Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. 



The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use.



In this work, a team at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen conditions.



The study extends earlier proof-of-concept in rice, with efforts underway to translate the approach to other staple cereals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthetic-nitrogen-fuels-global-harvests">Synthetic nitrogen fuels global harvests</h2>



Worldwide, synthetic nitrogen fuels modern harvests but at a steep environmental and economic price. Wheat alone accounts for about 18 percent of global nitrogen fertilizer use. Of the hundreds of millions of tons produced each year, plants capture only 30 to 50 percent.



The remainder washes into rivers and coasts, feeding oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/">dead zones</a>, or escapes as nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. For smallholder farmers, especially in low-income regions, cost and access make fertilizer a gamble.



“In Africa, people don't use fertilizers because they don’t have money, and farms are small, not larger than six to eight acres,” Blumwald said. “Imagine, you are planting crops that stimulate bacteria in the soil to create the fertilizer that the crops need, naturally. Wow! That’s a big difference!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wheat-learns-microbes-nitrogen-trick">Wheat learns microbes’ nitrogen trick</h2>



Nitrogen fixation is carried out by specialized bacteria using an enzyme called nitrogenase, which only functions in low-oxygen conditions. Legumes such as beans and peas solve this by hosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-root-microbiomes-like-humans-do-vital-for-survival-defense/">microbes</a> in root nodules, which are tiny oxygen-poor chambers. 



Cereals like wheat lack nodules, which is why they rely on bagged nitrogen. Rather than trying to give cereals nodules or force microbes to colonize roots - a strategy that has long struggled to stick - the team flipped the problem.



The researchers screened roughly 2,800 plant-made chemicals and found a small set, including flavones, that prompt soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">bacteria</a> to form protective biofilms. Those sticky microbial coats reduce oxygen exposure enough for nitrogenase to work.



“For decades, scientists have been trying to develop cereal crops that produce active root nodules, or trying to colonize cereals with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, without much success. We used a different approach,” Blumwald said.



“We said the location of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria is not important, so long as the fixed nitrogen can reach the plant, and the plant can use it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edit-flips-fertilizer-switch">Gene edit flips fertilizer switch</h2>



Using CRISPR, the researchers boosted wheat’s production of apigenin, a common flavone. Plants kept what they needed and exuded the surplus through their roots.



In soil tests, the extra apigenin encouraged local bacteria to spin up biofilms, protecting nitrogenase, fixing nitrogen, and making ammonium available for the crop. In low-fertility conditions, edited wheat assimilated the microbially supplied nitrogen and outyielded control plants.



The amazing thing lies in what the plant does automatically. It manufactures the signal, leaks it when nitrogen is scarce, and benefits from the neighborhood effect. No external inoculants are required, and the microbes remain free-living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">soil</a> rather than locked inside a root.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-down-resilience-up"><a></a>Pollution down, resilience up</h2>



If scaled, the approach could trim the fertilizer footprint that drives water pollution and climate forcing in wheat and other crops. Less soluble nitrogen applied to fields means less runoff during storms, smaller algal blooms, and fewer oxygen crashes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">lakes</a> and coastal zones. 



Cutting back on industrial nitrogen also reduces upstream emissions from natural-gas-intensive fertilizer production.



Because the mechanism amplifies microbial activity already present in many soils, it may also help stabilize yields under input constraints. In places where fertilizer is scarce or prohibitively expensive, the crop’s own chemistry becomes a lever to unlock atmospheric nitrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-saved-with-less-fertilizer">Billions saved with less fertilizer</h2>



The United States alone saw nearly $36 billion in fertilizer spending in 2023. Cereals cover close to 500 million acres nationally. Even modest reductions in inputs translate into real money while lowering risk in volatile markets.



“Imagine, if you could save 10 percent of the amount of fertilizer being used on that land,” Blumwald said. “I’m calculating conservatively: That should be a savings of more than a billion dollars every year.”



Those savings would not come solely from buying less nitrogen. Fewer passes to apply fertilizer mean lower fuel use and less soil compaction. Reduced losses to waterways could also ease regulatory pressure and improve community relations in vulnerable watersheds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-stability-across-soil-types">Proving stability across soil types</h2>



The road from greenhouse pots to farm fields is long, but the milestones are clear. Researchers will need to confirm that the nitrogen boost holds under diverse soils, climates, and microbiomes, and that it plays nicely with existing rotations and management. 



They will need to show stable performance across seasons and varieties, measure effects on soil ecology, and ensure that yields and grain quality are maintained.



Because the edit increases a native metabolite rather than introducing a foreign gene, regulatory pathways may be more straightforward in some jurisdictions. Still, farmers and policymakers will want transparent data on environmental outcomes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-solar-power-can-transform-urine-into-fertilizer/">fertilizer</a> savings, and return on investment.



If the results scale, gene-edited cereals like wheat that recruit their own microbial fertilizer factories could become a practical tool in the nitrogen toolbox - cutting costs where budgets are tight, trimming pollution where waters run foul, and building resilience in the breadbaskets of a warming world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pbi.70289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.



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Gene-edited wheat turns soil microbes into fertilizer

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use. In this work, a team at the University of California, Davis, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used CRISPR to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen...

Tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, tobacco, mandrake, and datura are close relatives. They are all members of the infamous nightshade family (Solanaceae.) Many of its members are actually deadly toxic. Some have been used to create psychoactive brews and potions. Others were Shakespeare's poison of choice. This has led to their association with witchcraft and evil. However, nightshades also include some of the world’s most popular foods. 

This contrast reveals the complexity of this plant family. What is clear is that the nightshades have played a large role in many cultures. The foods, drugs, and poisons derived from this family have played essential roles at key moments in history.

The infamy of Solanaceae is well deserved, so let’s take a closer look at a few of this family’s most interesting and famous historical cameos.
<h2>A Witch’s Flying Ointments</h2>
Flying ointments are herbal preparations associated with “witchcraft.” They are theorized to be the historical origin of the trope of a “witch on a broomstick”.

These preparations were psychoactive oil-based extracts or salves. They were likely an <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20411/20411-h/20411-h.htm">important element of pre-Christian European religions and medicine.</a> Along with other traditional religious practices, these were <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juergen_Mueller4/publication/13509181_Love_Potions_and_the_Ointment_of_Witches_Historical_Aspects_of_the_Nightshade_Alkaloids/links/595b7ee0458515117741a0d2/Love-Potions-and-the-Ointment-of-Witches-Historical-Aspects-of-the-Nightshade-Alkaloids.pdf">characterized as evil witchcraft</a> during the middle ages and since. This has led to the amalgamation of what was likely a diverse religious history in Northern Europe into the simplified concept of “witchcraft.”

These practices were a combination of religion and traditional medicine. Many drugs derived from these “witches herbs” are <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682509.html">still in use in modern medicine</a>. 

Much of what we know about these preparations is tainted by Christian witch trials. Surviving recipes and samples of flying ointments show they contained animal fats and herbs. These include <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0015587X.1977.9716057?journalCode=rfol20">hallucinogenic and toxic nightshades</a> such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/mandragora/">mandrake</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/atropa-belladonna-belladonna/">deadly nightshade</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/hyoscyamus/">henbane</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/datura/">datura</a>. The use of these herbs likely induced trance-like states in which users felt sensations of flight and transformation.

These preparations were applied to the skin as well as <a href="https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/sites/default/files/280306_a_lee.pdf">permeable mucous membranes including the vagina and anus</a>. This route of administration likely <a href="https://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1947026">contributed to stories of female witches flying on broomsticks</a>. The Catholic magisterium, sexual chastity, and patriarchy were likely <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20411/20411-h/20411-h.htm">threatened by these practices</a>. These are some of the earliest uses of nightshades in Europe.
<h2>Henbane Makes Strong Pilsen Beer</h2>
Plants in Solanaceae were added to beer in place of hops in many traditional recipes. Henbane is called “bilsenkraut” in German. This is the root of the name “Pilsen,” the Czech city where Pilsners were created. In order to increase the apparent intoxication of beer, <a href="https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/sites/default/files/280306_a_lee.pdf">henbane was traditionally included in Pilsen beer</a>. Nightshades were a common beer additive.

This practice was eventually made illegal due to the high risk of fatal intoxication from henbane. The “Reinheitsgebot” laws were created in the early 16th century to <a href="http://www.private-brauereien.de/de/reinheitsgebot/was-ist-das-reinheitsgebot-von-1516/index.php">limit the ingredients</a> in beer to water, barley, and hops. This notably excludes yeast since its role was not yet known.
<h2>Hamlet’s Father Was Poisoned by Henbane</h2>
In Shakespeare's classic tragedy “Hamlet,” the bard writes in Hamlet’s father’s voice:

“Sleeping within my orchard,

My custom always of the afternoon,

Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole

With juice of cursed hebenon in a vial,

And in the porches of my ears did pour

The leperous distilment, whose effect

Holds such an enmity with blood of man...”

<a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140416-do-shakespeares-poisons-work">It has been conjectured that the “hebenon” Shakespeare mentions is an extract of henbane</a>. 

However, this work of fiction takes some liberties with the particulars of the poison’s effects.
<h2>Bacon’s Rebellion, Jamestown, 1676</h2>
In 1676, British soldiers were sent to the colony of Jamestown to prevent an uprising. They were not there long before many of the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WnaDEZwMAyMC&amp;pg=PA89#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">soldiers ate a salad of datura leaves</a>. American historian Robert Beverly, JR. wrote: “they turned natural fools upon it for several days.” This event led to a common name for datura, Jimsonweed. This is a <a href="https://www.neatorama.com/2016/09/12/Jimsonweed-and-Jamestown/">mispronunciation of “Jamestown Weed.”</a>
<h2>Tobacco</h2>
Tobacco (<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/nicotiana-tabacum/">Nicotiana spp.</a>) is another addictive and toxic herb in the Solanaceae family. Occurring natively in the Americas, this plant has a long history of use by native groups. It contains a complex mixture of bio-active chemicals. The most notable of these is the stimulant nicotine. Nicotine has become one of the most popular drugs in the world. As a result, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fast_facts/index.htm">tobacco use now causes 7 million deaths per year</a> around the world.

