A region in China’s Turpan-Hami Basin served as a refugium - or “life oasis”- for terrestrial plants during the end-Permian mass extinction. This event is widely recognized as the most severe biological crisis since the Cambrian period.&nbsp;



The discovery of this life-saving refuge, which is detailed in a recent study,&nbsp;challenges the longstanding belief that land-based ecosystems experienced catastrophic losses on par with marine environments at that time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-a-life-oasis-on-land">Evidence of a “life oasis” on land</h2>



The research team was led by Professor Liu Feng from the <a href="http://english.nigpas.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology</a> (NIGPAS) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.



According to Professor Feng, the Turpan-Hami Basin offered a protective area where terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-underground-networks-to-eavesdrop-on-their-neighbors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> communities remained largely intact.&nbsp;



Rather than succumbing to widespread die-off, these plant populations continued evolving, ultimately facilitating a more rapid ecological recovery. Thus, these pockets of resilience played a crucial role in the rebound of life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reevaluating-the-end-permian-crisis">Reevaluating the end-Permian crisis</h2>



Occurring roughly 252 million years ago, the end-Permian mass extinction decimated over 80% of marine species. However, its impact on terrestrial life has been less certain.&nbsp;



One common explanation is that catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-cooling-not-warming-caused-a-major-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic eruptions</a> in Siberia caused extreme conditions, including wildfires and toxic gases.&nbsp;



Researchers previously based this theory on the progressive loss of the Gigantopteris flora in South China and the Glossopteris flora across Gondwanaland around the same time as the extinction.



Opposing views argue that the lethal effects were not universal, but limited by latitude and atmospheric circulation. Some fossil evidence suggests certain Mesozoic plant species actually predating the extinction, pointing to gradual transitions rather than abrupt collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-ancient-pollen-and-spores-nbsp">Examining ancient pollen and spores&nbsp;</h2>



Central to the study’s discoveries is the South Taodonggou section in Xinjiang Province. 



The researchers examined ancient pollen and spores and using precise radiometric dating based on a Bayesian age model developed by Professor Yang Wan of the <a href="https://www.mst.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Missouri University of Science and Technology</a>.



The team detected an unbroken record of riparian fern fields and coniferous forests spanning from 160,000 years before the extinction started to 160,000 years after it ended.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/life-oasis_end-Permian_illustration_credit-Yang-Dinghua_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/life-oasis_end-Permian_illustration_credit-Yang-Dinghua_1s.webp" alt="Artistic reconstruction of the terrestrial ecological landscape after the end Permian mass extinction based on fossil palynomorphs, plants, and tetrapods recovered, as well as sedimentological data from the South Taodonggou Section. Credit: Yang Dinghua" class="wp-image-1962551"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artistic reconstruction of the terrestrial ecological landscape after the end Permian mass extinction based on fossil palynomorphs, plants, and tetrapods recovered, as well as sedimentological data from the South Taodonggou Section. Credit: Yang Dinghua</figcaption></figure>



“The presence of intact tree trunks and fern stems further confirms that these microfossils represent local vegetation, not transported remnants,” said Wan Mingli, a scientist at NIGPAS.



The evidence implies that certain plants vanished locally, but the overall loss of spore and pollen species in the South Taodonggou section could have been about 21% - much lower than the known marine extinction level at the time.&nbsp;



Many seemingly extinct species reappeared in Early Triassic layers elsewhere, indicating they may have migrated rather than disappeared altogether.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-recovery-and-ecological-diversity">Rapid recovery and ecological diversity</h2>



A stable vegetation foundation apparently sped up ecological resurgence in this “life oasis.”&nbsp;



Fossil data shows that just 75,000 years after the extinction ended, the region already supported a range of terrestrial vertebrates, such as the herbivorous Lystrosaurus and carnivorous chroniosuchians.&nbsp;



This contradicts earlier assumptions that ecosystems took over a million years to recover following the end-Permian extinction. In this area, it happened more than ten times faster.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/life-oasis_end-Permian_palynomorphs_illustration_credit-Yang-Dinghua_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/life-oasis_end-Permian_palynomorphs_illustration_credit-Yang-Dinghua_1s.webp" alt="Artistic reconstruction of the terrestrial ecological landscape after the end Permian mass extinction based on fossil palynomorphs, plants, and tetrapods recovered, as well as sedimentological data from the South Taodonggou Section. Credit: Yang Dinghua" class="wp-image-1962553"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artistic reconstruction of the terrestrial ecological landscape after the end Permian mass extinction based on fossil palynomorphs, plants, and tetrapods recovered, as well as sedimentological data from the South Taodonggou Section. Credit: Yang Dinghua</figcaption></figure>



The researchers attribute such resilience to the region’s semi-humid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-the-mass-extinction-that-reshaped-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> and steady rainfall, evaluated through paleosol analysis. 



