the age of people who can self-describe as digital natives. 

To give some background on my relationship with technology and the internet, I don’t really remember a time without it and only have a vague memory of those chunky black cell phones before the era of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/addiction-smartphones-imbalances-brain/">smartphones</a>. My father is a software engineer and we lived in Silicon Valley before it became so mainstream; I grew up seeing multiple computers whirring in my dad’s office at any given time with even more laptops scattered throughout the house. I think I even had a desktop computer and a laptop before I had a cell phone. Needless to say, the internet and connectivity through technology has always been a part of my daily life. 

Since those early years, I’ve had a couple experiences where my connection to the world wide web has been severed. Most recently, on a three week trip to the North Georgia Mountains where the family lake house has been TV-less and WiFi-less for years and cell connection is sparse. 

The first few days were spent attempting to load content off of a cellular connection which just blew through my data plan for mindless photos and posts that were barely relevant to what I was doing in real life. My need to stay connected is unsurprising according to recent surveys. Studies like the survey conducted by <a href="https://www.tatacommunications.com/">Tata Communications</a> have found that Americans are so attached to the internet that they feel like they cannot survive without being connected for more than a few hours, only 5 hours to be precise. Even people in other countries that spend dramatically less time online, like the French, report feeling left out without access to the internet. 

Fortunately for me, it was not long before life without WiFi was a welcome respite from the burden of constantly knowing what the world was up to. It felt like I was clearing my internal RAM memory (pun intended); so much of my day-to-day memory was dedicated to the news and what my friends were posting about. Not to mention the amount of time that was dedicated to pursuing this generally unimportant information. Though staying connected with distant friends and world events can be very positive in moderation, no longer having these constant updates cleared up my mind for deeper thought, introspection, and serious quality time with loved ones. 

Real life felt more vivid when I stopped living in the digital world. A couple of years ago on an international trip I lost my iPhone. The correlation between spending the latter half of the trip without a cell phone and that on this same trip is where I met my boyfriend and some of my best friends was not clear to me at the time, but now I realize that without the stress of taking photos or sharing my trip with friends back home I was more invested in making real connections with new people in the moment. Could my connectivity to the world back home have prevented me from building these relationships? An experiment by <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/3049138/what-really-happens-to-your-brain-and-body-during-a-digital-detox">Kovert Designs</a> where they created a similar situation to my accidental iPhone-less trip supports this theory.

How valuable and enlightening these experiences have been make me concerned as the rates of internet addiction rise. Mark Griffiths, professor at <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk/">Nottingham Trent University</a>, said that studies suggest that anywhere between 1 and 3 percent of Internet users may have a real addiction and many more who don’t fall into the addiction category still display very problematic behavior. 

Even worse, a 2007 <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard</a> study classified Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD) as a genuine psychological illness that 5-10% of all web surfers may experience. Technology addiction is a real problem that will have many societal consequences but there will also be millions of people at risk for missing out on life’s more intimate and important moments and experiences. 

Another recent study by <a href="https://www.intrepidtravel.com/us">Intrepid Travel</a> and <a href="http://www.onepoll.com/">OnePoll</a> surveyed 1,500 Americans on their cell phone use. The results were concerning, showing that 38% of people reported missing out on life moments like a child’s milestone because they were too busy with their cell phones. 31% admitted to being more concerned with taking the perfect photo for social media than experiencing something in the moment. Most people said their phone was never more than a few feet away. 

Will our relationship with technology take over every other aspect of our lives? We appear to be heading in that direction. Clicking “Refresh” will only get us so far… try disconnecting for a bit. 

--

By <a href="mailto:bianca@earth.com">Bianca Vierra</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

&nbsp;

Internet addiction? Modern humans struggle without connectivity

Today’s younger generations barely remember a time without cell phones,...

The ability to finish someone else's sentence isn’t necessarily the mark of two people who are really in sync or who know each other very well, and can actually have to do with the way the brain perceives speech. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://crnl.univ-lyon1.fr/index.php/en">Lyon Neuroscience Center</a> examined the way that the brain processes information when someone else is talking and found the speed at which a person talks plays a major role in allowing us to predict what words will come next. 

The study was published in the journal Current Biology. 