Tobacco also produces harmala alkaloids. These compounds act as MAOIs, modifying the body's metabolism of neurotransmitters and drugs. This can contribute to the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/25/38/8593.full.pdf">addictiveness of tobacco</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2849634/">and other drugs</a>.
<h2>Europe Was Terrified of the Tomato</h2>
After Europeans discovered tomatoes in the new world, they were brought back to Europe. However, they quickly became known as “poison apples.” This was because nobles who ate them were becoming mysteriously ill. Since these plants were in the same family as many poisons, the tomato was blamed.

In reality, the culprit was lead. Royals often ate off pewter plates. When these were exposed to the acidity of tomatoes, they leached lead. This lead poisoning was <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/why-the-tomato-was-feared-in-europe-for-more-than-200-years-863735/">leading to the sickness and death associated with tomatoes</a>.
<h2>The Hottest Plants</h2>
Peppers are another group of edible nightshades. The link between deadly poisonous nightshades and tear-inducing peppers may seem natural. However, the primary spice causing chemical, capsaicin, is unrelated to the toxic tropane and solanine alkaloids. 

Capsaicin is found throughout the genus <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/capsicum/">Capsicum</a>, from which it gets its name. These spicy peppers are essential to many cultures' modern cuisines. However, they are only native to the “New Word.” Their powerful flavors have led them to be quickly adopted for many dishes.
<h2>A Model of A Plant</h2>
Today, Solanaceae still plays an essential role in our society. In addition to being the family of many extremely popular foods, these plants are popular amongst scientists. 

Tobacco and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/calibrachoa-parviflora/">petunias</a> are both used as “model organisms.” This means that many experiments are first tried on these plants. Because of their widespread cultivation, they are easily grown in repeatable ways. This makes them a good choice for answering basic questions about biology.

--

By <a href="mailto:writing@caseyhofford.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Candus Camera

Why tomatoes, peppers and other nightshades have such an infamous reputation

Tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, tobacco, mandrake, and datura are close relatives....

Soil transplants could be the key to building up disease resistance in vegetable crops, new research suggests. 

Bacterial wilt disease, which is caused by the pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum, can infect several plant species including tomato and potato crops. In China, Indonesia, and Africa, the disease had led to severe economic losses.

One mysterious aspect of the disease is that it can leave some plants perfectly healthy and infect others nearby. Like a patchy but aggressive rash, bacterial wilt doesn’t affect the whole crop but instead seems to pick and choose which plants to attack. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a> along with an international team of collaborators from China and the Netherlands wondered if this patchiness had anything to do with the soil and whether certain microbes were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-microbes-communicate-battle/">protecting the plant from infection</a>. 

“Even though we have discovered that the pathogen is present everywhere in tomato fields, it is not capable of infecting all the plants,” said Dr. Ville Friman, a member of the research team. “We wanted to understand if this spatial variation could be explained by differences in soil bacterial communities.” 

The researchers used a novel experimental approach to analyze soil microbiomes and bacterial wilt plant resistance. 

By repeatedly sampling individual plants before and after disease symptoms started to manifest, the researchers were able to compare healthy and infected plant microbiomes. 

Rare pathogen-suppressing bacteria were present in the microbiomes of the healthy plants that resisted infection, showing potential pathways for improving disease resistance in crops worldwide. 

“We found that improved disease resistance could be transferred to the next plant generation along with the soil transplants analogous to faecal transplants used in medicine,” said Dr. Friman. “Our results show that it is important to focus not only the pathogen but also the naturally-occurring beneficial micro-organisms present in the rhizosphere.”

The researchers are working on testing different microbes to see which ones could be used to make a soil “probiotic” that adds healthy bacteria to the soil. 

The study was published in the journal Science Advances.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Ville Friman

Soil microbes can increase disease resistance in plants

Soil transplants could be the key to building up disease...

‘Sheep-eating plant’ appears in a flowerbed in the UK. A predatory plant recently spotted in Cornwall has a frightening way of feeding on animals by trapping them with sharp leaves and waiting for them to die. Puya chilensis, also known as the "sheep-eating plant," is native to the hillsides of the Chilean Andes and is an unusual sight in the UK.

The South American plant has razor-sharp hooked spines that are growing on its leaves from the ground up. The spines are thought to have evolved as a defense strategy, yet it seems that Puyas can use these spikes offensively as well. 

When <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chilean-plant-murdered-sheep/">sheep</a>, goats, birds, and other animals get their fur hooked on the spines, they become trapped and starve to death. The decomposing bodies release nutrients into the soil surrounding Puya that support its growth. The smell of the decomposition often attracts other animals, which also become potential prey for Puya.

Truro county gardener Liam Shoesmith announced that he had spotted the plant growing in a flower bed in the city center while speaking on <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds">BBC Radio</a> Cornwall’s Garden Line.

"I was amazed when I saw it - it was a very, very impressive plant. I used to sell them in pots when I worked in a nursery so to see one flower was fantastic," said Shoesmith.

P. chilensis grows very slowly, ultimately reaching a height of about two meters. It often takes 20 years or more for Puya to flower, which is soon followed by death. Shoesmith told <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">MailOnline</a> that the plant was placed downtown deliberately by a Truro in Bloom group, and he suspects there are more Puyas living in the flower bed.

