Tiny bits of organic matter bobbing at the ocean’s surface appear to help clouds freeze in some of the most pristine air on Earth.



New research shows that complex sugar molecules shed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-microbes-can-tell-us-about-global-changes-in-the-ocean/">marine microbes</a> can trigger ice formation in cloud droplets across the vast Southern Ocean. This happens right in the temperature range that governs how long bright, cooling clouds survive and how much sunlight they bounce back to space.



The work draws on years of field campaigns, lab tests, and computer modeling led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.tropos.de/en/">Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research</a> (TROPOS) and its partners.



It helps explain why climate models have struggled to match observed cloud brightness over remote southern seas. In these regions, dust is scarce and human-made pollution is low.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clouds-need-help-to-freeze">Clouds need help to freeze</h2>



Clouds do not freeze on their own; they need ice-nucleating particles (INPs). These microscopic seeds coax liquid droplets into ice. The kind of particle that dominates changes with temperature.



In the cleaner air around Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, INP levels are tiny. Even small shifts can strongly affect cloud reflectivity, precipitation, and lifetime.



Getting the mix right in climate models is essential for predicting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">global warming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sugar-spike-reveals-a-clue">A sugar spike reveals a clue</h2>



Scientists have long suspected marine biology as a source of INPs, but the actual substances remained mysterious. A turning point came during the 2017 Polarstern expedition PS106.



“During the Polarstern expedition PS106 in 2017, we observed increased glucose concentrations in Arctic samples and concluded this glucose could be an indicator of ice nuclei in seawater,” said senior author Sebastian Zeppenfeld from TROPOS.



“The monosaccharide glucose is a degradation product of polysaccharides. It was therefore obvious to us that polysaccharides could be the missing piece of the puzzle.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-sugars-and-freezing-clouds">Ocean sugars and freezing clouds</h2>



To test the idea, researchers collected material from the ocean’s surface microlayer. This living film teems with bacteria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-revived-after-7000-years-beneath-the-baltic-sea/">algae</a>, diatoms, fungi, protists, viruses, and more. Researchers had largely overlooked marine fungi as possible ice starters.



Study co-author Susan Hartmann from TROPOS examined ice nucleation in the laboratory using the INDA (Ice Nucleation Droplet Array) droplet freezing test.



“We investigated the ice nucleation of marine polysaccharides derived from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-fungi-can-be-trained-to-degrade-plastic-faster/">marine fungi</a> and protist, as well as commercially available standard polysaccharides,” she said.



Those droplet-freezing experiments produced the first temperature‑resolved data showing how many ice nuclei these marine polysaccharides generate. 



The results fill a key gap: between roughly -15°C (5°F) and -20°C (-4°F), the ocean sugars could account for nearly all biologically driven ice formation in cloud droplets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cloud-models-get-missing-ice-link">Cloud models get missing ice link</h2>



Earlier work had shown that proteins tend to initiate freezing in relatively “warm” clouds (above about 28°F), while mineral dust dominates in very cold clouds (below -4°F).



But the Southern Hemisphere offers limited dust sources. Many mixed-phase clouds linger in the middle range - exactly where the new study shows marine polysaccharides are most potent.



Study lead author Roland Schrödner from TROPOS analyzed the data using the TM5 global atmospheric chemistry transport model.



“In our simulations, we were able to show that at -15 to -16 degrees Celsius (5 to 3°F), the polysaccharides over the gigantic areas of the oceans in the clean Southern Hemisphere are probably the most important ice nuclei," said Schrödner.



"They contribute more to ice formation than mineral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-are-a-surprising-source-of-deadly-air-pollution/">dust</a> emitted from the deserts, which is the main type of ice nuclei in climate models. This is a new and important finding for climate models.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-years-of-data-point-to-sugars">Years of data point to sugars</h2>



The study knits together aerosol microphysics, atmospheric chemistry, and global modeling groups at TROPOS.



Polysaccharide concentrations had been sampled during multiple expeditions: the Spanish Antarctic PI‑ICE mission, the German Arctic PASCAL/PS106 cruises, the tropical Atlantic MarParCloud campaign, and long‑term measurements on Spitsbergen.



Only by combining those datasets with lab freezing tests and model simulations could the team quantify the climatic punch of marine sugars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-cloud-ice-research">Next steps for cloud ice research</h2>



If nations succeed in cutting man‑made emissions, natural aerosol particles will matter even more for cloud behavior. Clean‑air regions respond sharply to even small aerosol changes, making the Southern Hemisphere a prime natural laboratory.



Beginning July 2025, the HALO‑South aircraft mission - led by TROPOS - will probe clouds, aerosols, and radiation over the Southern Ocean near New Zealand. 