The Turpan-Hami Basin consistently received around 1,000 millimeters of precipitation annually, providing lush vegetation and an environment beneficial to migrating wildlife.



Despite its apparent proximity to volcanic activity believed to have spurred the extinction, the basin functioned as a safe haven for terrestrial life, illustrating how even seemingly threatened areas can preserve crucial biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-pockets-of-resilience">Surprising pockets of resilience</h2>



“This suggests that local climate and geographic factors can create surprising pockets of resilience, offering hope for conservation efforts in the face of global environmental change,” Feng said.&nbsp;



The existence of such a shelter for plants during the crisis calls into question the scope and uniformity of land-based mass extinctions. In some locales, climates and landscapes worked in concert to protect certain species from the worst consequences.



As modern science grapples with the possibility of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-crisis-entire-branches-of-earths-tree-of-life-are-vanishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sixth mass extinction</a> - potentially driven by human impacts - these findings underscore the importance of discovering and safeguarding present-day refugia.&nbsp;



By identifying environments where life can endure, even amid large-scale devastation, conservationists might replicate and preserve these safe harbors for future generations.



The study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ads5614" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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'Life oasis' provided refuge for plants during Earth's worst extinction event

A region in China’s Turpan-Hami Basin served as a refugium - or “life oasis”- for terrestrial plants during the end-Permian mass extinction. This event is widely recognized as the most severe biological crisis since the Cambrian period.&nbsp; The discovery of this life-saving refuge, which is detailed in a recent study,&nbsp;challenges the longstanding belief that land-based ecosystems experienced catastrophic losses on par with marine environments at that time. Evidence of a “life oasis” on land The research team was led by Professor Liu Feng from the Nanjing Institute...

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Australian Outback plant species challenges the idea of binary sexuality. A team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.bucknell.edu/">Bucknell University</a> is describing a new species of bush tomato from the remote <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/emus-australian-drought/">Australian Outback</a>. For decades, the plant has amazed field biologists because of the unusual variability of its flower form. 

The plant was first documented by Australian botanists during the 1970s. This team had noted the challenge of identifying the sexual condition of the plant, which appeared at different times to be female, male, or bisexual.Australian Outback plant species challenges the idea of binary sexuality

In the lab of Bucknell Professor Chris Martine, DNA studies produced evidence that the diverse specimens were not only examples of the same plant, but also belonged to an undescribed species.

The researchers set out on an expedition in the remote northwestern region of the Northern Territory to relocate populations of the plant and collected numerous new specimens. The team named the species Solanum plastisexumas, in reference to the notable variation in the plant's sexual condition.

"This name, for us, is not just a reflection of the diversity of sexual forms seen in this species," wrote the study authors. "It is also a recognition that this plant is a model for the sort of sexual fluidity that is present across the Plant Kingdom - where just about any sort of reproductive form one can imagine (within the constraints of plant development) is present."

Also known as the Dungowan bush tomato, Solanum plastisexum is a distant relative of the cultivated eggplant. The experts said the new species provides a compelling example of the fact that sexuality among Earth's living creatures is far more diverse, and interesting, than what is expected. 

"In a way, S. plastisexum is not just a model for the diversity of sexual/reproductive form seen among plants - it is also evidence that attempts to recognize a 'normative' sexual condition among the planet's living creatures is problematic," wrote the researchers. 

"When considering the scope of life on Earth, the notion of a constant sexual binary consisting of two distinct and disconnected forms is, fundamentally, a fallacy."

[caption id="attachment_1874128" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Fruit-of-Solanum-plastisexum..jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874128" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Fruit-of-Solanum-plastisexum..jpg" alt="" width="650" height="867" /></a> Fruit of Solanum plastisexum. Image Credit: McDonnel[/caption]

Professor Martine explained that 85 percent of the world's flowering plant species have flowers that are bisexual, with both male and female organs present in every blossom.

"So that's already quite different than what some people might expect; but the remaining 15% or so come in all sorts of forms that push the envelope further, including unisexual flowers and (like we see in a plant like Cannabis) whole plants that are either male or female," said Professor Martine.

