For years, bacteria dominated gut health research. Now, the gut virome is gaining attention as a major player in health and disease. Bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-think-they-found-two-key-bacteria-that-cause-multiple-sclerosis/">bacteria</a>, make up around 90% of the gut virome.



Though small in biomass, they outnumber bacteria by up to tenfold. These tiny viruses shape microbial communities, influence immunity, and affect gut health.



A landmark review published recently in Precision Clinical Medicine reveals how the gut virome links to diseases like inflammatory bowel disease (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/inflammatory-bowel-disease/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IBD</a>), <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colonoscopy-vs-stool-tests-doctors-found-out-which-is-better-at-detecting-cancer/">colorectal cancer</a>, and Clostridium difficile infection (<a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15548-c-diff-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDI</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-s-virome-changes-across-life-stages">Gut's virome changes across life stages</h2>



The gut virome changes constantly throughout life. Infants show high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-that-eat-forever-chemicals-discovered-in-contaminated-soil/">diversity</a> in gut bacteriophages (also called phages), which is shaped by birth method, diet, and antibiotic exposure.



As individuals grow, diet and hormones refine the virome. In adults, phages and bacteria form a stable, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-021-00536-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">balanced community</a>.



However, aging shifts this balance. Older adults show more lysogenic phages, which integrate into bacterial genomes and potentially alter metabolism and immune interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-environment-shape-the-virome">Diet and environment shape the virome</h2>



Diet greatly <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9455721/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influences</a> the virome. High-fiber diets support beneficial phages by encouraging helpful bacteria. Western diets, rich in fat and sugar, promote harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/">phages</a>.



Urbanization reduces exposure to natural viruses. Studies show that rural diets which are rich in fiber boost gut virome diversity.



Host genetics and immunity also play roles. Genetic variants can affect viral detection and clearance. Immune defenses, like <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/interferons" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interferons</a> and <a href="https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/receptors-molecules/immunoglobulin-iga" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IgA</a>, keep the virome balanced.



However, immune dysfunction can trigger viral imbalances, worsening conditions like HIV and gut inflammation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viruses-and-bacteria-interacting">Viruses and bacteria interacting</h2>



Viruses, including phages, along with bacteria and fungi form a complex and dynamic ecosystem in the gut. The components interact in positive and negative ways, thus affecting host metabolism, immune regulation and resistance to disease. 



The gut virome plays a crucial regulatory role in these intricate interactions. Phages interact with bacteria through lytic, lysogenic, and budding cycles, which regulate bacterial populations and gene flow. 



In a form of microbial arms race, the bacteria defend against phages using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR systems</a> and the phages evolve escape mechanisms.



Some phages even boost bacterial metabolism and biofilm formation, affecting disease risk. For instance, phages can transfer genes that enhance bacterial survival in acidic conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virome-s-influence-on-immunity">Virome’s influence on immunity</h2>



The virome affects gut immunity deeply. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">Phages</a> can anchor to gut mucus and form a protective barrier. They also shape our own <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459471/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T and B cell</a> activity and regulate macrophages. In addition, viruses that infect eukaryotic cells affect immune pathways and maintain gut balance.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/virome_microbiome_human-gut_graphic_credit-PCM_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/virome_microbiome_human-gut_graphic_credit-PCM_1s.webp" alt="This infographic illustrates four major therapeutic approaches—fecal microbial transplantation (FMT), phage therapy, dietary interventions, and probiotics/prebiotics—that aim to restore gut health by modulating the microbiome and virome. Each strategy offers unique methods, benefits, and challenges in managing gastrointestinal disorders such as IBD, CRC, and CDI, highlighting the growing potential of virome-informed precision medicine. Credit: Precision Clinical Medicine" class="wp-image-1976450"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This infographic illustrates four major therapeutic approaches—fecal microbial transplantation (FMT), phage therapy, dietary interventions, and probiotics/prebiotics—that aim to restore gut health by modulating the microbiome and virome. Each strategy offers unique methods, benefits, and challenges in managing gastrointestinal disorders such as IBD, CRC, and CDI, highlighting the growing potential of virome-informed precision medicine. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Precision Clinical Medicine</figcaption></figure>



However, infections and antibiotics can disrupt this harmony and lead to inflammation. Phages can trigger TLR9 pathways, causing excessive immune responses such as those linked to IBD.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virome-s-role-in-disease">Virome’s role in disease</h2>



Imbalances in the gut virome have been linked to several gut diseases. In IBD, specific phages become abundant and worsen inflammation.