A coordinated ground campaign, goSouth‑2, will deploy advanced remote‑sensing gear near Invercargill from September 2025 to March 2027. The goal is to watch clouds evolve in this pristine environment.



Life at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-draining-nutrients-from-the-oceans-surface/">ocean’s surface</a> shapes cloud brightness, revealing deep links between biology and the atmosphere.



The new evidence that marine polysaccharides help seed ice over huge swaths of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">Southern Ocean</a> is a vivid reminder: what grows in the water below can change the sky above - and, through clouds, influence Earth’s climate itself.



The study was presented at the <a href="https://www.egu25.eu/">EGU General Assembly 2025</a> in Vienna, Austria. An abstract of the article can be found <a href="https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU25/EGU25-15357.html">here</a>.



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How tiny sugars in the Southern Ocean help clouds freeze

Tiny bits of organic matter bobbing at the ocean’s surface appear to help clouds freeze in some of the most pristine air on Earth. New research shows that complex sugar molecules shed by marine microbes can trigger ice formation in cloud droplets across the vast Southern Ocean. This happens right in the temperature range that governs how long bright, cooling clouds survive and how much sunlight they bounce back to space. The work draws on years of field campaigns, lab tests, and computer modeling led by scientists...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/">Swansea University</a> highlights the destructive impacts of human development on tropical rainforests. In recent decades, human disturbance across Indonesian forests has made increasingly large parts of the region more vulnerable to fires. 

The researchers found that on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan, less than 10 percent of the remaining forest is still fire-resistant as a result of deforestation. 

"Undisturbed tropical rainforests are naturally resistant to fire due to the humid and cool micro-climate they maintain, effectively acting as a fire barrier," explained study lead author Dr. Tadas Nikonovas.

"Contrary to the widely-held perception that worsening droughts are threatening the remaining rainforests, tropical forests in Indonesia become susceptible to fire only after human disturbance."

According to the researchers, protecting what is left of the undisturbed forest is crucial for preventing catastrophic fire. In this region, deforestation increases the risk of recurring peatland fires that produce toxic haze events across South East Asia and release globally significant greenhouse gas emissions.

Greenpeace reports that the area of tropical forest and peatland that has burned in Indonesia over the past five years is larger than the size of the Netherlands. 

The new research shows that there are still some contiguous areas of undisturbed forests that are not susceptible to burning - even under current drought conditions. These areas, however, make up less than ten percent of the tropical forest cover.

The study reveals that more than 90 percent of Indonesia's forest cover has been severely fragmented or degraded, and is no longer able to maintain a fire-resistant microclimate. Only three percent of the region's peatlands, which store massive amounts of carbon, are now protected by fire-resistant forest cover. 

The researchers emphasize that the preventative role of tropical forests against fire is yet another important reason for the preservation and regeneration of the few remaining contiguous tracts of forests.

"Protecting tropical forest is critical not only for biodiversity and carbon storage but also for preventing future catastrophic fire episodes," said project leader Dr. Allan Spessa. "This is true for Indonesia, as well as for tropical forest in Africa and South America."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsenv">Communications Earth and Environment</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disturbed Indonesian forests are highly flammable

A new study led by Swansea University highlights the destructive...

Kangaroos have their own way of expressing themselves to humans, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a>. The research contradicts the idea that only domesticated animals like dogs and horses intentionally <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/spiny-lobsters-communicate-up-to-3-kilometers-away/">communicate</a> with people.

"Kangaroos are iconic Australian endemic fauna, adored by many worldwide but also considered as a pest," said study co-author Dr. Alexandra Green. "We hope that this research draws attention to the cognitive abilities of kangaroos and helps foster more positive attitudes towards them."

The study was focused on wild kangaroos in three locations across Australia. The researchers discovered that when kangaroos were trying to access food in a closed box, they gazed at a human.  

The kangaroos consistently used a steady gaze to communicate with a person instead of attempting to open the box themselves. This type of behavior is usually associated with domesticated animals.

During the experiments, 10 out of 11 kangaroos actively looked at the person who had placed the food in the closed box, while 9 out of 11 kangaroos also alternated their gaze between the box and the human, which is a heightened form of communication.

The research builds on earlier studies that investigated whether intentional communication is a result of domestication in animals such as dogs and goats. 

Study lead author Dr Alan McElligott, a professor of Animal Behavior and Welfare at <a href="https://www.cityu.edu.hk/">City University of Hong Kong</a>, previously reported that goats can understand human cues to gather information about their environment. The latest findings indicate that, like goats, kangaroos adapt their social behaviors to interact with humans.

"Through this study, we were able to see that communication between animals can be learned and that the behavior of gazing at humans to access food is not related to domestication," said Dr. McElligott. "Indeed, kangaroos - showed a very similar pattern of behavior we have seen in dogs, horses and even goats when put to the same test.