"It usually grows around the Andes where goats and sheep get their wool caught on its hooks," Shoesmith told <a href="https://www.cornwalllive.com/">Cornwall Live</a>. "They die and the nutrients seep into the ground allowing Puya to grow. It’s not quite like Little Shop of Horrors."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

‘Sheep-eating plant’ appears in a flowerbed in the UK

‘Sheep-eating plant’ appears in a flowerbed in the UK. A...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian</a> have found that marsh plants have a surprising response to higher levels of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/trees-carbon-dioxide/">carbon dioxide</a>. While it seems that plant stems would grow larger as more carbon dioxide is taken in, marsh plants actually produce more stems that are noticeably smaller.

"I don't think anybody expected this," said study lead author Professor Meng Lu. For years, scientists have observed that carbon dioxide bulks up the total biomass of marsh plants, so they naturally assumed that individual plants were also growing in size. "Everyone thought, okay, plants increased, biomass increased, so the height, width, all should increase. But that's not the case in a marsh," said Professor Lu.

At the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC) in Maryland, Professor Lu worked on a tidal marsh called the "Global Change Research Wetland," which is home to one of the world's  longest-running field experiments on climate change. The scientists have been tracking how marsh plants will grow in a world with carbon dioxide levels that are nearly twice as high as they are today.

For 30 years, experts at the Smithsonian have harvested the plants in experimental chambers, taking annual measurements of their total biomass, stems, roots, and other key traits. Based on this data, Professor Lu realized that in the high-carbon dioxide chambers, the biomass of all the marsh sedges increased by 20 percent. More stems were growing in thicker clusters, but the individual stems had unexpectedly shrunk in size by 16 percent.

The researchers determined that this unusual growth pattern was the result of increasing CO2 without increasing the availability of  nitrogen. "If we get more carbon, we need more nitrogen to feed the plants," said Professor Lu. 

Without additional nitrogen, the extra carbon dioxide causes the plants to spread their roots farther below ground in an attempt to draw more nitrogen from the soil. Because most marsh plants are "clonal," which means they can reproduce by making copies of themselves, they naturally send up more stems above ground as their roots spread. 

In chambers where the experts raised both carbon dioxide and nitrogen, the "shrinking stems" effect vanished. The extra nitrogen enabled the plants to grow more stems and to make those stems larger.

"We knew that giving plants more nitrogen favors shoot growth over root growth, and vice-versa for carbon dioxide, but we never considered what this means for the numbers and sizes of plants," said study co-author Pat Megonigal. "We think that shrinking stems may be occurring in many other ecosystems with clonal plants."

Marsh plants exposed to higher CO2 levels also grow dense roots, which enables the marsh to build soil. As a marsh accumulates more soil and its elevation goes up, it becomes more resilient to sea level rise.

"Accelerating sea level rise is a threat to marshes worldwide," said Megonigal. "The possibility that marshes will be able to trap more sediment at the same time is reason for a bit of optimism."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a>  Staff Writer

Image Credit: Gary Peresta/Smithsonian Environmental Research Center

Marsh plant stems shrink when exposed to high levels of CO2

Scientists at the Smithsonian have found that marsh plants have...

In a new study, researchers have identified a single gene in sorghum that controls bird feeding behavior by regulating the production of bad-tasting and appealing substances. The findings may ultimately lead to the development of new control strategies to protect major <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cereal-cropping/">cereal crops</a>.

"We discovered the molecular mechanism controlling bird feeding behavior on sorghum seeds," said co-senior study author Qi Xie of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 

"Beyond illustrating an example of how a field observation led to characterization of an ecologically impactful molecular mechanism, our study reveals new insights about the chemistry of bird-plant ecological interactions and suggests multiple strategies for developing new chemical- and genetic-based control measures to prevent the catastrophic yield losses caused by birds each year."

There is currently a lack of effective control measures to protect field crops from bird damage. For example, anti-bird netting may be efficient, but also requires large investments and can be harmful to birds.

Cereal crops are damaged when birds peck the seeds and suck the juice of immature seeds. This prevents many grains from fully developing, which promotes mildews and other plant diseases. 

[caption id="attachment_1878138" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/sorghum.jpeg"><img class="wp-image-1878138" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/sorghum.jpeg" alt="" width="650" height="832" /></a> Image Credit: Shijia Tang[/caption]

The cereal crops that are the most vulnerable to bird damage include wheat, barley, rice, sorghum, and millet. Sorghum alone provides a steady source of nutrition for more than 500 million people worldwide and is also an important source of biofuels. 

Sorghum yield losses caused by birds have been reported to reach as high as 52 percent. While there is evidence to suggest that bird taste preferences depend on various properties of sorghum, the underlying molecular mechanism has not been clear.

By conducting a genome-wide association study, the researchers discovered that the gene Tannin1 directly regulates bird feeding behavior. The sorghum strains that are not appealing to birds were found to contain the wild-type version of Tannin1, but the bird-preferred strains have a mutated version of the gene. 