"For the most part, a given plant species will stick to one primary and predictable type of sexual expression, but what makes Solanum plastisexum stand out is that it is one of a just a few plants that kind of do it all. It really seems like you never know what you'll get when you come across it."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/">PhytoKeys</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Chris Martine

Australian Outback plant species challenges the idea of binary sexuality

Australian Outback plant species challenges the idea of binary sexuality....

Midwestern farmers may soon have to rely more on irrigation than rainfall. Midwestern corn growers who rely on rainfall to water their crops will have to turn to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-irrigation-freshwater-supply/">irrigation</a> if the current climate trends and crop modifications continue, according to a new study from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a>. The researchers explained that this could disrupt freshwater sources and create conflict over their usage. 

Based on the hotter conditions expected by the middle of the century, the team estimated how much moisture will be drawn out of corn plants.

"As the atmosphere warms, it dries, and so the draw for water to go from plants to the atmosphere increases," said study lead author Professor DeLucia. "The ability of the atmosphere to draw water from plants is determined by its 'vapor pressure deficit.'"

"If you add to this the decades-old trend toward bigger, more productive corn plants, you see an overall increase in water use and water loss through plant leaves - without comparable increases in rainfall to counter the deficit."

Professor DeLucia said that the average corn yield in the Midwest is roughly 170 bushels per acre today, which is up from about 120 bushels per acre in 1990.

"If this trend continues, the projected yield in 2050 would be 230-240 bushels per acre averaged across the Midwest. If you want more corn, then you have to have a bigger plant, and a bigger plant is going to use more water."

The study findings indicate that precipitation will not increase enough in the Midwest to compensate for the drying conditions of the warmer atmosphere. 

"We are getting more intense storms in the spring and less rain in the late summer," said Professor DeLucia. The total precipitation, however, is not predicted to change much in the coming decades.

The researchers also determined that warming conditions alone will drive a much greater demand for water, even without the development of larger, higher-yielding plants.

"We show that as vapor pressure deficit increases, maintaining current maize yields will require a large expansion of irrigation, greater than threefold, in areas currently supported by rain," wrote the study authors.  

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/21508925/">Ecosphere</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Midwestern farmers may soon have to rely more on irrigation than rainfall

Midwestern farmers may soon have to rely more on irrigation...

Celery is often disregarded as nothing more than a disposable garnish served with buffalo chicken wings. However, the extraordinary health benefits associated with this crunchy vegetable make it one of the most underrated foods on the planet.

"Celery is loaded with polysaccharides and antioxidants," explained best-selling author Dr. Partha Nandi. "The antioxidants have the ability to cure free-radical damage that contributes to inflammation. Chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer or arthritis are caused by inflammation."

Many other serious conditions, including diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, and age-related vision loss, have also been linked to chronic inflammation. 

Dr. Tina Ardon is a family medicine physician at the <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/">Mayo Clinic</a>. She explained that some foods contribute to inflammation, while other foods can be helpful for reducing or preventing inflammation.

"Research indicates that there is a link between diet and inflammation," said Dr. Ardon. "Although this is a normal process in response to an injury or an infection, sometimes inflammation can turn into a chronic process and actually be widespread throughout the body."

Celery is also a good source of both types of dietary fiber, soluble and insoluble. A study funded by the <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/">National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute</a> revealed that simply eating more fiber can be critical for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-training-weight-loss/">weight loss</a>. Fiber absorbs water in the digestive tract and reduces food cravings by making you feel fuller longer.

"A simplified approach to weight reduction emphasizing only increased fiber intake may be a reasonable alternative for persons with difficulty adhering to more complicated diet regimens," wrote the study authors. 

Celery is 95 percent water, which means that incorporating it into a daily diet increases levels of hydration. Staying hydrated not only increases the body's energy levels, but also improves mood and brain function. 

"In theory, a liquid that boosts mood, helps the body function properly and gets rid of excess toxins should be the go-to strategy for better health. But despite the fact that it's essential to survive - and that the body's made up of 60 percent of it - water often becomes a forgotten nutrient," wrote experts at the Mayo Clinic.

A growing collection of research suggests that celery is also helpful in lowering blood pressure and cholesterol. 

"Regular consumption of celery can help protect cardiovascular health," said Dr. Nandi. "Moreover, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of celery make it an ideal food for patients with high cholesterol levels and blood pressure, as well as heart disease. Celery also has numerous amazing benefits for skin, liver, eye and cognitive health."

As far back as the Middle Ages, wild celery was used to treat anxiety, insomnia, and arthritis. In fact, for thousands of years, celery was used more for medicinal purposes than for cooking.