Certain groups of phages (such as Caudovirales) amplify immune responses, while norovirus and rotavirus can damage the gut lining. Viral imbalances are also common in IBS and CDI.



In colorectal cancer, phages and eukaryotic viruses like HPV and JC virus (polyomavirus) appear more often. They may promote tumor growth by altering bacterial communities and gene expression.



Studies suggest that some phages directly influence cancer risk by promoting biofilms and transferring harmful genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virus-based-treatments">Virus-based treatments</h2>



Several therapies now explore the virome’s potential to treat certain diseases or conditions. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) restores gut balance and reduces inflammation in IBD and CDI.



FMT works not only by shifting bacteria but also by transferring beneficial phages. Studies show that donor phages often align quickly with recipients and promote recovery.



Phage therapy, which uses viruses to kill specific bacteria, is another approach that is gaining traction. It can reduce harmful microbes while preserving beneficial ones.



Researchers have created phage cocktails that target specific gut pathogens like E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, and this approach has had promising results in animal models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-as-a-tool-to-reshape-the-virome">Diet as a tool to reshape the virome</h2>



Dietary strategies also reshape the virome. High-fiber diets boost beneficial phages and support bacterial diversity.



Whey protein has shown potential in managing Crohn’s disease by improving phage-bacteria interactions.



Other interventions, such as exclusive enteral nutrition and low-FODMAP diets, also show benefits in gut diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probiotics-prebiotics-and-phages">Probiotics, prebiotics, and phages</h2>



Probiotics introduce beneficial bacteria, while prebiotics feed them. Combining them, known as symbiotics, shows promise for restoring and maintaining gut health.



Recent research suggests that adding phages can enhance these effects. Phage-based products, such as PreforPro, have already shown benefits in clinical trials.



These products can reduce populations of harmful bacteria and improve probiotic performance, thereby creating a more stable gut environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-gut-viruses-to-detect-diseases-early">Using gut viruses to detect diseases early</h2>



The gut virome is now being studied as a diagnostic tool. Viral patterns are more stable than bacterial ones, making them reliable biomarkers.



Distinct virome signatures can predict IBD and colorectal cancer. Machine learning models already use virome data to detect these diseases early.



Virome profiling may also track treatment responses, such as FMT success in IBD and CDI.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-prospects">Challenges and future prospects</h2>



Despite the excitement over potential new treatments, many hurdles remain. Current methods struggle to capture the full virome due to technical limits.



Many phages are still unculturable, and their roles remain unclear. Researchers are working to improve viral databases and develop targeted therapies. Once these gaps close, virome-based therapies could change how we treat gut diseases.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pcm/article/8/2/pbaf010/8152264" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Precision Clinical Medicine</a>.



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Move over microbiome, it's time for the human gut's 'virome' to shine

For years, bacteria dominated gut health research. Now, the gut virome is gaining attention as a major player in health and disease. Bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect bacteria, make up around 90% of the gut virome. Though small in biomass, they outnumber bacteria by up to tenfold. These tiny viruses shape microbial communities, influence immunity, and affect gut health. A landmark review published recently in Precision Clinical Medicine reveals how the gut virome links to diseases like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), colorectal cancer, and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)....

An international team of researchers has demonstrated how simple multicellular organisms called Placozoa evolved to form complex nervous systems that transmit signals between different parts of the body. 

The researchers found that Placozoa can coordinate their body shape and movement in the absence of a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nervous-system-immune-infection/">nervous system</a> by using a signalling system among small peptides between cells.

Study co-author Gáspár Jékely is a professor at the Living Systems Institute of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.

