Tiny engineered processors can now live inside human cells. These cell circuits work by passing a phosphate tag from one protein to the next, turning signals into action in a matter of seconds.



Xiaoyu Yang of <a href="https://www.rice.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> led the effort, working with assistant professor Caleb Bashor and colleagues. 



The team calls their invention a construction kit for synthetic sense‑and‑respond circuits that can sit quietly until disease markers appear and then release treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phosphorylation-is-the-cell-s-fast-dial">Phosphorylation is the cell's fast dial</h2>



Cells already rely on phosphorylation to race messages from the surface to the nucleus. Each tag adds a tiny negative charge that flips a protein between on and off, often in less than a minute.



Early synthetic biologists copied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-37000-years-of-hidden-human-infections/">DNA</a> logic instead because transcription is easier to program. Projects such as the bacterial repressilator showed that gene‑based loops can hum for hours, yet their slow pace limits medical use.



The Rice group chose the faster route. They treated every kinase–phosphatase pair as a Lego‑style block, then wired blocks together to build entirely new pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-cell-circuits-from-protein">Building cell circuits from protein</h2>



Yang and co‑workers designed substrate domains that do not exist in nature. They also built matching reader domains that bind only when a phosphate is present, ensuring clean input‑output links.



“Each module is independent, so we can tune one without breaking the rest,” explained Yang at the study launch. The modularity let the researchers stack up to four cycles without slowing the final response.



Previous attempts tried to graft synthetic parts onto native pathways, an approach that often misfired or drained cell energy. The new cell <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-use-the-same-ancient-midbrain-collicular-circuits-for-both-seeing-and-thinking/">circuits</a> run in parallel and leave natural signaling intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cell-circuits-in-humans">Cell circuits in humans</h2>



Because phosphate tags move fast, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-five-packaged-foods-in-the-u-s-contains-synthetic-dyes/">synthetic</a> networks respond to inflammatory cytokines within minutes. That is orders of magnitude quicker than transcription‑based drug switches that need several hours to make RNA.



In lab tests a single picomolar burst of tumor necrosis factor‑α triggered a clear fluorescent readout. The circuit then amplified the weak pulse into a thousand‑fold rise in output protein, matching predictions from quantitative models.



Many cancer therapies struggle with on‑target side effects such as cytokine release syndrome, which affects up to 100 percent of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK592426/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAR‑T</a> recipients in severe cases. A rapid shut‑off circuit could damp that storm before damage spreads to multiple organs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-smarter-therapies">Toward smarter therapies</h2>



Bashor’s group wired one synthetic cascade to a gene cassette that secretes <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3410706/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interleukin‑10</a> (IL‑10), a well‑known anti‑inflammatory mediator. 



When the engineered human T cells sensed an autoimmune flare signal in a dish, they released just enough IL‑10 to calm the response, then returned to standby.



“Programmable circuits let cells act only when and where they are needed,” noted Bashor after the first successful run. That precision opens doors to implantable therapies that do not rely on external pumps or repeated injections.



Other teams have used synthetic Notch receptors to shape <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27693353/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T cell behavior</a>, but those tools rely on protease cleavage and downstream gene activation that can take hours. The phosphorylation kit adds a faster layer that could sit upstream of existing control schemes.



One of the biggest advantages of phosphorylation circuits is their tunability. By adjusting the expression of each component, the team can fine-tune how strongly and how quickly a cell reacts to a given input.



This level of control is important in real-world settings where too much or too little activity can be harmful. A miscalibrated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-common-mental-health-disorders-share-a-single-brain-circuit/">circuit</a> could overstimulate the immune system or miss a critical disease cue, so every variable must be dialed in with care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cell-circuits-and-the-future">Cell circuits and the future</h2>



The Rice researchers now aim to test their kit in three‑dimensional tumor models. They also plan to explore how many cycles can be chained before noise overwhelms the signal.



A key hurdle is delivery. Lentiviral vectors work in the lab, yet clinical translation will need safer cargo trucks such as non‑integrating DNA or <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Messenger-RNA-mRNA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mRNA</a>.



Regulators will likely ask how the circuits behave over months. Long‑term stability studies are therefore underway, including checks for unintended crosstalk with stress pathways.