Mass spectrometry revealed that seeds harvested from the preferred sorghum strains had reduced levels of anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins, also known as condensed tannins. At the same time, these seeds had higher levels of 9 out of the 23 detected volatile organic compounds, which are known to attract pollinators and seed dispersers. 

Through feeding experiments, the researchers found that sparrows preferred to eat untreated seeds compared to seeds soaked in solutions containing anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, or tannic acid. Both condensed tannins and tannic acid are polyphenols that have slightly acidic or bitter properties that likely interfere with the taste and digestibility of the seeds.

On the other hand, the birds were more attracted to seeds soaked in volatiles called 1-Octen-3-ol or hexanal. The findings suggest that the regulatory impacts of Tannin1 on multiple pathways of plant polyphenol and fatty-acid metabolism determine whether a given sorghum strain will be targeted by birds.

"Our discovery that Tannin1 has an enormous impact on the feeding preferences of birds will almost certainly guide molecular marker-assisted selection efforts in crop-improvement programs seeking to limit or prevent bird damage to agricultural production systems," said Xie.

"Moreover, our insights about which compounds attract birds and which compounds are distasteful to birds suggest a variety of novel control measures that could be undertaken to prevent yield losses. For example, we could chemically or genetically block the activities of enzymes in attractant volatile biosynthesis or program the condensed tannin content or use tannic acid or condensed tannins as safe, green pesticides to protect crop seeds in the field."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-plant/home">Molecular Plant</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Shaojie Jiao

A single gene controls whether sorghum seeds will taste appealing to birds

In a new study, researchers have identified a single gene...

US government grants $3 million for CBD pain relief research. The US government will spend $3 million on medical marijuana research focusing on the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-treatment-opioid-heroin-addiction/">cannabidiol (CBD)</a> and hundreds of other chemicals found in the drug. 

On Thursday, nine research grants and funding were awarded to help determine whether or not marijuana is an effective pain reliever. 

None of the grants will go to THC research, the main psychoactive component in marijuana. 

THC has been the focus of many studies, but the increased risk of addiction and abuse are too great for THC to be considered as a viable option for pain relief. 

CBD, on the other hand, does not make you “high” because it’s non-psychoactive, and has become a trendy ingredient in cosmetics and foods.  

Marijuana is still considered a controlled substance and illegal under federal law. However, more than 30 states have legalized the drug for medicinal purposes. 

Whether or not medicinal marijuana is an effective treatment option and how to avoid the psychoactive effects of THC remains poorly understood. 

“The science is lagging behind the public use and interest. We’re doing our best to catch up here,” Dr. David Shurtleff, deputy director of the <a href="https://nccih.nih.gov/">National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health</a>, told the <a href="https://apnews.com/6c7f1be6ed7a440680aada789e61b10f">Associated Press.</a> 

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health is funding the research grants. 

One of the main reasons the government is investing so much into medical marijuana research is the country-wide opioid crisis. Opioids are highly addictive but were widely prescribed and used to treat pain leading to an increase in addiction and opioid-related overdoses in recent years. 

CBD and other components of marijuana may offer innovative solutions to treat and study pain. 

Only one of the research projects awarded funding will have human test subjects. 

The study, conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a>, will involve taking brain scans of participants after ingesting a CBD extract. The researchers hope to see if the CBD extract helps with lower back pain. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

US government grants $3 million for CBD pain relief research

US government grants $3 million for CBD pain relief research....

More than 1,600 scientists have called on Congress to fully fund conservation programs and help solve the growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decreases-biodiversity-habitat-loss/">biodiversity crisis</a>. 

Currently, up to one million species are at risk of extinction, according to the latest <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Global Assessment</a>. 

Even though the US Endangered Species Act is considered the gold standard of conservation law, decades of underfunding have undercut its full potential. 

In a <a href="https://defenders-cci.org/sign-on/conservation-funding/">letter</a> published in the journal Science, researchers from the <a href="https://defenders.org/">Defenders of Wildlife </a>and universities across the US are asking Congress to fully fund conservation programs in order to prevent catastrophic biodiversity loss. 

“We are simply running out of time: Congress must act decisively to save endangered and threatened species now,” said Jamie Rappaport Clark, the president and CEO of Defenders of Wildlife in a statement. 

Less than 25 percent of the funding needed for species recovery has been provided in the past few decades. For example, of the $468 million that the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish and Wildlife Service</a> needs to implement conservation effectively, the agency receives less than half that amount each year. 

Scientists have warned that we are nearing a sixth mass extinction due to the rapid rate of wildlife declines. 

The current global biodiversity crisis demands action, and adequate funding could go a long way in protecting wildlife populations. 

“The science is clear: biodiversity faces unprecedented threats and decline, with about 1 million species at risk of extinction,” said Dr. Jacom Malcom, the lead author of the letter and Director of the Center for Conservation Innovation, Defenders of Wildlife. “Scientists stand united in the need for Congress to fully fund proven conservation programs to stem the tide of extinction. We must act now before it’s too late.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Ethan Daniels

Why conservation funding is vital to solving the biodiversity crisis

More than 1,600 scientists have called on Congress to fully...