"Our research shows that the potential for referential intentional communication towards humans by animals has been underestimated, which signals an exciting development in this area. Kangaroos are the first marsupials to be studied in this manner and the positive results should lead to more cognitive research beyond the usual domestic species."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Kangaroos actively communicate with humans

Kangaroos have their own way of expressing themselves to humans,...

In the near future, climate change is expected to make many grape-growing regions <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/east-asia-may-be-permanently-locked-into-hotter-and-drier-climate/">hotter</a> and drier. Wine grapes are very sensitive to climate, which means it could become difficult to produce high-quality wine from traditional varieties. 

But now, a new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> reveals that wine grapes from regions that are most susceptible to climate change have built-in defenses that may save them from rising temperatures. 

The researchers discovered that grape varieties grown in warmer, drier regions have traits that conserve water. This strategy evolved so that the vines have the water they need throughout the growing season.

Study lead author Megan Bartlett is an assistant professor in the Department of Viticulture and Enology at UC Davis. 

"The relationships between grape varieties and regions have historically been based on wine, without considering traits that affect drought or heat tolerance," said Professor Bartlett. "These findings show these varieties could be more resilient to climate change than expected."

The experts investigated how grapevines regulate their stomata­, tiny pores found on the surface of leaves. The functioning of these pores determines how much carbon dioxide is taken in for photosynthesis and how much water evaporates from the leaves. 

Grapevines must strike a balance between opening their stomata to take in CO2 for growth and ripening and closing the stomata to reduce evaporation and water stress.

Some of the desired fruit characteristics, such as the flavor of the grapes, are enhanced when the vines experience a small degree of water stress. However, too much water loss can prevent the grapes from achieving their desired flavors. 

The researchers examined traits for 34 grape varieties, and established the associations between grape varieties and regions. The study was focused on European regions, where irrigation is widely restricted, to gain a better understanding of the direct effects of changes in local climate.

The experts found that grape varieties grown in regions that experience more hot and dry conditions, such as the Sangiovese and Montepulciano varieties of Italy, kept their stomata closed more than varieties like Sauvignon Blanc from cooler, more humid regions. "This strategy would help these varieties save water," said study co-author Gabriela Sinclair.

Professor Bartlett warned that these traits may have unintended consequences as heatwaves become more extreme. By restricting evaporation too much, the grapevines could allow their leaves to reach damaging temperatures, reducing their ability to photosynthesize and limiting the sugars available for ripening.

"We have more work to do to understand how these traits will affect grapevines as the climate reaches new extremes," said Professor Bartlett. "These findings show that traits will be important to consider when we predict what will happen to different wine regions."

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jxb">Journal of Experimental Botany</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wine grapes in dry regions have a strategy to conserve water

In the near future, climate change is expected to make...

In a phenomenon known as the "sunk cost" effect, people follow through with things they have already invested in - even when those efforts are futile. Time invested in a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/positive-student-teacher-relationships-improve-long-term-health/">relationship</a> may cause us to stick with it longer than we should, while money dumped into a pointless project may encourage us to keep spending on it.

In a new study from <a href="https://www.gsu.edu/">Georgia State</a>, experts have demonstrated that humans are not the only ones to engage in such potentially self-defeating behavior, and that monkeys also have a tendency to persist at tasks they have invested in. 

The researchers have identified factors that could possibly play a role in the sunk costs effect. For example, humans and monkeys likely share an evolutionarily preserved mechanism that helps us balance the costs and benefits of our actions.

Both capuchin monkeys and rhesus macaques are housed at Georgia State's Language Research Center. The monkeys participate in entirely voluntary and non-invasive cognitive and behavioral research, explained study co-author Professor Sarah F. Brosnan, who has worked with some of the monkeys for over 20 years. "They're like my second set of kids."

For the investigation, 26 capuchin monkeys and 7 rhesus macaques were trained to play a simple video game. Using a joystick, the monkeys attempted to move a cursor onto a moving target and hold it there as the target kept moving. 

If the monkeys were successful, they heard a victory sound and were given a treat. Those who were unsuccessful did not get a reward before moving on to a new round, which lasted either 1, 3, or 7 seconds. 

"Monkeys have really quick reaction times on these games, so one second to them is actually a long time," explained Professor Brosnan.

Study lead author Julia Watzek noted that most of the rounds only lasted one second. "So if you didn't get a reward after that, it was actually better to quit and start a new round. That would likely get you a treat sooner than if you had kept going."

During the experiments, both species of monkeys showed sunk cost effects. "They persisted 5 to 7 times longer than was optimal, and the longer they had already tried, the more likely they were to complete the entire task," said Professor Brosnan.