Even with those caveats, the work shifts synthetic biology toward protein‑level control over mammalian physiology. It echoes early calls to treat living cells as programmable matter, but now at a speed that matches rapid disease dynamics.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adm8485" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Scientists create tiny processors that function as 'circuits' inside human cells

Tiny engineered processors can now live inside human cells. These cell circuits work by passing a phosphate tag from one protein to the next, turning signals into action in a matter of seconds. Xiaoyu Yang of Rice University led the effort, working with assistant professor Caleb Bashor and colleagues. The team calls their invention a construction kit for synthetic sense‑and‑respond circuits that can sit quietly until disease markers appear and then release treatment. Phosphorylation is the cell's fast dial Cells already rely on phosphorylation to race messages...

In a surprising new study, researchers have traced the origin of human teeth back more than 400 million years when armored <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fish-worldwide-are-shockingly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/">fish</a> called acanthothoracids developed jaws for catching prey. Humans, birds, reptiles, sharks, mammals - all 60,000 species of jawed vertebrates - are descendants of these fish.

In collaboration with the <a href="https://www.esrf.eu/">European Synchrotron Radiation Facility</a>, an international team of scientists led by Uppsala University used the world's most advanced X-ray technology to digitally "dissect" the most primitive jawed fish fossils with teeth. 

The jaws of the fossilized fish, which were uncovered near Prague more than 100 years ago, were found to contain remarkably modern features.

Prior to this study, researchers theorized that teeth first emerged in a group of ancient fish that lived about 430 to 360 million years ago, called the arthrodires. However, arthrodire teeth seem to be too different in position and mode of tooth addition to have given rise to the teeth of modern vertebrates.

To investigate, the scientists turned their attention to acanthothoracids. These fish are believed to have emerged before arthrodires and are thought to be closely related to the very first jawed vertebrates. The teeth of acanthothoracids had never been analyzed in detail.

The researchers used the most advanced techniques available to visualise the internal structure of the fossils in 3D without damaging them. 

"The results were truly remarkable, including well-preserved dentitions that nobody expected to be there," said study lead author Valéria Vaškaninová.

The researchers were able to visualize growth patterns and perfectly preserved cell spaces inside the dentine of these ancient teeth.

Despite some similarities, the acanthothoracid dentitions we found to be fundamentally different from those of arthrodires. Acanthothoracids only added new teeth on the inside, just like sharks, bony fish, and land animals, and the oldest teeth were located right at the jaw margin. For this reason, the acanthothoracid dentitions appeared surprisingly modern.

"To our surprise, the teeth perfectly matched our expectations of a common ancestral dentition for cartilaginous and bony vertebrates," explained Vaškaninová.

"These findings change our whole understanding of the origin of teeth," said study co-author Professor Per Ahlberg. "Even though acanthothoracids are among the most primitive of all jawed vertebrates, their teeth are in some ways far more like modern ones than arthrodire dentitions." 

"Their jawbones resemble those of bony fish and seem to be directly ancestral to our own. When you grin at the bathroom mirror in the morning, the teeth that grin back at you can trace their origins right back to the first jawed vertebrates."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

The origin of human teeth dates back 400 million years

In a surprising new study, researchers have traced the origin...

Destructive waves along Arctic coastlines are set to become even larger as a result of climate change, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a>. 

The analysis of multiple climate models showed that the annual maximum Arctic wave height will become two to three times higher than today's maximum. The research suggests that waves could get up to 6.6 feet higher by the end of this century.

The study also revealed that extreme wave events that historically occurred every 20 years may soon occur once every two to five years. 

Study lead author Mercè Casas-Prat is a research scientist with Environment and Climate Change Canada's (ECCC) Climate Research Division. She explained the potential threats of bigger waves.

"It increases the risk of flooding and erosion. It increases drastically almost everywhere," said Casas-Prat. "This can have a direct impact to the communities that live close to the shoreline."

The northernmost regions of the planet are a global warming hotspot, with some areas experiencing up to three times the warming of the rest of the world, said Casas-Prat. However, there is a lack of information on the effects of this extreme warming and how the consequences will unfold.  

For the current investigation, the researchers used five climate models to simulate historical wave conditions from 1979 to 2005 and future wave conditions from 2081 to 2100. Compared to the historical conditions, the future projections showed a notable wave height increase in almost every region of the Arctic.

The study predicted that the most extreme wave conditions will develop in the Greenland Sea between Greenland and the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard. Here, projections showed that maximum annual wave heights could increase by as 19.7 feet.

Casas-Prat said that the models present a degree of uncertainty about how much wave heights may change, but there is going to be an increase regardless.

In a separate study, Casas-Prat and her team examined the contribution of sea ice retreat to projected increases in wave heights across the Arctic. 

