Life expectancy in the United States reveals a deeply fractured landscape. Yale School of Public Health researchers examined records of 179 million deaths between 1969 and 2020, and traced how generational health patterns diverged across regions.



The team chose an unconventional approach - analyzing life expectancy by birth cohort instead of by year - to uncover hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unhealthy-habits-can-make-your-heart-age-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disparities</a> missed by standard mortality reports.



The findings, published in JAMA Network Open, tell a compelling story of a nation where regional policies, economic conditions, and public health initiatives shape life trajectories in dramatically different ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-expectancy-gains-in-some-states">Life expectancy gains in some states </h2>



California and New York surged ahead in terms of extending lifespans significantly. In contrast, many Southern states struggled to keep pace. This result indicates that the U.S. is a country where the place of birth remains a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/girls-diets-strongly-influence-when-they-begin-puberty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potent predictor</a> of lifespan.



“For females born in some Southern states, life expectancy increased by less than three years from 1900 to 2000,” said Theodore R. Holford, lead author and professor emeritus at <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale</a>.



“That’s a staggering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-oddity-human-skin-heals-three-times-slower-than-our-primate-relatives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contrast</a> when you consider that in states like New York and California, life expectancy rose by more than 20 years over the same period.”



Washington, D.C., a region once synonymous with low life expectancy, now exemplifies transformative progress. Between 1900 and 2000, the life expectancy of women in the capital increased by almost 30 years, while the life expectancy of men leapt by 38 years. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-fueled-such-a-stark-contrast">What fueled such a stark contrast?</h2>



Public health policies, economic revitalization, and aggressive tobacco control campaigns reshaped the region. 



California, banned workplace smoking in 1995, slashed smoking rates among workers and teens, and lowered smoking-related deaths. Kentucky, by contrast, chose a different path by resisting tobacco control efforts and continuing to grapple with high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mortality</a> rates from smoking.



“These trends in mortality and life expectancy reflect not only each state’s policy environment but also their underlying demographics as well,” said Jamie Tam, assistant professor at Yale. 



“It’s not surprising that states with fewer improvements to life expectancy also have higher rates of poverty, for example.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-expectancy-trends-by-generation">Life expectancy trends by generation</h2>



The study’s approach of using an age-period-cohort model allowed the researchers to isolate the impact of generational experiences. 



Instead of year-by-year comparisons, the team followed birth cohorts from 1900 to 2000, revealing how early-life conditions like disease exposure, sanitation, and vaccine access shaped lifespans.



“Looking at mortality trends by cohort gives us a more accurate reflection of the lived experiences of populations,” noted Holford.



“It shows the long-term impact of policies and social conditions affecting the life course of populations, that might otherwise be invisible in year-by-year comparisons of mortality rates from different generations.”



A child born in Mississippi in 1900 faced vastly different health risks than one born in California in 1950. The study’s cohort analysis illuminated how those risks compounded over time, creating distinct health outcomes across states.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-rapidly-or-aging-well">Aging rapidly or aging well</h2>



States varied not only in life expectancy gains but also in how quickly health declined after age 35. Oklahoma and Iowa showed rapid rises in mortality risk, with mortality doubling in less than eight years. 



New York and Florida, in contrast, experienced slower rates of increase, suggesting healthier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/20-year-study-of-1000-adults-reveals-how-marijuana-alters-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a> populations.



Among women, the slowest mortality increase occurred in New York, where it took 9.39 years for mortality risk to double. 



For men, Florida recorded the longest doubling time at 11.47 years. Oklahoma’s women faced the fastest decline, with mortality risk doubling in just 7.96 years - a rate that suggests rapid health deterioration.



“The disparities we see today are the result of decades of cumulative effects on smoking rates, health care access, environmental exposures, and public health investments,” Holford emphasized. “Without conscious policy changes, these gaps will likely persist or even widen.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reinvention-in-washington-d-c">Reinvention in Washington, D.C.</h2>



Washington, D.C., a region once plagued by poor health outcomes, now serves as a case study in urban transformation. 



At the dawn of the 20th century, women in the capital could expect to live just 63.9 years. By 2000, life expectancy had soared to 93 years - the highest gain recorded nationwide. Male life expectancy jumped from 48.7 years to 86.5 years over the same period.