The researchers found that uncertainty had a big influence on persistence. When the monkeys got a signal that additional work was required, they were less susceptible to sunk cost behavior, but they still demonstrated it.

According to Watzek, studying this phenomenon in animals teaches us something about how their minds work, as well as our own. 

Professor Brosnan said the findings suggest that this behavior is likely driven by evolution and deeply embedded across species. "The epitome of the sunk cost is I've invested so much in this, I'm just going to keep going." And this can really pay off when it comes to important tasks such as hunting prey, looking for a mate, or building a nest. "Sometimes, you just need to have patience."

The research also indicates that human concerns - like not giving up on something we have publicly committed to - are probably not the main drivers of sunk cost behavior. The study is also a good reminder that there are times when you have good reason to give up.

"We're predisposed to keep trying," said Professor Brosnan. "And when we find ourselves sticking with things, we should also be a little reflective. Do I have a good reason to keep trying? Or should I leave with no reward, because it will save me more in the long run? That's really hard to do. But hopefully we can use our cognitive abilities to help us overcome the emotional heartache of occasional sunk costs."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monkeys and humans keep trying, even when we should give up

In a phenomenon known as the "sunk cost" effect, people...

Some of the most common side effects of COVID-19 infection are <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-strengthens-the-brains-focus-on-imagination-and-planning/">brain</a> fog and fatigue, and researchers are starting to discover why this is the case. A growing collection of evidence shows that the virus that causes COVID-19 enters the brain, including a new study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>. 

Using a mouse model, the experts found that the spike protein can cross the blood-brain barrier in mice. The findings may explain many of the complications that have been observed with COVID-19.

The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, also known as the S1 protein, controls which cells the virus can enter. The virus usually does the same thing as its binding protein, explained study lead author Professor William A. Banks.

He said that binding proteins like S1 cause damage by themselves as they detach from the virus and cause inflammation. "The S1 protein likely causes the brain to release cytokines and inflammatory products."

The severe inflammation caused by COVID-19 is often referred to as a cytokine storm. The flurry of activity occurs when the body's immune system overreacts to the invading virus and its proteins. This intense response can lead to fatigue and other cognitive effects. 

Professor Banks and his team had previously observed the cytokine storm in response to the invasion of the HIV virus, and they set out to investigate whether the same is happening with SARS CoV-2.

According to Professor Banks, the S1 protein in SARS-CoV2 and the gp 120 protein in HIV-1 are very similar in the way that they function. They are both proteins that have a lot of sugars on them, or glycoproteins, that easily bind to other receptors. 

The study revealed that the S1 protein and the gp 120 protein both serve as the "arms and hand" for their viruses by grabbing onto other receptors, and they both cross the blood-brain barrier. 

"It was like déjà vu," said Professor Banks, who has done extensive work on HIV, gp120, and the blood-brain barrier. "We know that when you have the COVID infection you have trouble breathing and that's because there's infection in your lung, but an additional explanation is that the virus enters the respiratory centers of the brain and causes problems there as well."

Professor Jacob Raber noted that in the experiments, the transport of S1 was faster in the olfactory bulb and kidney of males than females, which may explain the increased susceptibility of men to more severe COVID-19 outcomes.

For people who are taking the virus lightly, Professor Banks has a message. "You do not want to mess with this virus. Many of the effects that the COVID virus has could be accentuated or perpetuated or even caused by virus getting in the brain and those effects could last for a very long time."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/neuro">Nature Neuroscience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Research confirms that COVID-19 enters the brain

Some of the most common side effects of COVID-19 infection...

The remains of the oldest known shipwreck in southern Africa, including ivory from more than 100 elephant tusks, have been analyzed in a new study from <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>. The researchers used advanced testing methods to trace the tusks back to many distinct herds that once roamed West <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/african-forest-elephants-are-running-out-of-fruit/">Africa</a>.

In 2008, a vessel known as the Bom Jesus was found in Namibia. The Portuguese trading vessel had gone missing in 1533 on a journey to India while transporting the elephant tusks, forty tons of gold and silver coins, and other cargo. 

An international team of experts in Namibia, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States combined paleogenomic, isotopic, archeological, and historical analyses to determine the origin of the shipwrecked cargo. The findings are shedding new light on African elephants in both the past and present.

The researchers set out to identify the source of the elephant ivory, which was widely circulated in early Indian and Atlantic trading systems.

"Elephants live in female-led family groups, and they tend to stay in the same geographic area throughout their lives," said study co-author Alida de Flamingh. "We determined where these tusks came from by examining a DNA marker that is passed only from mother-to-calf and comparing the sequences to those of geo-referenced African elephants." 