"Sea ice retreat plays an important role, not just by increasing the distance over which wind can blow and generate waves but also by increasing the chance of strong winds to occur over widening ice-free waters," said Casas-Prat.

In a reinforcing feedback loop, an increase in wave heights would also accelerate the rate of sea ice retreat.

Judah Cohen is an MIT climatologist who was not involved in the research. He noted that extreme waves could be particularly devastating to coastal areas that have never previously experienced open water.

"The main conclusions of the paper are that waves will increase in height in the Arctic region and that Arctic coastlines are at greater risk to erosion and flooding are fairly straightforward," said Cohen. 

"We are already seeing these increased risks along Arctic coastlines with damage to coastline structures that previously were never damaged."

The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/21699291">Journal of Geophysical Research - Oceans</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Waves on the Arctic coast will dramatically increase in height

Destructive waves along Arctic coastlines are set to become even...

A global wildlife surveillance system could provide early warnings or even prevent potential <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/biomedical-research-could-protect-humans-from-next-pandemic/">pandemics</a>. We now have the technology to establish such a system, and it is urgently needed, according to a new report from a multidisciplinary team of scientists.

In recent decades, some of the most devastating disease outbreaks, including HIV, Ebola, and COVID-19, were caused by animal viruses that jumped to people. Still yet, there is no global system in place to screen for viruses in wild animals that have the potential to infect humans.

Study co-author Dr. Jennifer A. Philips is the co-director of the Division of Infectious Diseases at <a href="https://medicine.wustl.edu/">Washington University School of Medicine</a>. 

"It's impossible to know how often animal viruses spill over into the human population, but coronaviruses alone have caused outbreaks in people three times in the last 20 years," said Dr. Philips.

"Even a decade ago it would have been difficult to conduct worldwide surveillance at the human-wildlife interface. But because of technological advances, it is now feasible and affordable, and it has never been more obvious how necessary it is."

Animal species often adapt to the viruses they carry and show no symptoms of illness or infection. When different animal species are brought together that do not usually make contact, viruses have the opportunity to jump to new animals. 

The risk of such spillover events is becoming much higher as a result of human activities such as the wild animal and exotic pet trade. Despite the elevated risk, however, there is still no international system set up to screen for disease-causing viruses in wild animals that are often moved and shipped around the world.

"In the lead up to this article, I spoke with friends and colleagues around the world who do wildlife research in Madagascar, Indonesia, Peru, Ecuador and asked them, 'Where do you take your samples for screening? In almost every situation, the answer was 'Nowhere.' Locally, there is nobody with dedicated time and resources to do this work," explained study co-author Gideon Erkenswick. "

"To find new disease-causing viruses, we have to find willing foreign collaborators, then get samples out of the country, which is difficult and expensive."

The experts propose a global surveillance network to screen wild animals at hotspots such as wildlife markets. Local teams of researchers would extract viral genomes from animal samples, rapidly sequence them, and upload the sequences to a central database. 

"There's now a genetic sequencer available that is literally the size of a USB stick," said Erkenswick. "You could bring that and a few other supplies into a rainforest and analyze a sample for sequences associated with disease-causing viruses on site in a matter of hours."

"I mean, if you do chance upon something like the virus that causes COVID-19, do you really want to be collecting it, storing it, transporting it, risking further exposure, sample degradation, and adding months or years of delay, before you figure out what you've got?"

"There are people with the expertise and skills to do this kind of work safely pretty much everywhere in the world, they just haven't been given the tools."

Researchers around the world could help analyze the viral sequences in the central database to identify animal viruses that may be a threat to people. 

"By knowing the diversity out there, and tracking its evolution, we can ensure that we stay ahead of what's in wildlife populations and at the wildlife-human interface," said Dr. Philips. 

"In the past, before modern transportation, spillover events would have been local and spread slowly, giving people elsewhere time to respond. But now the world is so small that an event in one place puts the whole world at risk. This is not someone else's problem. It's everyone's problem."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Global wildlife surveillance could prevent another pandemic

A global wildlife surveillance system could provide early warnings or...

In a new report published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, scientists are describing a large dolphin that was a top <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shield-bugs-shift-their-colors-in-adulthood-to-avoid-predators/">predator</a> during the Oligocene period 25 million years ago. 

The experts analyzed the first nearly complete skeleton of the extinct dolphin Ankylorhiza - a 15-foot-long specimen that was discovered in South Carolina. The species was previously known from only a partial snout fossil. 

The analysis produced ample evidence to show that Ankylorhiza was an apex predator, from the anatomy of the skull to the teeth and flippers. According to the researchers, the dolphin was "very clearly preying upon large-bodied prey like a killer whale."