“Each peptide can be used individually as a different signal, but the peptides could also be used sequentially or together in different combinations which allows for very high numbers of unique signals between cells,” explained Professor Jékely. “This explains how Placozoans can coordinate sophisticated behavioral sequences such as feeding.”

Placozoans are the simplest of all animals with just three cell layers. Despite having no true nerve or muscle cells, they manage to glide across surfaces in the ocean. The researchers investigated how these simple organisms can perform complex behavior without a nervous system.

They found that the cells of Placozoa contain a variety of small peptides, made up of amino acids that are secreted from one cell and detected by neighboring cells. This system represents how more complex organisms use neuropeptides for signalling within the nervous system.

“These new findings show that outer appearances can be deceiving, because cells that look the same are actually signalling with different molecules and are very likely to have different functions,” said study co-author Professor Dirk Fasshauer.

The researchers constructed synthetic versions of the Placozoan signalling peptides to examine the role of each peptide in coordinating movement and body shape.

The team discovered that the peptides changed Placozoan behavior within seconds, and that each peptide had a unique effect. The main behavioral changes induced by the peptides included crinkling, turning, flattening, and internal churning - a behavior associated with feeding.

“It might seem strange to use an animal with no neurons or synapses to study nervous system evolution, but although Placozoans are nerveless, you can still find within their cells the basic molecules needed for communication in complex nervous systems,” said study co-author Dr. Frédérique Varoqueaux. “So studying Placozoans can tell us more about the origins of neurons and how they became the body's control system.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, Earth.com Staff Writer

Image Credit: Bernd Schierwater - Eitel M, Osigus H-J, DeSalle R, Schierwater B (2013) Global Diversity of the Placozoa. PLoS ONE

Tiny organisms coordinate their movement without a nervous system

An international team of researchers has demonstrated how simple multicellular...

The gene-editing technique CRISPR/Cas9 has taken the scientific world by storm in recent years, generating buzz about the potential to use gene-editing in preventing birth defects and disease before they ever happen. Diseases such as cancer, heart conditions, and dementia are a result of mutations in our genes, and CRISPR/Cas9 may one day be advanced enough to eradicate the root cause of these conditions.

While all of this sounds exciting and promising, it’s going to take years of work before the full potential of the CRISPR/Cas9 technique can be utilized in humans. Much of this work will require the use of genetic models in the lab, which are a key component of scientists’ research. To develop animal models of disease, the genes of the animals must be manipulated to replicate the genetic defect that is the basis of the disease. Ironically, the CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing technique will be an enormous asset in this development, and is currently revolutionizing disease model development.

The CRISPR/Cas9 technique is derived from the bacterial immune response, which is a process by which a short sequence from the DNA of an invader – such as a virus – is stored in the bacterial genome. If the bacterium is infected a second time by the same virus, the stored DNA sequence helps guide a protein (Cas9) to the matching region in the viral genome. Cas9 then causes DNA breaks that lead to annihilation of the invading virus. 

Researchers discovered that they could use the CRISPR/Cas9 system to deliver Cas9 into cells along with a guide molecule in order to direct to the exact site that they want DNA to be cut. When combined with a single-stranded template for DNA repair after the cut, this system has allowed researchers to introduce specific point mutations to replicate the mutations that cause certain diseases in humans.

Despite these advances, the process is still complex and imperfect. Instituting a blanket “knockout” of a gene with this technique is relatively straightforward, but introducing specific point mutations in a “knock-in” model still causes issues. Now, three articles published in <a href="http://dmm.biologists.org/">Disease Models &amp; Mechanisms</a> report on the potential for using CRISPR/Cas9 to create knock-in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/zebrafish-spinal-cord-injuries/">zebrafish</a> models of human disease. 

“There are almost no limitations on what we can design in zebrafish or other systems to generate models of human genetic disorders,” says Dr. Lisa Maves, the lead author of an article from <a href="https://www.seattlechildrens.org/research/">Seattle Children's Research Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>. “CRISPR/Cas9 has really for the first time made it feasible to test the effects of human disease-associated genetic variants in animal models.”