Native to the Mediterranean region, the celery plant was considered an aphrodisiac by Greeks and Romans. It was believed to induce arousal by stimulating the pituitary gland, which is key in releasing sexual hormones. According to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/">National Geographic</a>, the legendary Italian lover Giacomo Casanova ate celery to ensure sexual stamina.

In ancient Greece, celery was used to worship the dead and the underworld divinities. Dark celery leaves were used to make garlands for the deceased. Egyptians used celery in celebrations associated with the cult of the dead as well, and garlands of celery leaves were found in the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Today, the most straightforward benefit of adding celery to a daily diet is that it is practically calorie-free. Meanwhile, experts continue to identify the positive health effects of celery and its role in lowering the risk of death by the world's two leading causes, heart disease and cancer.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/OlesyaSH

A celery stalk a day may help keep heart disease and cancer away

Celery is often disregarded as nothing more than a disposable...

A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/university/">University of Würzburg</a> has identified an ion channel that helps to facilitate plant communication. The function of the TPC1 ion channel was previously unknown, and this new discovery may ultimately lead to the development of more resilient <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/gene-grow-productive-crops/">crops</a>.

The cells and tissues in grain plants communicate through electrical signals, just like humans. Certain features of the signals, such as the frequency, enable the plants to respond to heat and cold, excessive light, or insect pests.

The JMU team was led by biophysicist Professor Rainer Hedrich, who was the first to uncover the existence of the TPC1 ion channel in the mid-1980s. Over the years that followed, he extensively studied and described the channel. 

The current study has revealed that TPC1 plays an important role in exciting the membrane which encloses the central vacuole of plant cells. The vacuole is an enclosed cavity that serves the primary purpose of storing nutrients.

When a leaf is wounded, a calcium wave is triggered within the leaf along with the electrical signal. In plants with a defective TPC1, the calcium wave was found to travel more slowly or not at all. "This finding led us to study the properties of the vacuole using the patch clamp technique," said Professor Hedrich.

[caption id="attachment_1874044" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ion-channel.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874044" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ion-channel.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="212" /></a> The TPC1 ion channel in the vacuole membrane (yellow), Image Credit: Dawid Jaslan, University of Würzburg[/caption]

The researchers discovered that vacuoles lacking TPC1 cannot be excited by the calcium wave or the electrical charge.

"We also asked ourselves when the calcium-dependent TPC1 functions occurred in plants for the first time," said Professor Hedrich. "Now we aim to find out whether TPC1 is also responsible for the excitability in early ancestors of our crops and whether implanting algae or moss TPC1 is capable of healing the functional failure in mutants of modern crop plants."

According to the study, the individual channel functions often develop differently among members of the same plant families. The team plans to investigate the reason for these differences on a molecular level.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists identify an ion channel that is critical for plant communication

A team of researchers at the University of Würzburg has...

Scientists identify two genes involved in the growth and greening of plants. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) created mutant plants to get a better understanding of plant cells, including how they coordinate growth and development. The study has uncovered a cellular communication pathway that has eluded experts for decades. 

Specialized light-sensitive proteins in the retina enable humans to see. In plants, these proteins are called phytochromes and are mainly concentrated in the nucleus, which is the control center for cellular activity. 

The photosynthesis process that fuels <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plant-virus-pest-free/">plant growth</a> is initiated when light hits the phytochromes in the nucleus. A signal is then sent from the nucleus to a plastid, which informs the small organelle to transform itself into a chloroplast. This results in the production of the green pigment chlorophyll.

The lab of Meng Chen, an associate professor of Cell Biology at UCR, is one of the few laboratories in the world focused on phytochrome communications.

"The nucleus is like the federal government of the cell, while a sub-organ called the plastid functions more like the state," said Professor Chen. "Until now, we did not know how the nucleus sent the 'turn green' command to the plastids, telling them to activate their photosynthesis genes."

In the past, scientists have faced the challenge of determining which of the 25,000 nuclear genes is responsible for regulating the cell's greening process. The UCR team theorized that the same genes involved in plant greening must be involved in other processes as well. "The regulator we were looking for would control both qualities, height and color," explained Professor Chen.

The researchers chemically altered a small flowering plant so that it was unable to manufacture chloroplasts, even when exposed to light. The team discovered that some of the mutant plants were tall and albino, which were also qualities needed to test their theory. 

By comparing the DNA of these mutants to the DNA of the unaltered wild plant, the experts were able to identify two genes responsible for regulating greening. "Plants without either of these genes fail to respond to light, becoming tall and albino seedlings," said study first author and molecular biologist Chan Yul Yoo.