“The findings show neural dynamics predict the timing of future speech items based on past speech rate, and this influences how ongoing words are heard,” said Anne Kösem, the first author of the research paper.

The brain is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-creates-illusions/">prediction machine</a>, and it’s an adaptive skill that may not help us win the lottery or predict major future events, but instead works to decode and process the loads of sensory input we are exposed to on a daily basis. It might also explain why you can predict what someone is going to say next. 

For the study, the researchers had Dutch participants listen to recorded sentences in Dutch and the rate of speech changed speeds at the end of the sentence. The speed of the sentence determined how an ambiguous vowel at the end of the sentence was perceived. 

“We asked native Dutch participants to listen to Dutch sentences that suddenly changed in speech rates: the beginning of the sentence was either compressed or expanded in duration, leading to a fast or a slow speech rate, while the final three words were consistently presented at the original recorded speech rate,” said Kösem. 

The final word of the sentence that the participants heard had a vowel that could either be interpreted as a short “a” or long “aa”, but how it was heard changed its meaning.

The researchers asked the participants what they thought the last word meant and also used magnetoencephalography (MEG) to record the participants’ brain activity while they listened to the sentences. 

The team found that the brain syncs up to the initial speed of the sentence and then just continues that pattern even if the sentence changes speeds which is why the participants interpreted the final words of the sentence differently. 

“Imagine the brain acting like a bicycle wheel,” said Kösem. “The wheel turns at the speed imposed by pedaling, but it continues rolling for some time after pedaling has stopped because it is dependent on the past pedaling speed.” 

Whatever rate of speech we listen to, our brains use that information to predict future syllable length and eventually words and meaning. 

“Our findings suggest that the neural tracking of speech dynamics is a predictive mechanism, which directly influences perception,” said Kösem.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Speed of speech can help us predict what someone will say next

The ability to finish someone else's sentence isn’t necessarily the...

Humans are living longer than ever these days thanks to improved quality of life, better access to health care, and advancements in medicine and technology. 

It’s estimated that there are as many as half a million centenarians, people 100 years of age or older, around the world. 

Humans have some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-evolved-live-longer/">longest life spans</a>, especially compared to other primate species. Although humans and apes evolved from a common ancestor millions of years ago, the evolution of homo-sapiens ensured that our species could live well over 100 years, whereas primates live only half as long. 

A new study, conducted by researchers from the<a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/biology/evolutionary-biology"> Institute of Evolutionary Biology</a>, examined the genetic mutations that make the long lifespan of humans possible. 

The results, published in the journal Molecular Biology &amp; Evolution, show that humans evolved a unique set of genetic mutations that help with blood coagulation, wound healing and cardiovascular functions. 

The researchers developed a new method that allowed them to identify 25 genes that may help explain why humans live so much longer than other primates. 

Genomes from seventeen primate species were analyzed for the study, according to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6134943/Experts-identify-25-genetic-mutations-help-explain-humans-evolved-live-long.html">Daily Mail</a> which reported on the findings. 

The reason the researchers focused on primates is that there is a such a major gap in life spans between humans and the common ancestor that primates evolved from. 

After comparing the genomes, the researchers identified 25 unique mutations in humans that help with health and longevity including those that aid in wound repair. 

According to the study’s leader, the results provide strong evidence that the secret to human longevity and aging is all thanks to our genetic evolution. 

“The results are meaningful, because a flexible and adaptable control of coagulation mechanisms are required in species that live longer,” Gerard Muntané, the study's leading author, told the Daily Mail. 

The research could aid in anti-aging research and could help with the development of new treatments for age-related diseases according to researchers. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans are able to to live so long thanks to genetic mutations

Humans are living longer than ever these days thanks to...

India took a major step today in protecting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lgbq-adolescents-risk-suicide/">rights and lives of its LGBTQ community</a> when the country’s supreme court made a landmark ruling that decriminalized homosexuality. 

So far, 17 Commonwealth nations (India now included) have overturned the archaic colonial-era laws that have largely contributed the marginalization, oppression, and anti-gay sentiments that pervade in countries once controlled by British rule today. 

In July of last year, it was reported that 72 countries in the world <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/27/gay-relationships-still-criminalised-countries-report">criminalize same-sex relationships</a> and in 8 of those countries, homosexuality can result in the death penalty. 