Study co-author Ashley Coutu explained that comparing the shipwreck ivory DNA to that of elephants with known origins across Africa made it possible to pinpoint the geographic region and species of elephant that matched the shipwreck ivory.

"In order to fully explore where these elephant tusks originated, we needed multiple lines of evidence. Thus, we used a combination of methods and expertise to explore the origin of this ivory cargo through genetic and isotopic data gathered from sampling the tusks. Our conclusions were only possible with all of the pieces of our interdisciplinary puzzle fitting together," said Coutu.

The experts conducted isotope analyses of 97 tusks, which revealed that the ivory had come from African forest elephants. Their mitochondrial DNA traced them to 17 or more herds from West Africa, as opposed to Central Africa.

This was a surprise, said study co-author Shadreck Chirikure, because the Portuguese had established trade with the Kongo Kingdom and communities along the Congo River by the 16th century. "The expectation was that the elephants would be from different regions, especially West and Central Africa."

Four of the mitochondrial haplotypes represented by the tusks are still found today in modern elephants. The others may have been lost due to overhunting or habitat destruction, explained the study authors. The results of the genetic tests also indicate that the elephants lived in mixed forest habitat instead of residing deep in the rainforest.

"There had been some thinking that African forest elephants moved out into savanna habitats in the early 20th century, after almost all savanna elephants were eliminated in West Africa," said co-author Alfred L. Roca. 

"Our study showed that this was not the case, because the African forest elephant lived in savanna habitats in the early 16th century, long before the decimation of savanna elephants by the ivory trade occurred."

The new data can now be used to assist in tracing the source of confiscated illegal ivory, noted De Flamingh, and these findings are just the beginning in terms of what can be learned about elephants from studies of ivory.

"There is tremendous potential to analyze historic ivory from other shipwrecks, as well as from archaeological contexts and museum collections to understand the life histories of elephant populations, the skills and lifeways of the people who hunted and traded the ivory, as well as the many journeys of African ivory across the world," said Coutu. "The revelation of these connections tell important global histories."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shipwrecked ivory sheds new light on African forest elephants

The remains of the oldest known shipwreck in southern Africa,...

Scientists have discovered that a deadly skin disease affecting dolphins is linked to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-are-losing-their-ability-to-help-mitigate-climate-change/">climate</a> change, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.marinemammalcenter.org/">The Marine Mammal Center</a>. This is the first time since the mysterious dolphin disease first appeared in 2005 that the cause of the condition has been identified.

The researchers have determined that the disease, which has affected dolphins worldwide, is caused by decreased water salinity associated with climate change. The infected dolphins develop patchy and raised skin lesions that cover up to 70 percent of their bodies.

The international study follows significant outbreaks in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Texas, and Australia. The common factor in all of these outbreaks was a sudden and drastic decrease in water salinity.

Increasingly severe storms and hurricanes are dumping unusual volumes of rain in coastal waters, and the resulting freshwater conditions can persist for months. The drop in seawater salinity is particularly extreme after intense storms like hurricanes Harvey and Katrina. As these storms become more frequent, so will the skin disease outbreaks among dolphins.

"This devastating skin disease has been killing dolphins since Hurricane Katrina, and we're pleased to finally define the problem," said study co-author Dr. Pádraig Duignan, Chief Pathologist at The Marine Mammal Center. "With a record hurricane season in the Gulf of Mexico this year and more intense storm systems worldwide due to climate change, we can absolutely expect to see more of these devastating outbreaks killing dolphins."

A current outbreak of the disease is impacting the rare and threatened Burrunan dolphin in southeast Australia. The findings may provide professionals with the information they need to diagnose and treat affected animals. 

Currently, the chances of survival for infected dolphins are poor, especially for animals that experience prolonged exposure to freshwater. The disease was first noticed on approximately 40 bottlenose dolphins near New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina in 2005.

"As warming ocean temperatures impact marine mammals globally, the findings in this paper will allow better mitigation of the factors that lead disease outbreaks for coastal dolphin communities that are already under threat from habitat loss and degradation," said Dr. Duignan. "This study helps shed light on an ever-growing concern, and we hope it is the first step in mitigating the deadly disease and marshalling the ocean community to further fight climate change."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious and deadly dolphin disease has been linked to climate change

Scientists have discovered that a deadly skin disease affecting dolphins...

Terrestrial ecosystems are gradually losing their ability to help mitigate the impacts of climate change, according to a study from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a>. The experts found that 86 percent of land ecosystems are becoming less efficient in absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2) as it increases in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-beyond-moon/">atmosphere</a>.

Trees and plants absorb CO2 as they photosynthesize, which helps to remove the heat-trapping greenhouse gas from the atmosphere, where it accelerates global warming. 