A better understanding of the mechanisms which control chloroplast development could lead to new technologies to improve crop yields and help plants cope with climate change. 

In addition, the findings will be helpful for research focused on what facilitates the cell death associated with cancer. Professor Chen's laboratory is funded by the National Institutes of Health because of such implications for cancer research. 

"Uncovering the nucleus-chloroplast communication pathway in plants could yield new insights into gene expression in human cells and its misregulation in cancers," said Professor Chen.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Chan Yul Yoo / UC Riverside

Scientists identify two genes involved in the growth and greening of plants

Scientists identify two genes involved in the growth and greening...

Genetic mutation made almonds enjoyable to eat. These days, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/almonds-fertility-sperm-quality/">almonds</a> are known as a tasty snack with numerous health benefits, as they are packed with antioxidants and Vitamin E and also help lower cholesterol.   

But the almonds we eat today are almost nothing like the wild, bitter almonds that grew during and before the Holocene era. 

After mapping out the complete genome of the almond, a team of international researchers, led by Raquel Sánchez-Pérez, found that a point mutation in the almond’s genes made them sweet and edible. 

Wild species of almond taste bitter and unsafe to eat due to their toxic cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin. However, when early humans began domesticating the almond tree during the early Holocene period, they domesticated the sweet, edible almond genotypes, which actually were spawned from the inedible species.

To figure out how the sweet almond came about, Sánchez-Pérez and colleagues completed the almond’s genome to reveal the split from bitter to sweet almond species. Sweet kernel almonds contain a cluster of transcription factors, including bHLH2, believed to be responsible for regulating the production of the toxic compound amygdalin. 

However, a mutation in bHLH2 prevents the production of amygdalin, which therefore produces the sweet almond genotype.

This sweet almond was actively selected for domestication during ancient times, and has carried through to today.

The study is published in <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/364/6445/1095">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetic mutation made almonds enjoyable to eat

Genetic mutation made almonds enjoyable to eat. These days, almonds...

Cannabis – more colloquially known as “<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/marijuana-enhances-sex-women/">marijuana</a>,” among other names – has been at the center of major discussions involving politics and healthcare in recent years. The once-illicit plant is rapidly becoming legalized for both medicinal and recreational use in areas across the US and Europe. But while this plant may be rather popular, not much is known about the early use and eventual cultivation of cannabis for its psychoactive and medicinal properties.

Previously, there was little archaeological or historical evidence of the use of marijuana in the ancient world. But a new study published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a> has found psychoactive compounds preserved in 2,500-year-old funerary incense burners from the Jirzankal Cemetery in the eastern Pamirs of Asia.

It was known that cannabis plants were cultivated in East Asia for their oily seeds and fiber from at least 4000 BC. But these early varieties of the plant had low levels of THC and other cannabinoid compounds with psychoactive properties. In an effort to identify the function of ancient wooden burners found by archaeologists excavating in the mountainous regions of eastern China, an international research team used gas chromatography mass spectrometry to identify compounds preserved in the burners. 

They were surprised to find that the chemical signature of the isolated compounds was an exact match to the chemical signature of cannabis. In addition, the signature also showed that these ancient plants had a higher level of THC than is normally found in wild cannabis plants.

“The findings support the idea that cannabis plants were first used for their psychoactive compounds in the mountainous regions of eastern Central Asia, thereafter spreading to other regions of the world,” says Nicole Boivin, Director at the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a>.

[caption id="attachment_1873843" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/brazier.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1873843" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/brazier.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="433" /></a> Brazier and burnt stones in ancient Pamirs. Image Credit: Xinhua Wu[/caption]

The researchers believe that these findings show how the high-elevation mountain passes of Central and Eastern Asia played a major role in early trans-Eurasian exchange. The Pamir region may have once been alongside the ancient trade route known as the Silk Road.

“The exchange routes of the early Silk Road functioned more like the spokes of a wagon wheel than a long-distance road, placing Central Asia at the heart of the ancient world,” explains Robert Spengler, the lead archaeobotanist for the study. “Our study implies that knowledge of cannabis smoking and specific high-chemical-producing varieties of the cannabis plant were among the cultural traditions that spread along these exchange routes.”

Despite the findings, it is still unclear whether the people buried at Jirzankal were using it for anything more than as a ritualistic burning to commemorate their dead. If cannabis played other roles in their society, further research will be needed to uncover any evidence. 

However, Boivin states that “given the modern political climate surrounding the use of cannabis, archaeological studies like this can help us to understand the origins of contemporary cultural practice and belief structures – which, in turn, can inform policy.” 