What drove this metamorphosis? Improved healthcare infrastructure, urban policy changes, and robust public health initiatives fueled the gains. 



Yet, for rural Southern states, the story remained grim. In Kentucky and Alabama, policymakers resisted public health reforms, leaving residents trapped in cycles of poverty and poor health outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poverty-s-impact-on-life-expectancy">Poverty's impact on life expectancy</h2>



While Washington, D.C., and California leveraged economic growth to implement effective health policies, states like Mississippi and Kentucky remained mired in economic hardship. 



Poverty compounded existing health risks, leaving residents more vulnerable to chronic diseases and less likely to access preventive care.



California’s tobacco control measures slashed smoking rates, particularly among younger cohorts. In Kentucky, however, the absence of similar policies allowed smoking rates to persist, resulting in higher smoking-related death rates. 



The data illustrate a stark divide: states with strong economies and progressive health policies saw life expectancy gains, while poorer states stagnated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interventions-to-bridge-the-gap">Interventions to bridge the gap</h2>



Targeted public health interventions offer a path forward. Researchers recommend that states with lower cohort life expectancy consider comprehensive tobacco regulations, expanded healthcare access, and environmental health initiatives.



“This research highlights the importance of viewing health through a generational lens,” Tam said. “The benefits of health interventions ripple across lifetimes.”



For Southern states, reversing the stagnation will require targeted investments in public health infrastructure, disease prevention, and health education. 



Without such efforts, the study warns, the gap between states with high and low life expectancy will only widen, locking future generations into predetermined health outcomes.



“Where you are born shouldn’t determine how long you live,” Holford concluded. “But in America, it still does.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2833159" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Network Open</a>.



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Life expectancy in America depends on where you are born  

Life expectancy in the United States reveals a deeply fractured landscape. Yale School of Public Health researchers examined records of 179 million deaths between 1969 and 2020, and traced how generational health patterns diverged across regions. The team chose an unconventional approach - analyzing life expectancy by birth cohort instead of by year - to uncover hidden disparities missed by standard mortality reports. The findings, published in JAMA Network Open, tell a compelling story of a nation where regional policies, economic conditions, and public health initiatives shape...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> are reporting that purple voting districts have been underestimated as a contributor to the rising political polarization in state legislature. Despite the politically moderate appearance of these voting districts, the new study has found that this is not the case.

Nolan McCarty is the chair of Princeton's Department of Politics and lead author of the study. He explained that voters in purple districts tend to be highly polarized themselves.

“Our finding calls into question the notion that reformers can reverse legislative polarization by replacing politically homogeneous districts with more competitive, ideologically diverse districts,* said McCarty.


The United States Congress has grown substantially more polarized in the last few decades, but the voters have remained more moderate. This has driven experts to explore the possibility that factors beyond voter preferences are driving legislative polarization, such as primaries and redistricting.

For the current study, the team examined voter preferences and roll call votes in state senate districts. 

The study revealed that Republicans and Democrats representing purple districts take much more extreme positions in legislature compared to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/politicians-voice-impacts-success/">politicians</a> in red and blue districts, who tend to take more central positions. As a result, states with the highest proportion of polarized purple districts also have the highest levels of legislative polarization.

The researchers also found that recent demographic changes have shifted many purple districts from being moderate to containing geographic clusters of liberal and conservative voters, with no large groups of voters in between. 

For example, many suburban districts that were once primarily white and conservative have had entries of liberal Hispanic voters. In addition, conservative rural districts often have large groups of progressive voters, many of them arriving in college and resort towns.

McCarty said his team has “identified a class of districts that are moderate on average without containing large densities of moderates.”

“When candidates compete in these internally polarized districts in heterogeneous suburbs and spatially diverse non-metropolitan areas, they face weak incentives to adopt moderate platforms or build up moderate roll-call voting records,” explained McCarty. 

“Rather, they can cater to primary constituents, donors, activists or other forces that pull the parties away from the ideological center.”

Many reformers believe polarization has grown because districts have become too homogeneous, and their solution is to create diverse, competitive districts.

McCarty said that his study “turns this conventional wisdom on its head. When control of the legislature hinges on fierce competition within internally polarized winner-take-all districts, candidates and parties do not necessarily face incentives for moderation.”


The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/political-science-research-and-methods">Political Science Research and Methods</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Politicians get extreme in purple districts, fueling polarization

Researchers at Princeton University are reporting that purple voting districts...