The ruling comes after years of petitioning by LGBTQ rights activists. The law was once overturned by the high court in New Delhi in 2009 thanks to the Naz Foundation which is committed to raising awareness of HIV/AIDS. 

<a href="http://time.com/5388231/india-decriminalizes-homosexuality-section-377/?utm_source=time.com&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_campaign=social-button-sharing">Time</a> reported that even though the law was overturned in 2009, an uproar from religious groups led to the Supreme Court later re-criminalizing same-sex relationships in 2012. 

New petitions were filed in 2016, and today, the 1861 law that criminalized homosexuality, Section 377, was successfully overturned again hopefully for the last time.

It was argued that Section 377 both contributed to anti-gay stigmas and prevented people who contracted HIV/AIDs from seeking treatment due to fear of being ostracized or penalized in India. 

“Even after a person’s infection is identified, they are reluctant to go to government hospitals to take the confirmation test,” Rohit Sarkar, Senior Program Officer at India HIV/AIDS Alliance, told Time. “Because there was not only societal discrimination but also discrimination by the law.”

Anurag Kalia, one of the recent petitioners to the Supreme Court, told Time that the ruling will make it easier for members of the LGBTQ community to report harassment or assault to the police.

Many are in favor of the new ruling but there is expected backlash again from religious groups and organizations. 

Time reports that LGBTQ activists in India are now working towards marriage equality and property rights and making sure that today’s ruling is not, once again, reversed. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

India overturns colonial law that criminalized homosexuality

India took a major step today in protecting the rights...

The Earth experienced an extreme episode of global warming around 56 million years ago, which is known as the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Max (PETM). Over the course of just 10,000 to 20,000 years, the average temperature spiked by 5 to 8 degrees without returning to its original level until a few hundred thousand years later. 

Based on the analysis of sediments from the southern slope of the Pyrenees, researchers at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/university/">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE) measured the impact of this global warming event on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/summer-weather-wildfires-flooding/">river floods</a> and the surrounding landscapes. They found that the intensity of floods increased by a factor of eight, and sometimes even by a factor of 14. 

Study lead author Sébastien Castelltort is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the UNIGE Faculty of Sciences.

“The method we relied on to analyze this global warming is directly inspired by cell signaling in systems biology, where researchers analyse the response of cells to external stimuli and the ensuing signal transmission,” explained Professor Castelltort.

“We are interested in how a system, in this case the hydrologic cycle through the behavior of rivers, reacts to an external signal, here the global warming.” 

Overall, the research shows that the consequences of global warming may be much greater than predicted by current climate models. For example, during the PETM, vegetation would have been replaced by pebbly plants. Rivers constantly changed course and often widened dramatically - from 15 to 160 meters wide in the most extreme case. 

“With global warming, the landscape changed completely. The channel-forming floods, which occur on average every 2 to 3 years and whose flow we have been able to measure, went up to 14 times greater than before when climate was cooler,” explained Professor Castelltort. 

“Our study shows that there are thresholds, non-linear evolutions that go beyond this ratio. With a ratio of 14 for flood magnitude, we face effects that we do not understand, which can perhaps be explained by local factors, but also by global factors that are not yet incorporated into current climate models. Our study proves that the risks associated with global warming may be far greater than we generally think.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Flood risks linked to global warming have been underestimated

The Earth experienced an extreme episode of global warming around...

A new study by developmental psychologists at <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a> has found that groups such as climate change deniers are more likely to rely on feedback, as opposed to evidence, when taking in new information and developing their opinions of right from wrong.

The researchers discovered that an individual's beliefs are more likely to be reinforced by the positive or negative reactions they receive than by logic, reasoning, or <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-driving-climate-change/">scientific data</a>.

The research provides new insight into how people handle information that challenges their outlook. The study findings highlight specific learning habits that can be intellectually crippling.

“If you think you know a lot about something, even though you don’t, you’re less likely to be curious enough to explore the topic further, and will fail to learn how little you know,” said study lead author and PhD student Louis Marti.

This dynamic can be applied to many aspects of our real and virtual lives, including exposure to social media and cable-news echo chambers.

Study senior author Celeste Kidd is an assistant professor of Psychology at UC Berkeley.

“If you use a crazy theory to make a correct prediction a couple of times, you can get stuck in that belief and may not be as interested in gathering more information.”