"Modern perspectives on cannabis vary tremendously cross-culturally, but it is clear that the plant has a long history of human use, medicinally, ritually, and recreationally, over countless millennia," Dr. Spengler added.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Robert Spengler

Did ancient cultures also use marijuana for its psychoactive effects?

Cannabis – more colloquially known as “marijuana,” among other names...

Scientists identify a gene that can be used to grow more productive crops. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has identified a gene that can be manipulated to help produce higher <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/us-crop-yields-heat-stress/">crop yields</a>. This particular gene may be key to increasing the efficiency of how proteins and other nutrients are transported between different parts of plants. 

The work is shedding new light on the factors that influence how organic nutrients are distributed within plants, which may ultimately lead to ways that these nutrients can be directed to specific areas for breeding more productive crops.

The gene affects nutrient transport by altering plasmodesmata, or channels that connect neighboring plant cells. These narrow channels pass through the cell walls and allow the transfer of substances between adjacent cells. Scientists identify a gene that can be used to grow more productive crops

The phloem is tissue located at the tips of plant roots that is specialized for long distance transport. In Arabidopsis thaliana mutant plants, the phloem unloading modulator (PLM) gene was found to have direct control of the amount of substances released by the tissue. To investigate, the team analyzed the activity taking place at different cell interfaces in the roots of seedling plants.

"We found that mutating PLM relieves a trafficking bottleneck, that was previously reducing the outward movement of nutrients from the vascular system to the rapidly growing tissues in the roots," explained study lead author Dr. Dawei Yan.

"PLM is specifically acting at the interface between the phloem pole pericycle (PPP) and endodermal cells, an interface important for the radial movement of substances after unloading. Removing PLM gene activity could enable plants to more rapidly and efficiently transport nutrients to where they are needed."

Further investigation showed that PLM is involved in the biosynthesis of sphingolipids, a class of lipids associated with plant development and environmental response. The researchers also used electron tomography to create a 3D map of the plasmodesmata to determine whether PLM had any influence on the structure of these tiny channels. 

"This allowed us to detect fine alterations to the plasmodesmal architecture. We found equal proportions of simple and branched plasmodesmata in both the plm mutant and wild type plants. However, plants without PLM only had Type I plasmodesmata, rather than the two types normally found," said study second author and Andrea Paterlini.

"Previous models have assumed that the size of the cytoplasmic sleeve (the spacing between endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membranes in plasmodesmata) would positively correlate with transport capacity. The results of our paper challenge this and show that Type I plasmodesmata, those with a very narrow cytoplasmic sleeve, are actually more conductive than Type II plasmodesmata, which have an open cytoplasmic sleeve."

"There are still many new questions to be answered for future research, such as, how and why plasmodesmata that lack cytoplasmic sleeves have higher rates of trafficking and how the metabolism of sphingolipids is mechanistically related to the function of PLM," explained Professor Yrjö Helariutta.

"However, this research has advanced our understanding of the factors regulating plant nutrient transport. There is an urgent need to develop crops with increased nutrient efficiency, both to reduce the use of fertilisers and to increase the yield of crops. We may eventually be able to use this information about nutrient transport to more efficiently partition nutrients between various organs and direct nutrients from stems and leaves to fruit and storage organs."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists identify a gene that can be used to grow more productive crops

Scientists identify a gene that can be used to grow...

Box caterpillars are wreaking havoc in English hedgerows. The box caterpillar, Cydalima perspectalis, is making quick work of England’s hedgerows as the pest has made the top of the Royal Horticultural Society’s “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-temps-rise-stink-bugs/">most wanted list</a>.” 

Native to East Asia, the caterpillar was first spotted in Europe in 2007 and was discovered in the UK in 2011. Now there are reports of box caterpillars all across Wales, Scotland, Ireland and Northern Ireland as well as in Britain. 

In its larval stage, the box caterpillar is a menace to box plants which adorn many stately home gardens and are often used for topiary displays and hedgerows. Box caterpillars are wreaking havoc in English hedgerows 

Cydalima perspetalis can strip a box plant bare, and unfortunately, the invasive species are running free. While feeding on the leaves of box plants, the caterpillar covers itself and its feeding area in a blanket of webbing. 

There are limited options for controlling and eradicating the pest, and homeowners are instructed to simply remove them from plants by hand. 

Box caterpillars have destroyed large areas of wild box plants and many UK homeowners are rightfully concerned about the potential damage the pests could inflict on their iconic hedges.  If the caterpillars spread to wild trees in the UK, box plants could be at risk of being completely wiped out. 