Her research team worked on using CRISPR/Cas9 zebrafish models to test whether variants in gene sequences identified in patients with congenital heart defects contribute to the development of the disease. 

Meanwhile, Dr. Andy Willaert and his team at <a href="https://www.ugent.be/en">Ghent University</a> have been investigating how point mutations in zebrafish with CRISPR/Cas9 and single-stranded repair templates can introduce errors into the zebrafish genome.

“Zebrafish and CRISPR/Cas9 form the ideal duo for massive and swift disease model generation,” says Willaert. “However, genome editing using a single-stranded repair template often occurs erroneously and commonly used analysis techniques do not always detect such erroneous repair. This can lead to a model with a gene disruption instead of knock-in and a possible misinterpretation of the experimental results obtained. As these models might be eventually used in therapeutic applications, we want to stress the possible occurrence of erroneous repair.”

The final article is from the Netherlands, where a team led by Dr. Jeroen Bakkers from the <a href="https://www.hubrecht.eu/">Hubrecht Institute</a> and Dr. Gijs van Haaften from the <a href="https://www.umcutrecht.nl/en/Research">University Medical Center Utrecht</a> investigated the potential of CRISPR/Cas9 technology in developing patient-specific alleles for modelling human disease. They did so by generating knock-in zebrafish models of four human cardiovascular disorders caused by point mutations. “The ability to introduce point mutations exactly replicating the situation in human patients is paramount for proper understanding of disease and for successful development of therapeutic strategies,” explains first author Dr. Federico Tessadori.

Ultimately, all of these articles focused on the massive potential of creating precise knock-in zebrafish models of human diseases caused by point mutations. Many hope to continue improving the CRISPR/Cas9 techniques for developing error-free models and opening new opportunities for chemical screens and drug development.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Seattle Children's

Zebrafish gene editing used to model human diseases

The gene-editing technique CRISPR/Cas9 has taken the scientific world by...

Ice Station

Over 70 percent of our planet is covered with water, and yet more than 80 percent of the world’s oceans remain unexplored, according to the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). </a>

For the permanently ice-covered Arctic ocean, mapping life on the ocean floor is challenging, and there exists little data on species diversity, biomass, and composition at different depths. 

In fact, the deepest parts of the Arctic Ocean are some of the least studied on Earth. 

The Arctic is an area of particular interest because of its susceptibility to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-arctic-taller-climate-change/">climate change</a>. If researchers don’t have a thorough understanding of the Arctic’s ecosystem now, it will be difficult to understand how the Arctic is impacted by climate change in the future. 

Researchers led by the <a href="https://www.mpi-bremen.de/en/Home.html">Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology</a> recently conducted one of the most extensive surveys of animal life on the ocean floor of the Central Arctic Ocean, and the results show that species diversity at the lowest depths of the Arctic Ocean is similar to diversity patterns recorded in warmer waters.

[caption id="attachment_1861029" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/arctic.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861029" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/arctic-1024x683.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="467" /></a> Image Credit: Sea Ice Group, Alfred Wegener Institute[/caption]

The study was published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0200121">PLOS ONE. </a>

Life in the Benthic zone (the lowest depths of the ocean) of the Central Arctic is sparse because of the long winters and ice cover, but the researchers wanted to characterize species composition for benthic communities, something long overlooked by previous studies. 

The researchers reviewed data from ocean floor surveys and categorized communities of marine life based on depth. 

It was determined that there were five different groups of benthic communities, the outer shelf, the upper slope, lower slope, mid-slope, and the abyssal plain. 

Species abundance, biomass, and diversity were at their lowest at the plain depths (3,236-4,381 meters). 

The dominating groups of species also differed for each group. For example in the upper slope, (73-577 meters), bivalves, polychaetes, and Cirratulidae made up the dominant species. 

Biomass decreased at the lower depths in correlation with available food, but the rate of decline witnessed by the researchers was greater than in more temperate oceans. 

The researchers hope that the new study will provide a crucial groundwork for future research and will help answer questions about the impacts of climate change. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Alfred Wegener Institute, Stefan Hendricks

Scientists explore uncharted parts of the Arctic Ocean seafloor

Over 70 percent of our planet is covered with water,...