Ankylorhiza belongs to the group Odontoceti, or toothed whales, which are distinct from baleen whales. The experts noted that many features of Ankylorhiza's postcranial skeleton indicate that modern baleen whales and modern toothed whales must have evolved similar features independently, driven by parallel evolution in similar habitats.

Study co-author Robert Boessenecker is a paleontologist at the College of Charleston in South Carolina.

"The degree to which baleen whales and dolphins independently arrive at the same overall swimming adaptations, rather than these traits evolving once in the common ancestor of both groups, surprised us," said Boessenecker.

"Some examples include the narrowing of the tail stock, increase in the number of tail vertebrae, and shortening of the humerus (upper arm bone) in the flipper."

"This is not apparent in different lineages of seals and sea lions, for example, which evolved into different modes of swimming and have very different looking postcranial skeletons." 

"It's as if the addition of extra finger bones in the flipper and the locking of the elbow joint has forced both major groups of cetaceans down a similar evolutionary pathway in terms of locomotion."

According to the researchers, another intriguing aspect of the study is that Ankylorhiza is the first echolocating whale to become an apex predator. They explained that when Ankylorhiza became extinct about 23 million years ago, killer sperm whales and the shark-toothed dolphin Squalodon evolved to take over as the top predators within 5 million years. 

"Whales and dolphins have a complicated and long evolutionary history, and at a glance, you may not get that impression from modern species," said Boessenecker. "The fossil record has really cracked open this long, winding evolutionary path, and fossils like Ankylorhiza help illuminate how this happened."

Additional fossils of Ankylorhiza are awaiting study, including specimens of juveniles that will provide insight into the dolphin's growth. Boessenecker said that there is still much to learn from fossilized dolphins and baleen whales from South Carolina.

"There are many other unique and strange early dolphins and baleen whales from Oligocene aged rocks in Charleston, South Carolina."

"Because the Oligocene epoch is the time when filter feeding and echolocation first evolved, and since marine mammal localities of that time are scarce worldwide, the fossils from Charleston offer the most complete window into the early evolution of these groups, offering unparalleled evolutionary insight."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Extinct dolphin was an apex predator 25 million years ago

In a new report published by Cell Press, scientists are...

In an independent study, a collaboration among more than 100 scientists has revealed that the benefits of protecting 30 percent of the planet's <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-tourism-has-the-potential-to-transform-conservation/">wildlife</a> would outweigh the costs by a factor of at least five to one. 

The research represents the most comprehensive assessment of the financial and economic impacts of protected areas that has ever been conducted.

The experts quantified the benefits of terrestrial and marine protected areas both financially and in terms of non-monetary gains that include invaluable ecosystem services such as climate change mitigation, cleaner water, and soil conservation.

The analysis showed that dedicating 30 percent of the Earth to protected areas could generate $350 billion annually within the first half of this century.

According to the study authors, the level of conservation and wildlife protection they have proposed would require only 0.16 percent of the global GDP. This is less than one-third of the government subsidies that are currently supporting activities that degrade the environment and destroy nature.

Study co-author Greg Asner is the  director of the <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science.

"There's a misconception that we either can protect our planet or we can have economic growth, but in fact, it's not an 'and/or' dichotomy," explained Asner.

"This report, based on input from over 100 economists and scientists, refutes the argument that achieving 30% protection of the Earth's surface by 2030 requires unrealistic economic costs." 

"Expanding protected areas to 30% actually generates higher overall revenues and while also mitigating very real economic risks of climate change and biodiversity loss. It's imperative that we do both."

Based on the findings, the <a href="https://www.campaignfornature.org/">Campaign for Nature</a> recommends a number of policies, such as increasing long-term funding of protected areas from all sources, including governments, corporations and nonprofits. To achieve the mission, investment in protected areas will have to increase from $24.3 billion to an estimated $140 billion annually by 2030.

A <a href="https://www.campaignfornature.org/protecting-30-of-the-planet-for-nature-economic-analysis">press release</a> from the Campaign for Nature and National Geographic sums up the significance of the study:

"The findings follow growing scientific evidence that at least 30% of the planet’s land and ocean must be protected to address the alarming collapse of the natural world, which now threatens up to one million species with extinction." 

"With such clear economic and scientific data, momentum continues to build for a landmark global agreement that would include the 30% protection target." 

"The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity has included this 30% protected area goal in its draft 10-year strategy, which is expected to be finalized and approved by the Convention’s 196 parties next year in Kunming, China."