There are few historical landmarks that garner as much fascination as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. 

The result of a shallow foundation built in weak soil, the tower’s famous tilt has drawn millions of tourists and baffled scientists over the years. 

How does the tower stay upright and why didn’t it just topple over, especially given the weak soil and the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-yellowstone-supervolcano/">earthquakes</a> in the area?

Engineers have worked to stabilize the bell tower and in 1990, the site was closed to the public for the next 11 years. Some of the soil was even removed from underneath part of its foundation which actually decreased its tilt.  

Although these stabilization efforts have been successful, there is still the question of how the tower was able to stay put during an earthquake.

Now, a new study has found an answer to why the tower is unaffected by seismic activity and survived at least four major earthquakes that struck the area since 1280. 

A team of 16 researchers led by Camillo Nuti, a professor at <a href="http://www.uniroma3.it/">Roma Tre University</a> conducted the research. 

The team examined the Leaning Tower of Pisa and found that surprisingly the very soil that caused the tower to tilt in the first place is what has kept it firmly in place all these years. 

The results found that something called dynamic soil-structure interaction allows the tower to stay upright. During an earthquake, the inflexibility of the tower and the weak soil stop any seismic resonance from affecting the structure. 

The tower’s relationship with the unstable soil around it is also why the tower didn’t collapse before the restoration efforts went underway. 

“Ironically, the very same soil that caused the leaning instability and brought the Tower to the verge of collapse, can be credited for helping it survive these seismic events,” said George Mylonakis, professor at the University of Bristol.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

The secret to how the Leaning Tower of Pisa sustains earthquakes

There are few historical landmarks that garner as much fascination...

As the United States grapples with an increasingly devastating opioid epidemic, we’ve seen more and more accounts of how damaging these hard drugs can be.

But a new review examining the most up-to-date statistics on substance abuse found that alcohol and tobacco actually pose the biggest threat to human welfare out of all addictive drugs.

The study focused on the burden of death and disease with drug use and in 2015 alone, both alcohol and tobacco use cost the world more than a billion disability-life adjusted years.

The review, which was published in the journal Addiction, shows that tobacco and alcohol use bear the brunt of deaths and illness attributed to drugs around the world. 

Tobacco smoking had the largest health burden while illicit drugs had the smallest. 

The researchers estimate that almost one in seven adults smoke tobacco and one in five adults reported at least one instance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/college-binge-drinking-brain-activity/">heavy alcohol consumption</a> in the past month. 

In central, eastern, and western Europe, both alcohol consumption and tobacco use were consistently higher compared to other parts of the world. 

In central Europe, for example, the researchers found that people consume 11.61 liters of alcohol per capita and 23.7 percent of the population reported tobacco use. There was also a higher percentage of heavy drinkers in those parts of Europe as well. 

With regard to illicit drugs, the researchers found that drug use was less common, but the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand had the highest rates of cannabis, opioid, and cocaine dependence. 

Even with high numbers reported in Australia, the US, and Canada, the researchers found that less that one in twenty people reported using cannabis in the last year, and those numbers were smaller for opioids or cocaine. 

The researchers were not able to get an accurate estimate of drug, alcohol or tobacco use in regions like Latin America or Africa because of the lack of data on drug use and health burdens. 

The study, despite its limitations, emphasizes the risks of alcohol and tobacco use which present the biggest threat to health and wellbeing worldwide. 

According to the researchers, having all of this data in one place could help governments and international agencies create more effective policies aimed at combating substance abuse

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Report: Tobacco and alcohol pose biggest threat to human health

As the United States grapples with an increasingly devastating opioid...

Traveling by bus is not only better for the environment and your wallet, but it can help reduce the number of accidents involving cyclists and pedestrians, according to a new study. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.irspum.umontreal.ca/fr-ca/english.aspx">Universite de Montreal Public Health Research Institute</a> found that the bus was a safer travel option than driving a car and showed that the risk of injury is four-times greater for drivers compared to bus occupants. 

The study was published in the Journal of Urban Health and is the first of its kind to examine the impact that bus or car use has on pedestrian safety. 

For the study, the researchers examined weekday collision and injury data that had been compiled by police reports in Montreal from 2001 to 2010. 