Terrestrial plants may all use the same network to control reproductive timing. Experts have investigated the genetic structure of the liverwort, which was one of the first plants to move from the ocean onto land hundreds of millions of years ago. The study revealed that since their transition onto land, plants have likely been using the same genetic tools to regulate whether they grow bigger or reproduce. 

Like mosses, liverworts are non-vascular <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/propagate-plants/">plants</a> that do not have deep roots and thrive in moist, shaded soil. Male and female liverworts can be distinguished by unique, umbrella-shaped structures that shoot up from the base of the plant.

Study co-author Professor Yuichiro Watanabe is an expert in the Department of Life Sciences at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/index.html">University of Tokyo</a>. He explained that liverworts have "the maximum power with the least structure."

Compared to flowering plants that are more commonly the focus of lab studies, such as thale cress, the genome of the liverwort is structurally simple. Flowering plants are "younger" and have gene duplications and redundancies that make their genomes more complicated. 

Despite its simplicity, however, the liverwort genome appears to have the same life-cycle stages along with the same level of control over them. 

[caption id="attachment_1878025" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/male-and-female-liverwort.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1878025" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/male-and-female-liverwort.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="433" /></a> Male and female liverworts (left), male and female thalli (right), Tsuzuki et al., 2019[/caption]

The genome of the liverwort species Marchantia polymorpha was first sequenced in 2017 by a team which included some of the researchers involved in the current investigation. 

The new genome analysis revealed that the liverwort has about 100 different versions of molecules called microRNAs that regulate the activity of other genes. Furthermore, eight of the liverwort microRNAs were found to be nearly identical to known thale cress microRNAs. This was a significant finding because the ancestral plants that evolved into liverworts and thale cress diverged over 450 million years ago.

"So, why keep them? We want to know what those shared microRNAs are doing, and liverworts are now a convenient model for us to investigate," said Professor Watanabe.

Humans and most other mammals are equipped at birth with the cells they need to reproduce, but plants do not develop these types of cells until after they transition from the developmental vegetative stage into the reproductive stage.

One of the microRNAs that helps flowering plants control the shift to the reproductive stage, known as microRNA156/529, is one of the eight microRNAs shared between thale cress and liverworts.

To understand why this particular microRNA was conserved over so many millions of years of evolution, the researchers created a genetically modified version of liverwort that lacked microRNA156/529. These modified liverworts were found to grow reproductive cells on their vegetative tissues rather than developing the normal umbrella-shaped reproductive structures.

"This was amazing to us. Those liverworts skipped some part of the reproductive process and the body itself becomes the reproductive organ," said Professor Watanabe.Terrestrial plants may all use the same network to control reproductive timing

The research suggests that microRNA156/529 and its molecular network are part of an important control system that is potentially used by all land plants to regulate their reproductive timing.

Professor Watanabe theorizes that, in the future, farmers will be able to predict harvest times by measuring the amount of microRNA156/529 in crops. "We hope our results inspire others to develop new applications for plant reproduction."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: University of Tokyo

Terrestrial plants may all use the same network to control reproductive timing

Terrestrial plants may all use the same network to control...

Five years ago, countries and corporations got together to set huge goals on limiting deforestation. But months away from their first deadline, their promises on forest protection have fallen apart. 

In 2014, more than 190 world governments, major businesses and other groups gathered to endorse the <a href="https://nydfglobalplatform.org/">New York Declaration on Forests</a>. Their stated goals were to halve deforestation by 2020, and end it entirely by 2030.

With 2020 less than four months away, that first goal for forest protection has failed miserably. Deforestation hasn’t been cut by half or at all. In fact, it’s increased worldwide by more than 40% since 2014, according to a new <a href="https://forestdeclaration.org/">five-year assessment</a> by an international group of researchers.

With that drastic spike in deforestation, the goal to halve by the end of 2020 is likely impossible to meet, the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a> reports.

“It’s wake-up call. The situation now is more dire than five years ago,” Dr. Stephanie Roe of the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a> told the science and tech magazine.

That’s especially true as devastating wildfires burn vast sections of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-monitor-amazon-fires/">Amazon rainforest</a> in Brazil – a country that did not sign on to the Declaration on Forests. News media have reported that many of the Amazon fires were likely set intentionally by ranchers and mining companies seeking to clear parts of the forest.

Brazil and parts of Africa have seen the worst failures when it comes to forest protection, as commercial agricultural industries seek to expand. Many groups in the Congo basin, for example, are seeking economic expansion at the expense of tree cover.

“There is pressure to allow expansion of palm oil, cocoa and other commercial land uses,” said Dr. Constance McDermott at the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>.

But the biggest problem, scientists said, is that there has been no widespread adoption of the Declaration on Forests. Only 8% of the world’s top companies have committed to forest protection across their supply chains, for example, the report found.

“It’s still more lucrative to clear forests than protect them,” Roe told New Scientist.

While the 2020 goal is out of reach, the 2030 goal of ending deforestation can still be met, the researchers said. But it will take a lot of work, both in finding alternatives to deforestation and in restoring forests.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Paid for by Earth.com.