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Protected areas generate huge economic gains

In an independent study, a collaboration among more than 100...

Some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-may-directly-attack-heart-cells/">COVID-19</a> patients are developing neurological conditions that are potentially life-altering or even life-threatening. Mental confusion, brain inflammation, stroke, and other neurological complications have been reported from most countries with substantial COVID-19 outbreaks.

Fever, cough, and difficulty breathing are the most widely recognized symptoms of COVID-19. In recent weeks, a growing collection of research has documented a range of unexpected symptoms such as diarrhea, loss of smell, delirium, and skin rashes.

Evidence is also mounting that COVID-19 can cause longer-term health issues beyond respiratory damage, including the onset of diabetes, weakened heart muscles, and kidney damage. Furthermore, a number of neurological complications are emerging in coronavirus patients, such as brain inflammation and stroke.

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a> have reviewed and analyzed COVID-19 studies focused on neurological complications from countries across the globe. 

Overall, the researchers found nearly 1,000 documented cases where COVID-19 patients had developed brain, spinal cord, or nerve disease. Study co-author Dr. Suzannah Lant expects that there are many more similar cases.

"Whilst these complications are relatively uncommon, the huge numbers of COVID-19 cases globally mean the overall number of patients with neurological problems is likely to be quite large," said Dr. Lant.

One of the most serious complications linked to COVID-19 is encephalitis, which is inflammation and swelling of the brain. Study co-author Dr. Ava Easton is the CEO of the Encephalitis Society.

"It is really important that doctors around the world recognize that COVID-19 can cause encephalitis and other brain problems, which often have potentially devastating, life-changing consequences for patients," said Dr. Easton.

Study senior author Tom Solomon is a professor of Neurology and the director of the Institute of Infection and Global Health at the University of Liverpool.

"Although such patients are being seen everywhere the virus occurs, many of the reports are lacking in detail," said Professor Solomon. 

"We are currently pooling data from individual patients all around the world, so that we can get a more complete picture. Doctors who would like to contribute patients to this analysis can contact us via the Global COVID-Neuro Network website."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/home">The Lancet Neurology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

COVID-19 can cause dangerous neurological complications

Some COVID-19 patients are developing neurological conditions that are potentially...

Over the rest of this century, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fish-worldwide-are-shockingly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/">climate</a> in Texas will steadily become more extreme. A new study predicts that the state will endure increasingly drier summers, potentially leading up to the worst drought conditions that Texas has seen in 1,000 years.

The experts analyzed the most advanced climate models to forecast future drought conditions. They also projected relevant information for regional water planning districts, water suppliers, and stakeholders in the agricultural industry.

The results of the analysis clearly indicate that the state of Texas is getting hotter and drier, and now is the time to take action.

The study showed that Texas was much wetter about 10,000 to 15,000 years ago as the Earth emerged from the last Ice Age. Over the last 1,000 years, there have been multiple cases of megadroughts - prolonged droughts that persist for at least two decades. 

Study lead author John Nielsen-Gammon is a climatologist and professor at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a>.

"Our study shows that the drier conditions expected in the latter half of the 21st century could be drier than any of those megadroughts, depending on how you measure dryness," said Professor Nielsen-Gammon.

The drought of the 1950s was one of the worst natural disasters in Texas history. The seven-year dry spell remains the most severe drought in Texas in the past 125 years. 

Despite a history of devastating droughts in Texas, the researchers found that current water plans do not account for potential declines in the state's water supply.

"The state water plan doesn't explicitly consider climate change in figuring out how water supply and water demand will both change," said Professor Nielsen-Gammon. 

"As our paper points out, pinning numbers on either of those changes is a difficult challenge, and it's not simply a matter of estimating changes in precipitation." 

"Tying future water supply to criteria established by the drought of record is a defensible choice, but policymakers should be aware that the chances of exceeding the drought of record are probably increasing year by year."

The study revealed that some regions of Texas will be disproportionately impacted by drier conditions. The researchers noted that West Texas is particularly prone to drought conditions.

"West Texas seems most likely to get a double whammy: decreased rainfall and increased temperatures," said Professor Nielsen-Gammon. "Even though rainfall has increased statewide over the past century by about 10 percent, West Texas has seen little to no increase." 

"West Texas is already planning for what happens as one or more critical aquifers get depleted. Climate change is going to make that depletion happen a little bit faster, but the decline of the Ogallala Aquifer is primarily caused by water extraction for irrigation rather than by climate change."