The researchers found that car trips during this time resulted in four times as many pedestrian injuries, five-times more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-electric-bike/">cyclist</a> injuries, and five-times as many fatal and severe injuries compared to buses. 

During the ten year period, only ten bus occupants were seriously injured and there were no fatalities along those routes. However, for drivers and passengers in cars, 278 were injured and there were 19 deaths in the same period. 

The study also showed that more pedestrians and cyclists were injured or killed by cars compared to buses along those routes. 

The results show that taking the bus is safer for everyone on the road because bus drivers are professionally trained and they tend to drive slower and more predictably than cars. 

From 2001 to 2010, the researchers suggest that bus travel saved 1,805 car occupants, 156 cyclists, and 476 pedestrians from injury. 

Making public transportation more accessible and increasing the number of routes and buses and trains could seriously reduce the number of traffic accidents, injuries, and fatalities. 

The researchers next plan to study bus and vehicle data in the years leading up to 2016 in order to make their research more current. 

“The fundamental point is that pedestrians, cyclists, and motor-vehicle occupants are mostly injured where the speeds are highest and where there are the most vehicles, on the major arteries,” said  Patrick Morency, the study’s lead author. “The solution? Permanent structure to reduce speeds, and public transit.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Taking the bus is safer than driving a car, study finds

Traveling by bus is not only better for the environment...

Car exhaust, pollution from power plants and factories, and second-hand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-dangerous-seniors/">smoke</a> all pose serious public health risks, which is why there are so many stringent smoking bans and restrictions. 

Designated smoking areas are far removed from entrances, and indoor smoking, particularly in public buildings, is a thing of the past.

However, second-hand smoke is not the only kind of exposure we should be worried about, according to a new study.

Researchers from <a href="http://drexel.edu/">Drexel University</a> discovered that chemical residue from cigarette smoke, also known as third-hand smoke, can attach to clothes, hair, and surfaces, and these pollutants make their way indoors, even in non-smoking buildings.

The results, published in the journal Science Advances, show that third-hand smoke chemicals attach themselves to aerosol particles and are just a dangerous as second-hand smoke.

“While many public areas have restrictions on smoking, including distance from doorways, non-smoking buildings and even full smoking bans on campus for some universities, these smoking limitations often only serve to protect non-smoking populations from exposure to second-hand smoke,” said Michael Waring, a co-author of the research. 

At first, the researchers were simply studying how outdoor particles made their way indoors. The researchers used a non-smoking classroom to better understand this transport and composition of outdoor particles.

After finding a surprising amount of third-hand smoke chemicals in the room, the researchers shifted their focus to the transportation and transfer of these chemicals that attach to aerosol particles.

“In an empty classroom, where smoking has not been allowed in some time, we found that 29 percent of the entire indoor aerosol mass contained third-hand smoke chemical species,” said Anita Avery, a member of the research team. “This was obviously quite startling and raised many questions about how that much third-hand smoke could be lingering in a non-smoking, ventilated room.”

The researchers set up an experiment to simulate third-hand smoke exposure in a lab by first filling a Pyrex container with cigarette smoke. Next, the smoke was filtered out and outdoor air was pumped into the container.

After the outdoor air had circulated through the container, the researchers tested the chemical composition of aerosol particles in the container and compared these to measurements of outdoor air composition.  

Even though all the smoke had been cleared out, there was a 13 percent increase in third-hand smoke chemicals.

“What we'd actually uncovered was a new exposure route for third-hand smoke - through aerosol particles, which are ubiquitous in the indoor environment,” said Peter DeCarlo, a fellow author of the study.

The study highlights another way people can be exposed to pollutants like cigarette smoke even in non-smoking environments, and the researchers hope their findings will bring about new policies to limit exposure to dangerous third-hand smoke.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study: Third-hand smoke is just as dangerous as second-hand smoke

Car exhaust, pollution from power plants and factories, and second-hand...

The Copper Canyon region of Chihuahua, Mexico is steeped in legends and mystery.  The area is known for the Rarámuri, a group of indigenous people also known incorrectly as the Tarahumara (Rarámuri means “People of the swiftly running feet”).  The name Tarahumara was given by the Spanish, whose conquistadors never conquered the Rarámuri and whose Jesuits never fully converted them.