The possibilities most people associate with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/virtual-reality-beach-dental-procedures/">virtual reality technology</a> (VR) usually revolve around an immersive experience in the next big videogame – but this technology can be put to even better use. New research from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> uses a virtual reality experience called “Becoming Homeless” to see how this new technology can affect people’s level of empathy.

Published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>, the study used VR to lead participants through the experience of becoming homeless, showing different scenarios one might experience in the process. They compared empathy levels of those who did the VR experience to participants who were shown other media versions of the VR scenario, such as text.

“Experiences are what define us as humans, so it’s not surprising that an intense experience in VR is more impactful than imagining something,” says Jeremy Bailenson, a professor of communication and a co-author of the paper.

Previous research exploring how VR affects empathy has produced varying results, and most studies used small sample sizes made up of primarily college students. Furthermore, few studies have examined the long-term effects of VR on empathy.

For their study, the researchers conducted two-month-long trials with over 560 participants of varying ages and ethnic backgrounds. Some participants in the study were shown the VR experience “Becoming Homeless,” in which they are led through multiple interactive scenarios of what would happen if they lost their jobs. Scenes range from looking around an apartment to find items to sell to pay for rent, to sheltering on a public bus and protecting their belongings from being stolen by a stranger.

The results showed that participants who underwent the VR experience were more likely to have long-lasting positive attitudes towards the homeless than participants who did the other tasks. The same individuals were also more likely to sign a petition in support of affordable housing.

“Taking the perspective of others in VR produces more empathy and prosocial behaviors in people immediately after going through the experience and over time in comparison to just imagining what it would be like to be in someone else’s shoes,” says lead author Fernanda Herrera, a graduate student in the Department of Communication at Stanford. “And that is an exciting finding.”

These findings show that VR can be used for much more than just personal entertainment.

“What’s special about this research is that it gives us longitudinal evidence that VR changes attitudes and behaviors of people in a positive way,” explains Bailenson.

The impact that “Becoming Homeless” had on some members of the study didn’t go away once the research was completed. “Long after our studies were complete, some research participants emailed me to reflect on how they started becoming more involved in the issue afterward,” says Herrara. “One of them befriended a homeless person in their community and wrote me again once that person found a home. It was really inspiring to see that positive, lasting impact.”

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image credit: L.A. Cicero

Virtual reality experiences can help promote empathy, study shows

The possibilities most people associate with virtual reality technology (VR)...

One family of tiny, shelled organisms that float in the sea called Planktonic foraminifera (forams) are providing scientists with information that proves that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/decoded-genomes-shark-evolution/">evolution</a> is not always a slow, gradual process. A team of researchers discovered a foram lineage which evolved much more quickly than anyone could have predicted.

Study first author Russell Bicknell is a palaeontologist at the University of New England's <a href="https://www.une.edu.au/research/research-centres-institutes/palaeoscience-research-centre">Palaeoscience Research Centre</a> in Australia.

“It was an exciting moment. What our study and many others are starting to agree on is that evolution of forams is not necessarily gradual, as Darwin and more recent scientists thought,” explained Bicknell. “Life can exist for long periods of time exhibiting only minor changes followed by rapid, punctuated shifts.”

The investigation was focused on the size and shape of 1,459 fossils belonging to a lineage of forams called Truncorotalia, which lived 5.9 to 4.5 million years ago. The measurements revealed that the shape of Truncorotalia's shell rapidly changed 5.1 million years ago, when the oceans were cooling and flooding the earth.

“The abrupt change in the shape of Truncorotalia's shell shows that foram lineages can evolve rapidly, explosively, and dramatically,” said Bicknell. “That points to more complex evolutionary dynamics than previously thought and justifies a re-evaluation of the evolutionary dynamics of other foram lineages.”

According to the researchers, two post-Darwinian theories could describe the rapid changes they observed: punctuated equilibrium and quantum evolution. Punctuated equilibrium refers to short bursts followed by steady periods of morphological change within a lineage, while the theory of quantum evolution describes broader splits into new families, orders, and classes.