It is very likely that Texas will continue to become hotter and drier because any long-term changes in precipitation will be "dwarfed" by how much more evaporation will deplete the water supply, explained Professor Nielsen-Gammon. He said the severity of the future dryness will likely depend on local circumstances, and there are key questions that remain to be answered.

"These include ones such as, does it matter what time of year sees increases or decreases in precipitation? How much water supply is there? Is the most important issue the amount of water or the health of the crops and foliage? Is it more important to get runoff or to have the rainfall soak into the ground?" 

Professor Nielsen-Gammon emphasized that droughts are temporary by definition, so it would not be correct to think of the future as a state of permanent drought.

"It's really a change in the climate, with the normally dry conditions in West Texas slowly migrating toward East Texas."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/23284277">Earth's Future</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Texas could face the worst drought conditions in 1,000 years 

Over the rest of this century, the climate in Texas...

In a new study from <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, experts used tiny radio transmitters to monitor the movements and activities of bumblebees. The researchers found that after establishing their nests, bumblebees modify their lifestyle, including diet and habitat.

The analysis, which was led by Pablo Cavigliasso of the <a href="https://www.argentina.gob.ar/inta">Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria</a>, suggests that bees require diversified landscapes to support their needs, which change throughout various phases of life.

According to the study authors, the findings contribute to the growing understanding of how bumblebees use the environment, and provide valuable insight for conservation during a critical time in the bumblebee life cycle.

Many bumblebee species are rapidly declining, and some groups are even critically endangered. Identifying the resources used by bumblebees in agricultural landscapes can inform farmland management practices that support bee populations and protect the important pollination services they provide.

For the current study, the researchers investigated the habitat selection of 17 queen bumblebees across blueberry fields in Entre Ríos province, Argentina. After attaching tiny 0.2g radio transmitters to each queen bee, the team used radio telemetry to track their locations.

Before they established a nest, the queens had a much larger range, often searching for suitable nesting areas throughout the blueberry fields. However, once a nest was established, they transitioned to a smaller range along the edges of the fields near the forest. 

The bees also switched over to a diet of wild floral species. With a nest to maintain, the bees seemed to prefer landscapes with greater floral diversity to support their growing worker colony.

The research highlights the need for land owners and farmers to consider the full life cycle of bees, from the time of nest formation to the emergence of worker bees. This approach could help maintain native bees in farmlands for many generations, along with their valuable pollination services.

"In this study we provide insight into how bumblebee queens use different habitat elements at crucial periods in their life cycle, showing the importance of mass flowering crops like blueberry in the first flights, and how diversified landscapes help support bee populations as their needs changes during the during the early phases of its life cycle,' said Cavigliasso.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Bumblebees change their lifestyle after establishing a nest

In a new study from PLOS, experts used tiny radio...

A new study has linked inadequate <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-quality-linked-to-heart-disease/">sleep</a> to mental health complications in young people. The research reveals that sleep deprivation may compromise the emotional well-being of children.

Study lead author Dr. Candice Alfano is a professor of Psychology at the <a href="https://www.uh.edu/">University of Houston</a> and the director of the Sleep and Anxiety Center of Houston.

"After sleep restriction, we observed changes in the way children experience, regulate and express their emotions," said Dr. Alfano. "But, somewhat to our surprise, the most significant alterations were found in response to positive rather than negative emotional stimuli."

A growing collection of research shows that sleep deprivation can damage emotional health, yet there has been a lack of experimental studies to investigate this correlation in children.

For the current study, Dr. Alfano and her team assessed 53 children between the ages of 7 and 11 using a variety of methods. The children participated in two emotional assessments - one following a night of healthy sleep and one following two nights of extremely restricted sleep.

The children viewed a range of pictures and movie clips to evoke both positive and negative emotions. The researchers recorded how the children responded on multiple levels, including their facial expressions. 

The team also collected respiratory sinus arrhythmias, an indicator of cardiac-linked emotion regulation, for a more objective approach.

"Studies based on subjective reports of emotion are critically important, but they don't tell us much about the specific mechanisms through which insufficient sleep elevates children's psychiatric risk." 

According to Dr. Alfano, the findings may provide a new understanding of how poor sleep can "spill over" into children's everyday social and emotional lives. 

"The experience and expression of positive emotions are essential for children's friendships, healthy social interactions and effective coping. Our findings might explain why children who sleep less on average have more peer-related problems," said Dr. Alfano.