I first learned about the Rarámuri through the book Born to Run by Christopher McDougall, which details their culture of distance running.  The Rarámuri were also the first people to eat the now popular ‘super food’ Chia seeds.  Driving through the country around the town of Creel, Chihuahua, you can see women in brightly colored traditional dresses herding goats or men walking along the road in cowboy hats, western shirts and jeans but also wearing traditional Rarámuri sandals soled with used tires.

Many of the Rarámuri still move with their livestock from summer to winter pastures, and many of them live in traditional cave/cliff dwellings as they have since pre-Columbian times.  That said, there are obvious modernizations, and riding our bikes past the Rarámuri cabins, we spotted satellite dishes and power lines running to houses. 

All told, the Barranca del Cobre (Copper Canyon) region is a system of six separate canyons in a canyon system that all together dwarfs the more famous Grand Canyon of Arizona.  The Grand Canyon is still bigger than any of the individual canyons alone, but the canyon region makes up almost a third of Chihuahua, Mexico’s largest state at 25,000 square miles.  

The first place we stopped to visit in the Sierra Madre Occidental range was Parque Nacional Cascada de Basaseachic (Basaseachic Falls National Park).  This is Mexico’s highest year round waterfall, made by the Basaseachic River emptying into Barranca de Candameña (Candameña Canyon). The name ‘Basaseachic’ comes from Rarámuri and means ‘place of the waterfall’ an apt name.  Today, Basaseachic Waterfall National Park is one of the most popular attractions in the state of Chihuahua. 

The rock of the area is mainly volcanic andesite and rhyolites ranging from 20 to 140 million years old.  These rocks were forced up and eroded over time, creating a maze of canyons carved by different rivers. The differences in height create different microhabitats as you ascend the mountains or descend the canyons, making the whole area a biodiversity hotspot.  From the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cacti-birds-sonoran-desert/">Sonoran Desert</a>, the mountains rise creating habitat for Ponderosa, Pino Triste, maple trees collected into forests starkly different from the cacti lands to the west. The bottom of canyons are also more similar to the deserts surrounding the western Sierra Madre, and a rise in elevation as you climb toward the canyon rim mimics an ascent into mountains.  

As we were driving from Cascada de Basaseachic towards the town of Creel deeper into the Sierra Madre, we saw the flash of a brightly colored bird crossing the road in front of us.  We saw red, green, a dark brown or black in the feathers. We couldn’t immediately identify the bird but looking it up later, it was unmistakably the Mexican Trogon, (Trogon mexicanus).  

The Trogon we saw looks unbelievably exotic, and it is for us in the United States.  The Mexican Trogon as the name implies, is found in the Highlands of Mexico but also at high elevations in Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.  The Trogon is just one of at least three hundred species of birds found in the Copper Canyon region. Along with the exotic Trogon, we’ve also seen the common American Robin, (Turdus migratorius) flying near Violet Crowned hummingbirds, (Amazilia violiceps).  The bizarre mix of northern, southern, low and high elevation biology is best summed up by the fact that here you can see Thick-Billed Parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) nesting in Quaking Aspen trees that you can also find in the mountains of Colorado.  The Thick-Billed Parrot is the only parrot native to North America to survive extinction and once also lived in Arizona and New Mexico.  Reintroductions of the Thick-Billed Parrot into Arizona in the 1980s failed, due to predation from raptors. 

Near Creel we visited Valle de los Monjes (Valley of the Monks), which is perhaps more fairly known by the name the Rarámuri gave it, Valle Bisabirachi (Valley of the erect penises).  The valley is filled with strange towering monoliths of stone. There are differing legends connecting to the valley and its odd rock towers, some say that the stones are monks petrified after long meditation.  Others say the phallic shapes of the stones grant fertility or that the stones are the forms of sleeping pagan gods. The interesting rock formations are actually made from tuff. Tuff is a stone formed by volcanic ash, in Valle Bisabirachi the ash settled and hardened into rock that was then shaped and weathered through time into fantastical shapes.  The rocks here emphasize the volcanic history of the western Sierra Madre, that the whole area is in fact a volcanic plateau. Walking through the valley I saw bolts for climbing routes, both sport routes and top roping anchors, and it made me wish I had climbing gear with me. 