In a phenomenon that is referred to as the carbon fertilization effect (CFE), elevated levels of CO2 cause an increase in photosynthesis and plant growth. CFE has been considered an important mechanism to help reduce levels of atmospheric CO2. 

As the fertilizing capacity of CO2 decreases, there will be major impacts on the carbon cycle and the climate. To investigate, the NASA team analyzed field studies, model-based datasets, and satellite observations. 

"In this study, by analyzing the best available long-term data from remote sensing and state-of-the-art land-surface models, we have found that since 1982, the global average CFE has decreased steadily from 21 percent to 12 percent per 100 ppm of CO2 in the atmosphere," said study co-author Ben Poulter. "In other words, terrestrial ecosystems are becoming less reliable as a temporary climate change mitigator."

The findings have important implications for the role that plants will play in offsetting climate change in the future. Poulter said that without the feedback between photosynthesis and elevated atmospheric CO2, we would have already seen climate change occurring at a much more rapid rate. 

It was known that the fertilizing effects of CO2 could not last forever due to other limitations. To pinpoint why CFE has been decreasing, the study authors took into account the availability of water, sunlight, and nutrients, which all have an influence on how much plants can grow. 

"According to our data, what appears to be happening is that there's both a moisture limitation as well as a nutrient limitation coming into play," said Poulter. "In the tropics, there's often just not enough nitrogen or phosphorus, to sustain photosynthesis, and in the high-latitude temperate and boreal regions, soil moisture is now more limiting than air temperature because of recent warming."

This means that climate change is weakening the ability of plants to mitigate further warming over large areas of the planet.

Remote-sensing observations revealed that the decline in CFE is much more substantial than current land-surface models have shown. Poulter said this is because modelers have struggled to account for nutrient feedbacks and soil moisture limitations.

"By combining decades of remote sensing data like we have done here, we're able to see these limitations on plant growth. As such, the study shows a clear way forward for model development, especially with new remote sensing observations of vegetation traits expected in coming years." 

"These observations will help advance models to incorporate ecosystem processes, climate and CO2 feedbacks more realistically."

According to Poulter, the decreasing carbon-uptake efficiency of land ecosystems means we may see the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere start to increase, shrinking the remaining carbon budget.

"What this means is that to avoid 1.5 or 2°C warming and the associated climate impacts, we need to adjust the remaining carbon budget to account for the weakening of the plant CO2 fertilization effect. And because of this weakening, land ecosystems will not be as reliable for climate mitigation in the coming decades."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants are losing their ability to help mitigate climate change

Terrestrial ecosystems are gradually losing their ability to help mitigate...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">NC State</a>, researchers are describing the cascading effects of fertilizer pollution throughout the food webs of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-rivers-heat-up-the-ocean-and-shrink-sea-ice/">rivers</a> and streams. The experts also identified some methods of detecting fertilizer runoff that may not be effective in certain types of streams.

The team analyzed data from 184 studies which involved 885 individual experiments conducted all over the world to investigate the effects of fertilizer runoff in rivers and streams. 

The research was specifically focused on elevated levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, the main two components of fertilizer, which can kill fish and cause harmful algal blooms.

"Overall, we found that high levels of nutrients affect streams and rivers everywhere," said study lead author Professor Marcelo Ardón.

"Wherever we looked, we saw increases in the abundance and biomass of organisms that live in streams, and also the speeding up of processes that happen in streams - how fast algae grow, how fast leaves decompose, and how fast organisms grow that feed on them."

The studies revealed that nitrogen and phosphorus led to increased growth in algae, the insects that eat the algae, and the fish that eat the insects. In shady streams where there were no algae, nitrogen and phosphorus accelerated the decomposition of leaves and boosted the growth of the organisms that feed on them.

"We saw an average 48 percent increase overall in biomass abundance and activity in all levels of the food web,"said Professor Ardón. "We also found that the food webs responded most strongly when both nitrogen and phosphorus were added together."

Experts look for the presence of a specific type of chlorophyll in water to detect algae growth. According to the researchers, this method could miss pollution in waterways where algae do not grow, and where the decomposition of leaves or other plant matter is a primary food source.

"The food webs in those streams don't depend on algae - the trees shade out the algae," explained Professor Ardón. "The streams there depend on leaves that fall in and decompose, which is what the insects, such as caddisflies and stoneflies, are eating. In those detrital-based streams, we found similar responses to increases in nitrogen and phosphorus as has been found in algae."

The analysis also pinpointed certain factors that influenced the food web's response to fertilizer pollution. These factors include light, temperature, and baseline concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus. 

"All of those things will determine how much of a response you get to increased nitrogen and phosphorus," said study co-author Ryan Utz of Chatham University.