The investigation was focused on over 500 participants as they examined various combinations of colored shapes on their computer screens. The individuals were asked to identify which colored shapes qualified as a make-believe object that the researchers created and named a “Daxxy.”

The participants made blind guesses about which of 24 items may constitute the unknown shape, and they were given feedback on whether the guesses were right or wrong. After each guess, the individuals reported on whether or not they were certain of their answer.


The study revealed that participants consistently based their certainty on whether they had correctly identified a “Daxxy” during the last few guesses.

“What we found interesting is that they could get the first 19 guesses in a row wrong, but if they got the last five right, they felt very confident,” said Marti. “It’s not that they weren’t paying attention, they were learning what a Daxxy was, but they weren’t using most of what they learned to inform their certainty.”


“If your goal is to arrive at the truth, the strategy of using your most recent feedback, rather than all of the data you’ve accumulated, is not a great tactic.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://open-mind.net/">Open Mind</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People’s brains often base their beliefs on feedback not facts

A new study by developmental psychologists at UC Berkeley has...

A <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/08/01/382697.full.pdf">new study</a> from the <a href="https://ufrj.br/">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</a> has illuminated the actions of the protein component of fire ant venom on envenomated mice. 

Unusually for hymenopterans, the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), also referred to as RIFA, produces venom that is largely composed of alkaloids, which are more frequently found in plants. More than 95% of the venom is made up of these alkaloids, known as solenopsins. Proteins make up less than 1%. Solenopsins are cytotoxic and are responsible for the formation of the distinctive pseudo-pustules left by fire ant stings. These painful welts look like pimples and appear soon after the ant stings. 

Solenopsins also appear to have fungicidal, herbicidal, bactericidal, and insecticidal properties. In addition to aiding in prey capture and defense, they are used in nest maintenance, presumably to eliminate undesirable organisms from the ant colony. Interestingly, though they also have neurotoxic effects and are responsible for the release of histamines by affected cells, solenopsins appear to have no role in the allergic response to fire ant stings. 

The allergic response is instead caused by the 46 proteins known from the venom, four of which are well-described. Determining the pathways by which this happens has until recently been challenging due to the difficulty in extracting and isolating these proteins. 

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/how-just-a-few-drops-of-viper-venom-call-kill-you/">Venom</a> amounts to some .1% of the body weight of a fire ant and only a small proportion of that amount constitutes proteins. However, a <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82571129.pdf">recent procedure</a> developed for extracting venom and purifying the protein components allowed the study’s authors to test their effects in vivo on mice without the complicating factor of the solenopsins. 

Upon entering the body for the first time, the venom proteins are enveloped by dendritic cells and transported to lymph nodes. The dendritic cells present the peptide antigens generated by the proteins, coupled to a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/major-histocompatibility-complex">major histocompatibility class II molecule</a> spanning the cell membrane, to naive T lymphocytes. T lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell key in regulating the immune system. Once activated by exposure to the antigens, they clone themselves. The lymphocytes then trigger a cascade of further activity, including the release of immunoglobin E (IgE) antibodies, which then bind to mast cells, a type of white blood cell that is know as the “master regulator” of the immune system. Upon a second exposure, antigens from the venom signal the mast cells to release histamines in amounts disproportionate to the actual effects of the antigens. This is responsible for the inflammatory response typical of an allergic reaction. Adding to the inflammation is the activation of eosiniphils, another type of white blood, which are stimulated to release harmful proteins in an effort to destroy the antigen. These substances also cause tissue damage. 

In this study, the authors injected purified RIFA venom into the hind footpad of a previously unexposed mouse. Fourteen days later, they administered a second injection, either in another footpad or into the peritoneal cavity, the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the abdominal cavity itself. The second footpad injection resulted in marked swelling. Fluid drained from the peritoneum following exposure revealed elevated levels of eosinophils, suggesting an allergic response. Additionally, dissected lymph nodes from sensitized mice revealed hyperplasia, or enlargement, suggesting a strong immune response to the venom proteins.

This development is important due to the ubiquity of the red imported fire ant and its negative interactions with humans. Some 14 million people in the U.S. alone are thought to suffer stings each year and up to 100,000 seek medical attention. Originally from South America, the ant has been transported around the world by shipping and is now established in China, Vietnam, and Australia, among other locales. Knowledge of the actions of fire ant venom proteins is likely to assist in treating allergic individuals. 