Near Valle Bisabirachi, there is also Valle de los Ranos with other formations, this time named whimsically for frogs.  The formations were caused by the same forces as Valle Bisabirachi

We camped for days near Lake Arareco, where you pay only a small entrance fee for multiple day camping.  From the lake it’s a short trip to visit different valleys, a waterfall or just explore the forest. The forest in this area is classified as Sierra Madre Occidental Pine-Oak forest.  At the elevation around the lake it’s primarily a pine forest, if we dropped down in elevation the forest would change becoming more of an oak dominated grassland. 

So far, ecotourism has all the appearances of working well for the Rarámuri of the area; locals collect fees to camp by the lake or enter valleys.  In the town of Creel there are guides for any conceivable outdoor activity from riding horses to biking or hiking and there are plenty of shops selling local artisans wares.  

There are also small signs of future conflicts. For rent in Creel are ATVs and SUVs, vehicles that don’t always do so well sharing the roads with mountain bikers or indigenous trail runners.  The ancient Sierra Madre Occidental of legend is slowly meeting the realities of the 21st century, and it’s unsure what that means yet.                                               

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The remarkable Rarámuri people of Copper Canyon, Mexico

The Copper Canyon region of Chihuahua, Mexico is steeped in...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printing-food-industry/">3D printing</a> is on the rise, and everything from jet engine parts to houses to prosthetic arms can be created with a 3D printer.  

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a simple concept: you can print or create a three-dimensional item by layering raw materials, sometimes even food, to form the desired shape. 

However, new research has found that 3D printing could also be used to make weapons, posing a risk to both the general public and military allies.

The research was conducted by the <a href="https://www.rand.org/">RAND Corporation's</a> Center for Global Risk and Security.

According to the report, additive manufacturing could make it easier than ever to access or create dangerous weapons. Extremist groups could manufacture their own arsenal and street criminals could sell 3D printed weapons. 

3D printing could also benefit countries like North Korea, which could create products domestically and avoid sanctions. 

Not only is weapon manufacturing a major cause for concern with 3D printing, but according to the RAND paper, the technology is susceptible to hackers and sabotage. For example, hackers could create intentionally defective jet engine parts. 

“Lone-wolf attacks may become more lethal when individuals have ready access to 3D printers,” said Trevor Johnston, the lead author of the paper. “Even in countries like the United States, where gun control laws have done little to restrict access to semi-automatic weapons, additive manufacturing could increase the risk of violence and murder.”

The report also looked into the economic ramifications of 3D printed weapons. According to the authors, producing weapons and products locally could weaken international trade connections and threaten jobs. 

“Unemployment, isolation and alienation of middle and low-skilled laborers may be exacerbated by additive manufacturing, potentially leading to societal unrest in both developed and developing countries,” said Troy Smith, a co-author of the paper. 

The paper calls for increased monitoring and regulations, particularly of the raw materials used in additive manufacturing, software and the printers themselves. 

Even with preventive measures, the researchers emphasize that these will not be enough to stop the risks associated with 3D printing. Instead, policymakers and researchers should look at ways to limit the impact of future threats as well implement regulations. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

3D printed weapons could become a major public safety threat

3D printing is on the rise, and everything from jet...

An international team of researchers has discovered a major cave site along the East African coast. Panga ya Saidi represents the first substantial cave record from the Middle Stone Age to the Iron Age in this region.

Prior to this excavation, the majority of archaeological research has been conducted in the Rift Valley and in South Africa, and limited information has been available from the coast of East Africa.


The analysis of plant, animal, and shell remains suggests that forests and grasslands persevered in this region and the cave maintained a relatively stable environment for settlement, even when other areas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-human-migration-widespread/">Africa</a> were unsuitable.


The ecological setting of the cave adds to a growing collection of evidence that Homo sapiens could adapt to different environments as they moved across Africa and Eurasia. These populations developed a range of survival strategies to live in the diverse conditions of tropical forests, arid zones, coastal regions, and cold habitats in higher latitudes.

Beginning around 67,000 years ago, the cave record of Panga ya Saidi revealed a shift to smaller stone tools. Otherwise, however, there was no radical change in behavior at any time found in the archaeological record. 

Furthermore, there was also not a notable break in human occupation during the Toba volcanic super-eruption 74,000 years ago, contradicting theories that the subsequent “volcanic winter” drove human populations to near-extinction. There was some evidence to suggest that populations were increasing 60,000 years ago.

The record also indicated that there was cultural complexity over a long period of time, but with no significant turning point. 