"The EPA has been asking states to come up with ways to reduce runoff of nitrogen and phosphorus into streams, because we know they can cause these really big problems," concluded Professor Ardón. 

"We know that at a big scale, and we don't really know the details. A lot of states that are coming up with criteria to reduce the amount of nutrients in the water focus only on algal responses. Our study suggests regulators should expand their view."

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1469185x">Biological Reviews</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study identifies the cascading effects of fertilizer pollution

In a new study from NC State, researchers are describing...

Underwater recordings have revealed new details of the elusive behavior of whales in the Weddell Sea. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/">Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research</a> (AWI) have learned more about the lifestyle and habits of humpback whales, as well as smaller animals called Antarctic minke whales.

Research on baleen whales in the Southern Ocean was once limited to studies conducted during the Antarctic summer, which is when biologists were present. But then, the AWI team permanently installed underwater microphones. 

The hydrophones have been successfully recording sounds in the Weddell Sea for the last nine years. The goal is to help improve protective measures for the whales and their main food source, the Antarctic krill.

The audio recordings have provided unique insights. Based on the observations, the researchers have determined there are most likely two humpback whale populations in the Weddell Sea. Both of these groups have been heard singing and communicating the most frequently in the autumn. The recordings also indicate that the humpback whales avoid areas with sea ice.

By contrast, the AWI team found that Antarctic minke whales prefer ice-covered regions. These animals were mostly heard making their distinctive quacking sounds during the winter months.

Antarctic minke whales are very mysterious. Marine biologists are still working to understand exactly where they live and breed and how many of the whales actually exist. 

A few years ago, experts discovered that Antarctic minke whales produce characteristic calls that sound similar to a dock quacking. These distinctive calls provide scientists with a reliable way to track the small whales, which measure up to eleven meters in length.

AWI biologist Diego Filun and his team are using the quacking sounds for the first-ever comprehensive, long-term observation of Antarctic minke whales in the Weddell Sea. 

"We've been monitoring our underwater microphones for nine years. They were deployed at 21 points throughout the Weddell Sea and along the prime meridian, allowing us to record the whales' acoustic activities in regions where research vessels rarely venture," said Filun. 

"Thanks to the recordings, we now finally understand in what parts of the Weddell Sea the minke whales prefer to be at different times of year, and know that at least some of them stay there for the winter and don't migrate to warmer waters."

The recordings confirmed that in both the summer and winter, Antarctic minke whales stay in regions of the Weddell Sea that are covered with sea ice. However, the frequency of their calls changes with the season. They can be heard far more often in the autumn and winter months. 

"On aerial survey flights over the Weddell Sea in the summer, minke whales were primarily sighted near the sea-ice edge and less frequently in areas with thick sea ice. But our audio recordings showed just the opposite: the minke whales were rarely found in the marginal ice zone, and much more often under thick ice - most likely in an attempt to avoid their archenemies, killer whales," said Filun.

Unlike the minke whales, humpback whales in the Weddell Sea do not seek shelter below the ice. In a second hydroacoustic study led by AWI biologist Elena Schall, the researchers found that humpback whales avoid ice-covered regions altogether. Instead, they seek out Antarctic krill along the northern edge of the ice.

"Our audio recordings from 2013 indicate that at least two humpback whale populations come to the Weddell Sea in summer to build up their fat reserves," said Schall. "Whales from South Africa seem to go hunting at the eastern edge, near the prime meridian. But humpbacks from South America tend to stay in the northern coastal waters of the Antarctic Peninsula, and can be heard until later in the year than their counterparts to the east."

The recordings suggest that the humpbacks move southward in the summer as the ice retreats, but only travel as far as needed to find sufficient food. 

"If we want to protect the unique biotic communities of the Weddell Sea in the long term, we need to know as precisely as possible how many baleen whales come to the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean in search of food, what regions they hunt in, whether they overwinter there, and how much krill is needed for the whales to find sufficient food," said Dr. Ilse van Opzeeland. 

"In this regard, long-term acoustic observations are a vital tool, because they offer us a far more detailed picture of life below the water than the handful of scientific whale sightings alone."

The AWI researchers hope their findings will be taken into account in future discussions on the establishment of a marine protected area in the Weddell Sea. In the meantime, they will  continue to analyze an abundance of underwater recordings.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Acoustic observations reveal whale behavior in the Weddell Sea

Underwater recordings have revealed new details of the elusive behavior...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> have conducted the most comprehensive assessment of plants in Germany that has ever been carried out. 

The survey revealed that the country's plant <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-animals-evolve-faster-in-coldspots-than-in-biodiversity-hotspots/">diversity</a> has decreased by over 15 percent in more than 70 percent of the 2,000 species examined, and the losses were not limited to rare or endangered plants.