This study is forthcoming in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a> (Nature).

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Credits to Eduardo G P Fox and Roberto Eizemberg

Venom proteins cause allergic response to fire ant stings

A new study from the Universidade Federal do Rio de...

A new study from <a href="http://www.stmichaelshospital.com/">St. Michael's Hospital</a> has found that foods high in unsaturated fats, such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dark-chocolate-cardiovascular-health/">olive oil</a>, may protect against cardiovascular disease.

Levels of the plasma protein Apolipoprotein A-IV (ApoA-IV) increase after the digestion of foods, particularly foods high in unsaturated fats. In addition, elevated blood levels of ApoA-IV are associated with lower rates of cardiovascular disease.

Experts at the <a href="http://stmichaelshospitalresearch.ca/about/keenan-about/">Keenan Research Centre for Biomedical Science</a> (KRCBS) of St. Michael's Hospital have demonstrated that ApoA-IV helps to inhibit platelets that promote multiple diseases.

The findings indicate that ApoA-IV is a blocker of platelet surface glycoproteins GPIIbIIIa, platelet receptors that are necessary for platelet aggregation, a process where platelets to clump together in the blood. This condition can cause vessel occlusion that blocks blood flow and leads to thrombosis, which is the most common cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide.

Dr. Heyu Ni is the Platform Director for Hematology, Cancer, and Immunological Diseases at the KRCBS and the study's principal investigator.

“Platelet aggregation can save lives, because it can stop bleeding in damaged vessels,” said Dr. Ni. “But we usually don't want platelets to block blood flow in the vessels. This is thrombosis, and if vessel occlusion occurs in the heart or brain, it can cause heart attack, stroke or death.”

The research team has shown that ApoA-IV can block fibrinogen binding, decreasing platelet aggregation in a vessel. The ApoA-IV protein can also change its shape to accommodate increased blood flow, and become more effective to protect vessels from complete blockage.

“This is the first study to link ApoA-IV with platelets and thrombosis,” said Dr. Ni. “With this work, we have also explained why higher levels of ApoA-IV can slow down plaque build-up in blood vessels, known as atherosclerosis, because this process is also related to platelet function.”

Dr. Ni explained that the new findings have many potential applications, particularly in the development of therapies targeted at cardiovascular disease and other diseases that arise from platelet activation and aggregation.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why foods with unsaturated fats protect against cardiovascular disease

A new study from St. Michael's Hospital has found that...

A new study by Dr. Grant Lipman, a clinical associate professor of Emergency Medicine at the <a href="http://med.stanford.edu/">Stanford School of Medicine</a>, has found that drought is a good predictor of fewer snakebites.

Dr. Lipman, who routinely treats patients with venomous snakebites, said: “I wondered if there are more snake bites during droughts.” 

To investigate, he developed a study with a team of researchers including co-lead author Dr. Caleb Phillips, an adjunct assistant professor of Computer Science at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado-Boulder</a>.


“We set out to prove that, yes, there are more snakebites during high drought time especially since that's what we were taught,” said Dr. Lipman.

The experts were surprised to find that the number of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/how-just-a-few-drops-of-viper-venom-call-kill-you/">snakebites</a> actually decreases after a drought, but increases after periods of rainy weather. 

The study also revealed that an increase in weather extremes caused by climate change has a direct influence on snakebite incidence in California. According to the study authors, this could be useful to help guide public health measures, such as determining the best distribution of antivenom supplies.

The analysis was focused on 20 years of snakebite data from every phone call made to the California Poison Control System from 1997 to 2017. 

A total of 5,365 snake bites were reported, all of which were from rattlesnakes. The average age of patients was found to be 37, and the researchers also determined that five deaths occurred over the study period. Most of the fatalities involved male victims who were at home in the backyard when they were bitten.

“The most common comment I usually hear from snakebite victims in the emergency room is: ‘I was just minding my own business,’” said Dr. Lipman “Usually, though, it's the snakes that were minding their own business, having a nice nap. It's people who tend to disturb them.”