Dr. Nicole Boivin of the <a href="http://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a> is the project’s principal investigator.

“The East African coastal hinterland and its forests and have been long considered to be marginal to human evolution so the discovery of Panga ya Saidi cave will certainly change archaeologists' views and perceptions,” said Dr. Boivin.

“The finds at Panga ya Saidi undermine hypotheses about the use of coasts as a kind of  'superhighway’ that channeled migrating humans out of Africa, and around the Indian Ocean rim,” said study co-author Professor Michael Petraglia.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Mohammad Shoaee

Ancient east African cave record reveals early innovations

An international team of researchers has discovered a major cave...

Experts have been exploring a link between our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/determines-personalities/">personalities</a> and our taste buds. Psychologist Dr. Jen Nash recently contributed her findings to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ushome/index.html">Daily Mail</a>, detailing how the things we eat as children often influence the foods we crave as adults.

Foods are generally classified as being either sweet, sour, salty, bitter, or spicy. According to Dr. Nash, the types of food that we desire the most say a lot about our personalities.

“Is it just a coincidence that words describing our major food tastes also express personality characteristics? Research would say no,” says Dr. Nash. 

“Those we know who are ‘sweet,’ ‘bitter’ or ‘sour’ may describe their food preferences as much as their temperament.”

In the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ushome/index.html">Daily Mail</a> article, Dr. Nash explains that food is associated with being loved and cared for ever since infancy.

“As we grow into childhood and adolescence, food can become a shortcut for dealing with life experiences that are difficult to ‘digest’ - abuse, trauma, grief, bullying and many others,” she writes.

For example, if your mother gave you cookies when you had a bad day at school, you will likely associate sweet foods with feeling better.

The preference of some tastes over others can give insight into our personalities. The research revealed specific personality traits that are linked to each type of food.

According to the study, those who crave sour foods are described as critical and harsh, but would describe themselves as simply having high standards.

Sweet foods are linked to agreeableness and altruism, and salty foods are linked to competitiveness, impatience, and a need for instant gratification. 

People who enjoy spicy foods the most are described as being risk-takers who enjoy new experiences, while people who prefer bitter foods are more likely to be antisocial, manipulative, and insensitive. 

“While this research is fascinating and makes for interesting dinner table chat, it does need to be interpreted broadly, as our food preferences are influenced by a multitude of factors,” Dr. Nash added.

“The preferences of those shopping and cooking for us, what's actually available and family/cultural patterns all play a part.”

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Our food preferences may also describe our personalities

Experts have been exploring a link between our personalities and...

Migraines are more than just a bad headache, and symptoms can range from throbbing pain and nausea to sensitivity to light and sound.

Migraine sufferers know how debilitating they can be, and approximately 15 to 20 percent of adults in developed countries are affected by them. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-treats-migraines-better/">Migraines</a> often run the family, leading scientists to believe that the underlying factors that cause migraines are inherited. 

A new study examining how genetics influence migraine headaches has identified certain variants and genes that explain why some families are more prone to migraines than others. 

The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.fimm.fi/">Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland</a> and published in the journal <a href="http://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(18)30322-2">Neuron</a>. 

“For a long time, we have been wondering why common disease (like migraines) aggregates in families,” said Aarno Palotie, a co-author of the study. 

Previous research found that migraines could run in families either through a Mendelian inheritance model or polygenic inheritance. A Mendelian inheritance model means that two copies of a gene are passed down from the parents to child and these genes determine a trait or disease. 

Polygenic, on the other hand, means that a group of genes work together to influence a trait. On their own, each gene has little impact, but together the genes have a stronger influence. 

The researchers for this study wanted to see which had more of an impact on inherited migraines, Mendelian genes or the accumulation of polygenic variants. 

In order to measure migraine susceptibility in families, the researcher first created a polygenic risk score to estimate how much genetic burden variants had. 

The researchers then applied their risk score to a family study of migraine sufferers in Finland which involved 8,319 people. 

Polygenic common variants had a much stronger influence on migraine risk in people compared to the stronger Mendelian genes. 

In the family study, in 45 families who suffered from a severe kind of a migraine called a hemiplegic migraine only four families’ migraines were influenced by Mendelian genes. 

“The strength of the common variants in these families surprised us,” said Palotie. “Even if Mendelian variants don't drive the majority of migraine cases, scientists can research how these genes impact biological pathways responsible for migraine symptoms and potentially develop drugs to target those pathways.”