The researchers may have observed quantum evolution at a species level for the first time. Regardless, the researchers believe that previous theories of gradual evolution in foram lineages should be re-evaluated.

“Evolution is so much more complicated than we think,” said Bicknell. “How, when, and why evolutionary changes occur constantly surprise us. It is one of the reasons working in evolution is so much fun.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Evolutionary changes are not always gradual

One family of tiny, shelled organisms that float in the...

At the peak of the hysteria surrounding the poliovirus in the 1950s, famed scientist Jonas Salk discovered the polio vaccine and changed the world forever. The vaccine has now led to the potential for total eradication of the poliovirus being an attainable goal. However, for global eradication of polio to occur, it will take more than just widely-available vaccines.

A study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> suggests that robust environmental monitoring be relied upon as we get closer to eradicating the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/prenatal-gene-editing-fatal-disease/">disease</a>. This comes after the researchers studied the epidemiology of the 2013 silent polio outbreak in Rahat, Israel. Thanks to Israel’s efficient environmental surveillance program, the epidemic was detected and vaccines were mobilized before any cases of acute flaccid paralysis could occur. Because the infections didn’t result in paralysis, the outbreak is called “silent.”

Despite the quick response, researchers discovered that a significant portion of children under the age of 10 were likely infected during the outbreak. Silent transmission is still a concern, as it can lead to paralytic cases if left undetected. 

The researchers say that – despite being so close to polio eradication – silent transmission of wild-type and vaccine-driven polioviruses can be expected to occur every so often. “Environmental surveillance is particularly useful for detecting silent circulation of the disease,” says first author Andrew Brouwer, a research investigator in epidemiology at the UM School of Public Health. “Because paralytic polio only occurs in a small fraction of infections, and that fraction is shrinking as vaccination improves, standard surveillance of paralytic cases will not be sensitive enough to trigger the fast and robust responses needed.”

Brouwer and his colleagues came up with an analytical method to estimate the epidemic trajectories of polio from sewage data. 

“Beyond polio, environmental surveillance of pathogens coupled with our method to estimate epidemic curves is a powerful public health surveillance tool to improve our control of infectious diseases.” Their work could one day result in the total eradication of the polioviruses, and pave the way for us to do the same with other infectious diseases.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Full eradication of polio will require close environmental monitoring

At the peak of the hysteria surrounding the poliovirus in...

The oldest evidence of animal life dating back 100 million years before the Cambrian Explosion has been found by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside (UCR)</a>. 

The Cambrian period (524 to 483 million years ago) marks a crucial time <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php">for life on Earth</a>, according to the University of California Museum of Paleontology. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossil-sponges/">Cambrian Explosion</a> describes when, for the first time, most of the major animal groups appear in the fossil record.

Life existed on Earth long before the Cambrian period, but it was mostly in the form of bacteria, algae, and plankton, and finding evidence of these single and multi-celled organisms is difficult because of the sparse fossil evidence left behind. 

Researchers are turning to molecular fossils, a relatively recent field of research involving the study of preserved molecules like <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleo/fossilsarchive/molecu.html">DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids</a> to piece together the molecular structure of an organism. Molecular fossils can provide insight into the long since decayed soft-tissues of an organism. 

A research team from the University of California, Riverside recently conducted a study showing how biomarkers can be used to trace ancient evidence of life on earth dating back as far as 660 to 635 million years ago during the Neoproterozoic Era. 

A biomarker is any measurable biological characteristic. For example, someone's blood pressure is a biomarker, and a lot of genome research is devoted to findings specific biomarkers that could indicate disease. 

The UCR researchers have been working on tracking biomarkers in rocks and oils from Oman, Siberia, and India. 

According to a study published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, it was in these rocks that the researchers found an organic compound, a steroid, produced by the earliest forms of life on Earth, sponges. 