“We have 4.5 million members, who are allowed to ask us questions,” Stephanie Bird, an entomologist of the <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/">Royal Horticultural Society</a>, told <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/invader-has-gardens-on-the-hedge-of-oblivion-35kr3chrn">The Times</a>. “Based on the questions we work out the number one inquiry. Historically slugs and snails are always top. This year it is set to be the box caterpillar.”

In their native regions, box caterpillar populations are kept in check thanks to hornets who feed on the bugs. 

<a href="https://www.ebts.org/">European Boxwood and Topiary Association</a> are continually monitoring the plants, and the Royal Horticultural Society is working to find effective methods to safely eliminate and control invasions. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Floki

Box caterpillars are wreaking havoc in English hedgerows

Box caterpillars are wreaking havoc in English hedgerows. The box...

New formula discovered for mapping leaf patterns. The patterns of leaf arrangements in nature has been a source of fascination for both scientists and artists. Just think of how many images you’ve seen of the Fibonacci golden angle spirals of plants such as the succulent spiral aloe. 

The exact details of how plants are able to control their leaf arrangement has always been a mystery in botany. But recent research involving a Japanese plant species with a particular leaf pattern has revealed new insights into how almost all plants determine leaf arrangement.New formula discovered for mapping leaf patterns 

In measuring the leaf arrangement of a plant species, botanists measure the angle between leaves, going up the stem from the oldest to the most recent leaf. The most common patterns are symmetrical, and have <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/medieval-people-ferns-colds-dandruff/">leaves</a> arranged at intervals of 90 degrees, 180 degrees, or in Fibonacci golden angle spirals.

[caption id="attachment_1873596" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/common-leaf-patterns.png"><img class="wp-image-1873596" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/common-leaf-patterns.png" alt="" width="650" height="273" /></a> Common leaf arrangement patterns, Image by Takaaki Yonekura[/caption]

The pattern studied by a research team led by Associate Professor Munetaka Sugiyama from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a>'s Koishikawa Botanical Garden is called “orixate.” The pattern is named after the species Orixa japonica, which is a shrub native to Japan, China, and the Korean peninsula. The angles between the leaves on this plant are 180 degrees, 90 degrees, 180 degrees, 270 degrees, and then the next leaf resets this pattern to 180 degrees.

The research team did extensive testing of the existing mathematical equation used to model leaf arrangement. This equation is known as Douady and Couder 2 (DC2) and has been in use since 1996. This equation can generate many of the leaf arrangement patterns we observe in nature. But some of the more uncommon leaf arrangement patterns cannot be calculated by this equation. There are four unrelated plant species that have the orixate leaf arrangement patterns, which has led researchers to suspect that this pattern can be created using the fundamental genetic and cellular machinery that all plants share. 

The DC2 equation makes the fundamental assumption that leaves emit a constant signal to inhibit the growth of other leaves nearby and that the signal gets weaker at longer distances. “We changed this one fundamental assumption – inhibitory power is not constant, but in fact changes with age,” explains Sugiyama. “We tested both increasing and decreasing inhibitory power with greater age and saw that the peculiar orixate pattern was calculated when older leaves had a stronger inhibitory effect.”

[caption id="attachment_1873597" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/orixate.png"><img class="wp-image-1873597" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/orixate.png" alt="" width="650" height="583" /></a> Orixate pattern leaf arrangement, Image Credit: Takaaki Yonekura, Akitoshi Iwamoto, and Munetaka Sugiyama[/caption]

This insight that inhibitory signal power changes with age could be used to direct future studies of plant development. The resulting new equation is called the Expanded Douady and Couder 2, or EDC2. “We developed the new model to explain one peculiar leaf arrangement pattern,” says Sugiyama. “But in fact, it more accurately reflects not only the nature of one specific plant, but the range of diversity of almost all leaf arrangement patterns observed in nature.”

But there is still work to be done to design an equation that incorporates all leaf patterns that exist in nature. “There are other very unusual leaf arrangement patterns that are still not explained by our new formula,” Sugiyama says. “We are now trying to design a new concept that can explain all known patterns of leaf arrangement, not just almost all patterns.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New formula discovered for mapping leaf patterns

New formula discovered for mapping leaf patterns. The patterns of...

Using genomic data examined using both phylogenetic and population genetic approaches, a team of researchers were finally able to track down the origins of the Persian walnut (Juglans regia), prized for its hardwood and rich nuts. 