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Why some families are more prone to migraines than others

Migraines are more than just a bad headache, and symptoms...

Identifying dementia risk factors early could help reduce risk. Researchers at <a href="https://www.bumc.bu.edu/busm/">Boston University School of Medicine</a> (BUSM) have used machine learning to find previously unknown combinations of risk factors which lead to a higher risk of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-anxiety-depression-dementia/">dementia</a>.

The leading cause of dependence and disability among senior adults worldwide is dementia, and there is no medical treatment currently available.

“This study is the first step in applying machine learning approaches to identifying new combinations of factors that are linked to increased risk of dementia later in life,” explained study co-author Dr. Rhoda Au. 

“By focusing on modifiable risk factors, we are hoping to identify disease risk factors that are amenable to change, enabling the possibility of preventing dementia.”

The team obtained data from the Framingham Heart Study (FHS) to analyze demographic and lifestyle factors recorded from 1979 to 1983 which led to dementia later in life. 

The study revealed that those who were at a higher risk for dementia had a combination of some of the following risk factors: older age, lower BMI, less sleep reported during mid-life, and a marital status of “widowed.”


The researchers said that their approach is unique because it is focused on information that is readily available to any primary care physician and does not require specialized training or expensive testing.

“We wanted to identify information that any physician or even non-physician has easy access to in determining potential increased future risk for dementia,” said Dr. Au.

“Most dementia screening tools require specialized training or testing, but the front line for screening are primary care physicians or family members. This was also an initial attempt to apply machine learning methods to identify risk factors.”


The experts explained that this research has the potential to lead to simple and inexpensive assessments during midlife that could be used to help modify the risk of dementia later in life.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.j-alz.com/">Journal of Alzheimer's Disease</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Identifying dementia risk factors early could help reduce risk

Identifying dementia risk factors early could help reduce risk. Researchers...

In recent years, Airbnb has burst onto the scene as a replacement for hotels, motels, and property rentals – toting its relative cost-savings and the ease in which customers can book a residence for almost any period of time. 

The company is currently the world’s leading peer-to-peer online hospitality service. It has more than 4 million venues in 191 countries, spanning roughly 65,000 cities. But while Airbnb has opened a new and exciting arena in the realm of vacation rentals, there are questions about the company’s ability to guarantee user safety.

A recent article published in the journal <a href="http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/">Injury Prevention</a> has found that many Airbnb venues in the U.S. may not be up to safety standards – especially when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-impact-freshwater-sources/">fire</a> safety. The study’s authors (Hudson Kennedy, Vanya Jones, and Andrea Gielen) report the findings of a survey of over 120,500 rentals in 16 American cities. Although most venues are private homes, where national fire safety requirements don’t typically apply, some states and municipalities do set certain standards for rental properties.

The researchers used data from InsideAirbnb.com, an independent website that compiles publicly available information on Airbnb listings provided by the venues’ hosts. They looked through the data to determine if the hosts had reported any smoke detectors, carbon monoxide alarms, fire extinguishers, and first-aid kits on the premises. 

In all 16 cities sampled, the vast majority of venues had smoke detectors (80%), and over half had a carbon monoxide alarm (58%). Fire extinguishers were less common, with the most found in Austin, Texas (more than 70 percent) and the least found in New York City (29%). Additionally, Portland, Oregon was the only city out of the 16 to have first aid kids in more than half of the venues sampled.

While it may be reassuring that most Airbnbs have smoke detectors and carbon monoxide alarms, the researchers note that “this is substantially lower than the universal requirement for hotels," which are legally obligated to comply with national fire safety regulations. The authors also point out that their data are from a wide-ranging period and represent only a portion of the available Airbnbs in each location. Some hosts may be in condominiums or apartment buildings that have their own safety features. 

In the past, Airbnb has carried out fire safety campaigns and encouraged hosts to install smoke detectors and carbon monoxide alarms. But as of now, it does not require them to provide proof of their presence. “Distributing safety information and products to hosts is an initial step, but the rates reported here suggest that Airbnb and other similar models should consider requiring safety regulations for hosts,” the researchers say.

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Airbnb venues may not be up to necessary safety standards

In recent years, Airbnb has burst onto the scene as...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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