The experts determined that snakebite incidence decreased by 10 percent following a drought, and increased by 10 percent following high levels of precipitation. The researchers theorize that an increase in rainfall results in accelerated shrub growth, which boosts the presence of rodents - the primary food source of snakes. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ictx20">Clinical Toxicology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A decrease in rainfall is actually linked to fewer snakebites

A new study by Dr. Grant Lipman, a clinical associate...

2017.12.12-Figure3

Europeans were making cheese as far back as 7,000 years ago.  Excavations of two Neolithic villages along the Dalmatian coast in the Mediterranean uncovered the earliest known evidence of cheese production and storage in the region. 

Access to milk and cheese is thought to be largely responsible for the spread of agriculture across Europe 9,000 years ago. However, previous archeological research has only produced evidence of cheese making dating back 5,000 years ago during the Bronze Age. Europeans were making cheese as far back as 7,000 years ago

Now, researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> have discovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pottery-developed-fishing/">pottery remnants that once contained fish</a>, meat, and cheese as far back as 5,200 BCE. 

The findings were published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0202807">PLOS ONE. </a>

The researchers analyzed carbon isotopes of fatty acids preserved on potsherds (broken ceramic pieces) that were found in the sites of the Neolithic villages Pokrovnik and Danilo Bitinj. 

The villages were occupied from 6,000 to 4,800 BCE and excavations in the area have yielded many different types of pottery that was used at the time for food storage and production. 

Milk, fish and meat residue was discovered on the potsherds and the researchers theorize that cheese production in the Neolithic area was common 7,2000 years ago and cheese provided an important source of nutrition for early farmers. 

“We suggest that milk and cheese production among Europe's early farmers reduced infant mortality and helped stimulate demographic shifts that propelled farming communities to expand to northern latitudes,” the authors wrote in the study’s abstract. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: McClure et al., 2018

Europeans were making cheese as far back as 7,000 years ago

Europeans were making cheese as far back as 7,000 years...

A new study found that tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-treats-migraines-better/">cannabinoid in marijuana</a> that is known for producing a high, may help alleviate chronic nerve pain. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.tasmc.org.il/sites/en/Imaging/Pages/FMRI.aspx">Sagol Brain Institute at the Tel Aviv Medical Center</a> in Israel discovered that THC reduces brain activity between the areas of the brain that process emotions and sensory signals, which in turn could help provide pain relief. 

The results of the study were published online in the journal Neurology. 

“Pain is a complex experience that involves both the senses and emotions,” said Haggai Sharon, an author of the study. “Our study results link pain relief from THC with a reduction in the connections between areas of the brain otherwise heavily connected, suggesting that THC may alleviate pain by disrupting signals between these pain processing pathways.”

The researchers focused on radicular pain, which radiates from the spine down through the legs. Sciatica, for example, is an extremely common form of radicular pain. 

According to the <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sciatica/symptoms-causes/syc-20377435">Mayo Clinic</a>, more than 3 million cases of sciatica are diagnosed each year and it can cause severe pain, numbness, and tingling. 

15 men with chronic radicular nerve pain with an average age of 33 participated in the study and all the men reported having pain for more than six months. 

The researchers asked the participants to rate their pain levels and conducted MRI brain scans of the participants to understand the different pathways and connections in the brain associated with pain processing. 

Next, the researchers split the participants into two groups, nine of which received 15 milligrams of THC oil and six were given a placebo. 

An hour after consuming the THC oil, the participants were asked again about their pain levels and then underwent another brain scan. 

A week later, the participants were given the THC oil again, but this time the participants that been given the THC were given the placebo and those who had received the placebo were given the THC. 

Those who had the THC treatment reported that their pain had decreased.

From zero to 100, the participants reported an average pain level of 53 before taking the THC and 35 after the treatment. 

Pain relief was influenced by the connections between the regions of the brain responsible for processing pain. 

“Interestingly, our results also show that the more connected the areas of the brain that process emotion and sensory prior to treatment, the greater the pain relief experienced when taking THC,” said Sharon. “Larger studies are needed to confirm our findings.”

The small sample size of the study and the fact that women did not participate are limiting factors, and the researchers say that further studies are needed to better understand how other cannabinoids impact nerve pain. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>, Staff Writer

Medical marijuana can help alleviate chronic nerve pain

A new study found that tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the cannabinoid in...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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