The study also showed that the emotional impacts of sleep loss were not consistent among the children. In particular, children with pre-existing anxiety symptoms exhibited the most dramatic emotional responses to sleep deprivation.

Dr. Alfano said the results highlight a need to prioritize healthy sleep habits in emotionally vulnerable children.

The study is published in the <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14697610">Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Sleep deprivation affects emotional well-being in children

A new study has linked inadequate sleep to mental health...

Rising temperatures in Lake Michigan may help the invasive Asian carp gain a stronghold, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>. 

The researchers found that warming waters reduce the ability of local quagga <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mussels-technology-oil-spills/">mussels</a> to serve as an ecological barrier against the spread of the carp.

Trillions of freshwater mussels known as quagga mussels cover the bottom of Lake Michigan. Some scientists suggest that the tiny mussels could help prevent the establishment of Asian carp by competing with them for algae and other types of plankton. 

The new study all but shuts down this theory, even in the best case scenario. The researchers determined that the ability of quagga mussels to help eliminate Asian carp is already limited, and the combination of global warming and nutrient pollution will further limit the potential for mussels to stop the spread of the fish.

As Asian carp continue to expand their range, concerns are growing that the fish will access the Great Lakes through the Chicago Area Waterway System. The carp could outcompete plankton-eating fish across the Great Lakes, including the larvae of most species, potentially devastating the region's $7 billion fishing industry.

Last year, the research team reported that two species of Asian carp - bighead and silver carp - pose a high risk of becoming established in Lake Michigan.

Study lead author Peter Alsip is an expert at the Cooperative Institute for Great Lakes Research.

"Our new research demonstrates that the presence of an already entrenched food competitor - the mussels - has a limited capacity to act as a barrier to a bighead and silver carp invasion, and that climate warming and nutrient enrichment could further diminish the mussels' ability to affect Asian carp habitat," explained Alsip.

The investigation was focused on how climate change, nutrient pollution, and the arrival of quagga mussels have affected Lake Michigan's vulnerability to bighead and silver carp. The invasive fish are currently present in adjacent watersheds, but not in the lake itself.

Computer simulations showed that the levels of climate warming that are predicted for the coming decades will improve Asian carp habitat in two significant ways.

First, the fish will feed more actively in warmer waters during the spring. In addition, the summer stratification period - when lake waters separate into three distinct layers - will persist for longer periods of time. As a result, Asian carp will spend less time competing with mussels for food in the top waters.

Prolonged summer stratification would not only block the mussels' access to food in surface waters, but would also open up previously unsuitable offshore habitats for Asian carp. The simulations revealed that warmer waters will double the volume of suitable habitat for bighead carp in the spring and increase the volume of suitable springtime habitat for silver carp by nearly one-third.

"One of our key findings is that spring is the most affected season, and that's when most of the fish species in Lake Michigan have their plankton-eating larval stages," said study co-author Hongyan Zhang. "Thus, climate changes and nutrient levels that favor Asian carp establishment may also enhance the negative effects of Asian carp on other fish species."

Overall, the potential for high phosphorus levels will have the most influence on Asian carp habitat suitability across Lake Michigan. The modeling study showed that increased phosphorus concentrations resulted in the longest growing seasons for Asian carp and the largest volume of suitable habitat.

Any future increases in phosphorus levels throughout Lake Michigan would only create a more hospitable environment for Asian carp, explained the study authors.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10530">Biological Invasions</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global warming could help Asian carp invade Lake Michigan

Rising temperatures in Lake Michigan may help the invasive Asian...

Experts at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> have developed a handheld test that can detect 17 types of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-water-treatment-method-is-eco-friendly/">water</a>  contaminants, including lead, copper, and pharmaceuticals. 

The system has been compared to a pregnancy test, because it only takes one drop of water and a few minutes to produce a positive or negative result. According to the researchers, the tests are also extremely inexpensive to make.

The experts tested their technology in Paradise, California. Toxins had corrupted the water supply in Paradise after the Camp Fire, the deadliest and most destructive wildfire in California history.

The new platform is powered by synthetic biology, and can be continuously updated to detect additional types of pollutants. If the test detects a specific contaminant level that exceeds the EPA's standards, it glows green.

Study lead author Julius Lucks is a professor of Chemical and Biological Engineering in Northwestern's McCormick School of Engineering and a member of the Center for Synthetic Biology.

"Current water tests rely on a centralized laboratory that contains really expensive equipment and requires expertise to operate," said Professor Lucks. "Sending in a sample can cost up to $150 and take several weeks to get results." 