Persian walnut is grown primarily in China, California, Turkey, and Iran. However, fossil records point to the walnut being native to North America, with two walnut species — black walnuts and butternuts (white walnuts) — having cropped up about 35 to 45 million years ago.

This new research, though, shows that the Persian walnut is the result of a hybridization between two extinct <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/eatings-nuts-lower-cardiovascular-risk/">walnut</a> species, which occurred about 3.45 million years ago.

The team’s previous analyses of about 19 species of walnut never showed a link between North American, Asian, and Persian walnut species. But they excluded incomplete lineage sorting as the cause of the phylogenetic uncertainty.

"This led us to speculate that ancient hybridization might be involved in the origin of the Persian walnut and the American butternut," said co-senior author Da-Yong Zhang, a population geneticist.

So, the team then used whole-genome sequencing from 80 individual trees, which represented 19 of the 22 species of Juglans, to test their hybridization theory.

"We applied a battery of genome-wide methods for hybridization detection and to test speciation models to infer the time of origin of the Persian walnut," said co-senior author Wei-Ning Bai. "In the end, we characterized the genetic composition of the genomes of not only the Persian walnut, but also the Iron walnut, J. sigillata, and the American butternut, J. cinerea."

[caption id="attachment_1873485" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/persian-walnut.png"><img class="wp-image-1873485" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/persian-walnut.png" alt="" width="650" height="227" /></a> Three different walnut species: J. mandshurica (Manchurian), J. nigra (black) and J. regia (Persian), Image Credit: Department of Biology, Systematic Botany and Mycology, University of Munich (LMU), Munich, Germany[/caption]

Based on walnut fruit fossils and the newly-discovered genomic evidence, by the late Oligocene era, “[walnuts] must have expanded from America to Europe and then spread to Asia and further expanded into Europe, where the black walnut and butternut lineages came into contact and hybridized some 3.45 Ma ago,” the authors continued. “While walnuts diversified in Asia and the New World, they were lost from Europe during the Pleistocene climate oscillations, with eventually only the newly formed hybrid lineage that gave rise to J. regia surviving."

"All of our genome-wide analyses converged to provide unambiguous evidence of hybridization at the roots of both the American butternut (J. cinerea) and the Persian walnut (J. regia/J. sigillata)," the authors said. "Our results further resolve the controversy concerning the origin of the American butternut, J. cinerea, which turns out to result from massive nuclear gene introgression involving an American black walnut through pollen swamping by an immigrating Asian butternut."

"The genomic mosaicism of both the Persian walnut (incl. J. sigillata) and the American butternut J. cinerea provides evidence for the importance of hybridization throughout the evolution of walnuts," concluded the authors.

The findings are published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists finally determine the origins of the Persian walnut

Using genomic data examined using both phylogenetic and population genetic...

Experts at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> have determined that the heat stress associated with climate change will play a larger role in reducing the yields of major U.S. crops than the stress induced by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/drought-ozone-pollution-levels/">droughts</a>. This topic has been the subject of a high-stakes debate among climate scientists and crop experts. 

"There is a big divide in this field, and we thought there must be some way to resolve this puzzle," said study co-author Ariel Ortiz-Bobea, who is an assistant professor of Applied Economics and Management. Understanding which factor will have the biggest impact on crops has major implications for crop management as well as plant breeding.

Based on decades of data from the government and other sources, the researchers developed a statistical crop yield model for maize, cotton, sorghum, soybeans, spring wheat, and winter wheat.

The study revealed that soil moisture was the single best predictor of annual variations in crop yield over the past four decades. Harvests were found to be particularly sensitive to drought stress in the middle of the growing season.

The researchers applied their statistical model to climate change scenarios ranging from mild to severe. The model predicted that temperature, or heat stress, will be the primary climatic driver of crop yields in 2050 and 2100. Under the least severe climate conditions, yields for the six crops are expected to decrease by up to 19 percent. The most severe conditions would reduce the same yields by up to 48 percent.

Study co-author Professor Toby Ault explained that climate change projections show many of the food-producing counties in the United States becoming drier in the summer, even if rainfall increases. 

"The work highlights two major challenges for adapting to a changing climate," said Professor Ault. "First, how do we deal with increases in temperature that through higher evaporation rates could surpass increases in precipitation? And second, how can we start to envision an agricultural system of the 21st century that is equipped to handle the remarkable shifts in seasonality that might occur?"

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/erl">Environmental Research Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

US crop yields will be more impacted by heat stress than drought

Experts at Cornell University have determined that the heat stress...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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