Countries and businesses are missing the target on forest protection

Five years ago, countries and corporations got together to set...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/">Cambridge University Botanic Garden</a> have finally gotten to see a giant agave plant bloom after waiting for 57 years. The rare "tequila plant" grew as much as four inches per day over the summer and is now nearly 15 feet tall. 

The much-anticipated buds started to appear on the plant in June, but the yellow flowers did not blossom until earlier this week. By the time the massive plant stopped growing, staff members were preparing for it to bust through the roof of the greenhouse.

The mysterious plant, which is related to a family of plants used to make <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bat-friendly-tequila-species-recovery/">tequila</a>, has been growing since 1962. The appearance of yellow stalk-like flowers allowed botanists to finally identify it as likely belonging to the Agave vivipara species. 

Because it is part of the Asparagus family, the plant initially looked very similar to an asparagus spear until the flower branches emerged. Dr. Ángela Cano, who is the assistant curator at the gardens, will be able to confirm its identity as Agave vivipara when the plant produces fruits. 

The flower contains both male and female parts that will allow it to self-pollinate. "That’s why the species is called vivipara, which means that it bears its own babies like mammals," said Dr. Cano.

Monocarpic plants such as agaves only flower once, set seeds, and then die. The staff members predict their plant will remain in bloom for about a month before dying.

"The bottom section of the flower structure, or inflorescence, has started to flower, however its flowers may not look as pretty as people might expect as there aren’t any colored petals," said Dr. Gano.

"In the wild, pollinators are attracted by the massive inflorescence (flower structure), the yellow color of the stamens, the smell of the flowers - broccoli-like - and the abundant nectar they produce."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>

Rare agave plant finally blossoms after 57 years

Experts at the Cambridge University Botanic Garden have finally gotten...

How to propagate plants from cuttings. One of the easiest ways to share the joys of gardening is by sharing one of your favorite plants. Luckily, this can be done without having to part with the original!

Plant propagation is the process of replicating plants. Just like all living things, plants must reproduce for the continuation of the species. Gardeners use this process to replicate the plants they like. (Or maybe the plants are using the gardeners.)

We all know that plants can be grown from seeds. However this is not the only way to get new plants. Growing new plants from cuttings is a great way to replicate your plants. How to propagate plants from cuttings 

Propagating plants from stem cuttings has a few key advantages over growing from seed.
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">You will have a mature plant sooner. Since you start with a central stem and fully grown leaves, your cutting already has a huge head start on seedlings.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The new plant is a genetically identical clone of the parent. In some plants like mint and apples, new seedlings are often poor quality. An apple seed is likely to produce unpalatable crab apples. A mint seed can produce plants that are not strongly fragrant. Cuttings, on the other hand, are nearly identical to their parent plant.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">You can take a cutting without getting the parent to flower. It can be difficult to get some plants to flower. When they do flower, there is no guarantee you will get viable seeds. Some plants never reproduce sexually, only spreading through cuttings. Therefore, cuttings are an easier way to propagate a plant. This can be done multiple times in a season without waiting for flowers.</li>
</ol>
These are just a few of the reasons you might want to propagate your plant from a cutting. Now let’s find out how to do it!
<h2>What You Will Need:</h2>
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">A healthy, well established parent plant with plenty of branches. It should have plenty of actively growing green stems over 6-inches long. Different plants will have different needs. Some plants are easier than others to root. Some good starter plants to learn to take cuttings from are:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/mentha/">Mint (Mentha):</a> Any type or mint or closely related plants like lemon balm and catnip. These are very hardy, fast-growing plants that readily take root.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/salvia-officinalis/">Garden Sage (Salvia officinalis):</a> Also known as culinary sage, this is the type of sage usually found in herb gardens. Surprisingly, it is <a href="https://sarawrightnature.wordpress.com/tag/differences-between-artemisia-and-salvia/">not closely related</a> to <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/artemisia-papposa/">owyhee</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/artemisia-cana/">silver sage</a> which are in the genus Artemisia. </li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/lavandula-leaves/">Lavender (Lavandula):</a> Another great smelling herb that can easily be propagated! Lavender produces fragrant flowers that have a calming scent.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/brugmansia/">Angel’s Trumpet (Brugmansia):</a> This semi-woody plant has beautiful trumpet shaped flowers. It is a common landscaping plant in Southern California. However, care should be taken when working with this plant as it is quite toxic.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Very sharp, clean shears or a knife.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Rooting hormone (recommended)
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Young willow leaves and sprigs contain the natural rooting hormone salicylic acid and can be used as a rooting hormone.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Small pots (dixie cups or reclaimed plastic containers can be used.)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Cups filled with water</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Perlite (highly recommended)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Potting soil</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Plastic bags large enough to fit your pots with room for a 6-inch stem</li>
</ul>
<h2>Taking Cuttings</h2>
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Before cutting your plant, make sure you have all your needed supplies easily available. Fill enough cups with water to fit all the stems you plan to cut. Only plan to cut as many stems as you can process with 30 minutes.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Prepare pots with potting soil. You may want to add extra perlite to the soil mix to improve drainage.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Locate a healthy stem on your parent plant. The stem should be large and actively growing. The leaves should look green, turgid and generally healthy. The distance between the leaves on the stem should be short.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Identify the nodes of the stem, where the leaves are attached to the stem. Find a node that is green but established, the stem should be slightly flexible at the cut. Finding the best location on the stem takes practice. You should try to get a cutting that is about 4-6 inches long. Practicing on the recommended plants will be easier as these species are very forgiving. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">You will want to cut very close to the selected node (for most plants, including those listed above.) <a href="http://www.cannagardening.com/taking_cuttings">Make a clean, straight cut through the stem</a> with a SHARP knife or shears. Avoid crushing the stem.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Remove the sets of leaves closest to the base of the cutting. You should have 1-2 inches of stem without leaves. Quickly move your cutting to the cup of water.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">After taking the number of cuttings you want, roll them in rooting hormone, tapping off any excess. Avoid doing this directly inside the bottle of hormone as this may decrease its potency. Skip this step if you are not using rooting hormone.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">With a finger or butter knife, make a small hole in the potting soil. You can add extra perlite to this hole to give the young roots room to breathe. Stick the cutting into the soil, burying the node covered in hormone. Do not place the plant too deep in the soil.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Water the cutting in the pot, completely drenching the soil. Your cutting will need a lot of water and humidity at the beginning.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Place a plastic bag over the cutting and pot. This acts as a kind of mini greenhouse called a humidity tent. It helps keep the plant wet since it will have trouble soaking up water without roots. You want to keep the humidity tent on for at least a week or until new growth begins to be apparent.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Provide the <a href="https://www.brit.co/how-to-propagate-plants-even-if-youre-a-beginner/">plant with indirect sunlight</a>. Too much sun may be too stressful for the cutting! However, too little light will prevent it from getting the energy needed to grow new roots.</li>
</ol>
If you follow these steps, you should have an abundance of plants in no time. There are many other ways to take cuttings and root plants as well. Do some reading about the plant you want to take a cutting from to learn about its needs.