"We're offering a technology that enables anyone to directly test their own water and know if they have contamination within minutes. It's so simple to use that we can put it into the hands of the people who need it most."

A major obstacle for ensuring the safety of drinking water is that people cannot usually see or taste contaminants.

"Nature has already solved this problem," said study co-first author Khalid Alam. "Biology has spent over three billion years evolving an elegant solution to detect contaminants."

According to Professor Luck's, the team found that bacteria naturally "taste" things in the water. 

"They do so with little molecular-level 'taste buds.' Cell-free synthetic biology allows us to take those little molecular taste buds out and put them into a test tube. We can then 're-wire' them up to produce a visual signal. It glows to let the user quickly and easily see if there's a contaminant in their water," explained Professor Lucks.

The "taste buds" are freeze-dried and placed in test tubes. Adding a drop of water to the tube and flicking it triggers a chemical reaction that creates a green glow in the presence of a contaminant.

"The magic is in the tubes," said Professor Lucks. "We compose everything and freeze dry it - the same process as making astronaut ice cream."

The testing platform - RNA output sensors activated by ligand induction - is nicknamed ROSALIND in honor of the famous chemist Rosalind Franklin.

The project was also inspired by Professor Lucks' wife, Northwestern anthropologist Sera Young, who studies global food and water security.

"Sera researches how poor water quality impacts people's daily lives," said Professor Lucks. "People tend to go to the most convenient sources to get water. But if they knew that water was contaminated, they might choose to travel farther to find safer water. We want everyone to have the tools they need in order to make informed decisions."

Upon testing the new system in Paradise, California, the team found that ROSALIND successfully identified the presence of elevated toxic metals in the water supply. The test provided much faster and less expensive results when compared to gold-standard water tests.

"Laboratory testing doesn't scale," said Alam. "It shouldn't take days to get an answer to the simple question: 'Is my water safe to drink?'"

"To ensure access to safe and clean drinking water, we need technologies that will allow easy monitoring of water quality," said Professor Lucks. "With a simple, easy-to-use, handheld device like ROSALIND, you can test the water in your home or out in the field - where you would want to use it most."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nbt/">Nature Biotechnology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

New test detects water contamination in minutes 

Experts at Northwestern University have developed a handheld test that...

A new study published in <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a> reports that individuals who come down with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/seasonal-flu-deaths-are-higher-in-u-s-cities-with-pro-sports-teams/">influenza</a> A have a lower risk of infection later in life. The research also shows that early exposure to the seasonal flu has an influence on the effectiveness of flu vaccines.

The findings may ultimately help to predict age-specific risks of contracting the flu.

The seasonal flu is an acute respiratory infection that has three types - A, B and C. Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes, and the A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) are the subtypes that are currently in circulation. 

Each year in the United States, the flu causes around 100,000 to 600,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 to 27,000 deaths.

The seasonal flu evolves rapidly, and the emergence of new strains leaves more people susceptible to infection. However, it has been difficult for experts to determine how susceptibility arises and changes over time.

Study first author Philip Arevalo is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Ecology and Evolution at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a>.

"Since the risk of influenza infection in a given age group changes over time, factors other than age may affect our susceptibility to infection," said Arevalo. "We wanted to see whether these differences can be explained in part by the protection gained from childhood flu infection, which has lasting impacts on the immune response to future infections and the protection against new influenza A subtypes."

The researchers set out to measure the effects of early flu exposure and to understand how this exposure may influence the effectiveness of vaccines.

The investigation was focused on data from the 2007-2008 to 2017-2018 flu seasons in the Marshfield Epidemiologic Study Area (MESA) in Marshfield, Wisconsin. During the study, individuals were recruited and tested for flu when seeking care for acute respiratory infection. 

The team applied statistical models to the data to analyze the documented flu cases along with vaccine effectiveness.

The analysis showed that despite the large-scale evolution of influenza A subtypes H1N1 and H3N2 over the study period, early infection reduced the likelihood of an individual seeking medical attention for the same subtype later in life. This effect was found to be stronger for H1N1 compared to H3N2. 

The study also revealed that the effectiveness of a flu vaccine varies with both age and birth year, suggesting that flu vaccinations are also influenced by early exposure.

"We hope the findings from our study will improve our understanding of influenza epidemiology and the low and variable effectiveness of the seasonal flu vaccine," said study senior author Sarah Cobey. "This would lead to better forecasting and vaccination strategies to help combat future flu seasons."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Early exposure to seasonal flu lowers susceptibility later in life

A new study published in eLife reports that individuals who...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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