"This clearly shows, once again, that we have to rethink our approach to nature and landscape; after all, the population declines proven by the study extend over the whole of Germany," said Dr. Beate Jessel, president of the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation.

"This leaves no doubt; we need a broad-based approach to agriculture and forestry, which together occupy 80 percent of the area of Germany. This demonstrates that there's an urgent need for more nature-compatible forms of land use."

The average rate of decline for any given species was found to be about two percent per decade. Some of the most vulnerable plants are archaeophytes, which are non-native plant species that were introduced before 1492. The corn marigold, Venus's looking glass, and the perennial goosefoot are also especially threatened.

For the investigation, researchers analyzed distribution data on 2,136 of the over 4,300 plant species established in Germany. The study also included information on the presence of plants from private individuals and datasets from universities other scientific institutions. 

The study authors expect that the observed decline in plant diversity has a major impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Due to the complex relationships that exist within ecosystems, plant losses can have very serious consequences. For example, lower plant diversity will lead to declines in both insect diversity and abundance.

"The degree of clarity in these results really surprised us. They paint a very dismal picture of the state of plant diversity in Germany," said study first author Dr. David Eichenberg. "This study has confirmed that the declines are not limited to already rare or particularly endangered species, but that a gradual reduction of biodiversity in the majority of plant species in Germany has obviously been happening for a long time."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486?af=R">Global Change Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant diversity is declining at a steady rate across Germany

Researchers at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research have...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> have investigated the dynamics of ecosystems in parts of the ocean that have no dissolved oxygen to sustain animals or plants, which are known as ocean anoxic zones. In these areas, only microbes that are adapted to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-local-environment-plays-a-role-in-how-species-acclimate/">environment</a> can survive. 

"You don't get big fish," said study co-author Morgan Raven. "You don't even get charismatic zooplankton." Even though anoxic oceans may seem alien to organisms like ourselves that breathe oxygen, they are full of life, she added.

As a result of climate change, ocean anoxic zones are now expanding. Raven is interested in learning how this will affect the ocean as a carbon sink. "What happens to our carbon cycle as we get these large areas of the ocean that are oxygen-free?" 

In seawater that is rich in oxygen, carbon is moved around through the food web after being captured by phytoplankton that photosynthesize at the water's surface.

"Most of the time they just get eaten by zooplankton," said Raven. But if they are not eaten, the phytoplankton respire carbon dioxide and excrete organic carbon in the depths of the water. "It's like a spinning wheel - CO2 goes to plankton, goes to CO2."

In the absence of zooplankton and fish, more of the sinking organic carbon can survive and be deposited at depth, explained Raven. Sediments underneath anoxic zones generally have more organic carbon deposits, but experts do not know why this is the case.

To investigate, the team turned to a theory formed about a decade ago by geologist Don Canfield and colleagues at the University of Southern Denmark.

"They put out this idea that maybe inside of these zones, microbes are still eating organic carbon, but respiring sulfate." This process is referred to as cryptic sulfur cycling.

The researchers tested large, fast-sinking organic particles collected from the Eastern Tropical North Pacific oxygen-deficient zone located off the northwestern coast of Mexico.

Raven said the aggregations of mostly dead phytoplankton, fecal matter, other small organisms, and bits of sand and clay get glued together in a sticky matrix. These particles were sent to the Stanford Synchotron Radiation Lightsource for analysis.

The results of the analysis, including evidence of the production of organic sulfur within the samples, demonstrate what Raven called "pickling" of the dead phytoplankton as they sink through the anoxic area.

"Phytoplankton grow in the surface ocean, but due to gravity, they sink." As they fall through the anoxic region and undergo sulfurization, they create a shield that protects the carbon at their core. 

"Even when it gets to the sediment, bacteria there can't eat these organic particles." Raven explained that, just like the pickles we know and love, the preservation process makes the particles resistant to bacteria, which could explain why more organic carbon is found in the sediments below anoxic ocean zones.

According to the researchers, the sulfurization of organic carbon particles in anoxic ocean zones is actually an ancient process, despite the fact that it has just been confirmed in modern oceans. "It's the same process that can also make petroleum," said Raven. 

It is not yet clear how anoxic zones will interact with climate change. "Potentially as these zones expand, there could be a negative feedback - more CO2 in the atmosphere makes higher temperatures, which makes these zones bigger. These bigger zones then trap more CO2 and put it in the sediment and rocks." 

Raven said that this feedback could help the Earth balance its carbon cycle over time, "but we need to know how this connects to everything else."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How will ocean anoxic zones interact with climate change?

Researchers at UC Santa Barbara have investigated the dynamics of...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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