Some plants can be rooted in water with no soil. Others can be rooted from a piece of a leaf. Cacti and succulents can be propagated in a similar but slightly different way. Comment below with your favorite ways to propagate plants and your favorite plants to propagate!

--

By <a href="mailto:writing@caseyhofford.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How to propagate plants from cuttings

How to propagate plants from cuttings. One of the easiest...

The fall armyworm is one of the most destructive pests in the world. The armyworm is actually the larval stage of the Spodoptera frugiperda moth, but it’s in this stage that the insect can wreak havoc on crops. 

The armyworm isn’t picky and can feed on more than 80 plant species. 

Researchers are racing to find ways to control and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grass-variety-armyworm-infestations/">manage fall armyworm invasions,</a> especially in countries in Africa where in recent years, the pest has destroyed billions of dollars worth of crops. 

The fall armyworm is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas but was recently detected in Nigeria in 2016, according to the <a href="http://www.fao.org/food-chain-crisis/how-we-work/plant-protection/fallarmyworm/en/">US Food and Agricultural Organization</a>. By 2017, the fall armyworm spread to 28 countries in Africa. 

Last week during trade talks between Japan’s Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and President Trump, it was agreed that Japan would buy excess <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-g7-summit-trump-abe-trade/trump-abe-say-u-s-and-japan-have-agreed-in-principle-on-trade-deal-idUSKCN1VF0CU">US corn because of armyworm infestations</a>. 

There are now fears that the pest will spread to Australia and Europe. 

Predators in South America and the southern US help manage fall armyworm populations. It’s still not known how the armyworm spread to Africa but the damage it can do, even in one night, is considerable.  

Roger Day from the <a href="https://www.cabi.org/">Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International</a> office in Kenya has been monitoring the fall armyworms steady march across sub-Saharan Africa, and the pest has become a main priority. 

Day and a team of researchers estimated that uncontrolled armyworm infestations could cost $6.2 billion in crop damages. 

“The caterpillars eat rice, sugar cane and maize, and can destroy a farmer’s entire crop in a night,” Day told <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24332462-600-worlds-hungriest-caterpillar-is-wreaking-destruction-around-the-world/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=dailynewsletter&amp;utm_campaign=05092019">New Scientist.</a> 

Currently, there are four strategies to help manage armyworm infestations according to Toby Bruce from <a href="https://www.keele.ac.uk/">Keele University</a> in the UK. 

Step one is to identify and grow crops that are more resistant to armyworms. Next, researchers have suggested growing plants next to the maize that specifically repel the moths from laying their eggs. The third strategy includes growing special crops that can lure the moths away from the maize. 

The last step involves releasing predators that can feed on the armyworms and keep infestations in check like parasitoid wasps. 

However, importing such wasps to countries in Africa will need to be conducted safely to ensure that there aren’t any risks to local biodiversity and ecosystems. 

A possible solution could be finding parasitoid wasps species that are native to Africa to control the armyworms.

Other options for managing infestations include planting genetically modified crops, but many are banned in countries in Africa and are not easily accessible for small farmers. 

So far, the armyworm has yet to make its way into Europe or Australia, but it may just be a matter of time which is why finding ways to manage and control the pests is vital. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Aphakorn Fuengtee

Armyworms continue their relentless attacks on crops worldwide

The fall armyworm is one of the most destructive pests...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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