“Molecular fossils are important for tracking early animals since the first sponges were probably very small, did not contain a skeleton, and did not leave a well-preserved or easily recognizable body fossil record,” said Alex Zumberge, a first author of the study. “We have been looking for distinctive and stable biomarkers that indicate the existence of sponges and other early animals, rather than single-celled organisms that dominated the earth for billions of years before the dawn of complex, multicellular life.”

In 2009, led by Gordon Love, a professor in UCR's Department of Earth Sciences, researchers uncovered the first evidence of a biomarker for Neoproterozoic animals in rocks in South Oman. 

The compound uncovered was a steroid called 24-isopropylcholestane (24-ipc), and while the discovery was noteworthy, the researchers were not able to conclusively prove that early life forms made the compound because modern algae also create 24-ipc. 

For this study, the researchers identified a different steroid called 26-methylstigmastane (26-mes) which is exclusively produced by demosponges. 

“This steroid biomarker is the first evidence that demosponges, and hence multicellular animals, were thriving in ancient seas at least as far back as 635 million years ago,” said Zumberge. 

--

By <a href="http://milto;kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Paco Cárdenas

Oldest evidence of animal life on Earth identified by scientists

The oldest evidence of animal life dating back 100 million...

Anyone who has bit into a juicy Honeycrisp apple has the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a> to thank for what has become one of the most popular breeds of apple ever sold. 

Bred specifically to be juicier, crispier, and sweeter, the Honeycrisp was first introduced in 1991 and since then millions of the apples have been planted in apple orchards around the world. 

The Honeycrisp was so revolutionary that it was recognized as a top innovation of the decade by the 2006 Better World Report, according to the <a href="https://mnhardy.umn.edu/varieties/fruit/apples">University of Minnesota (U of M)</a>. 

But the Honeycrisp isn’t the only new breed of apple that the U of M has worked on. In fact, their breeders have introduced dozens of varieties of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/best-wash-pesticides-apples/">apples</a>, berries, grapes, tomatoes, and even evergreen trees. 

Now, there is another variety of apple joining the ranks, and by all accounts, it’s slated to give the Honeycrisp a run for its money. 

The U of M’s new apple, First Kiss, made headlines when it’s release was announced just in time for the <a href="https://www.mprnews.org/story/2018/08/26/new-apple-variety-debuts-at-minnesota-state-fair">Minnesota State Fair.</a>

Horticultural science involves research and practices devoted to plant cultivation which includes breeding and the U of M has become a pioneer in horticultural sciences. 

Just how do these pioneers in cultivation create new apple breeds with specific traits? The answer is cross-pollination, a traditional method for innovating plants and crops and something that naturally occurs in the wild. 

Researchers are playing build-a-breed with cross-pollination, by taking preferred traits of one plant and breeding it with another variety to create a wholly new breed. 

For example, in 1887, according to the U of M, by breeding cold climate apples with apple varieties grown on the East Coast, researchers were able to develop a hardier apple built to withstand the drastic seasonal changes of Minnesota. 

It’s a time consuming and lengthy process as was evidenced by the First Kiss apple which took decades to perfect.

I spoke with <a href="https://horticulture.umn.edu/people/faculty/jimluby">James Luby</a>, U of M Horticultural Sciences professor who worked on First Kiss since its early beginning in 1997, about just what goes into making a new variety through cross-pollination. 

Not surprisingly, it’s such a time-consuming process because the researchers have to wait for whatever new breeds they develop to grow and produce fruit. 

First comes the actual pollination, and to achieve this Luby said they cover the flowers of a plant or tree designated as the “female tree” in order to avoid being pollinated by bees and other insects. 

Then, a team will gather the pollen from the “father” that has whatever desirable traits or qualities they are looking for and by hand pollinate the mother flowers with the pollen, just like a bee would do. 

After pollination, the researchers have to wait for seeds to develop which are then harvested and germinated over the winter. Once germinated, the hybrid seedlings are planted and it’s just a waiting game. 

For apple trees, they go through a period of juvenility Luby explained, and aren’t ready to flower for about five to ten years. 

Once the researchers have the new flowering trees, they make their selection based on appearance, texture, and of course, taste. Luby told me that one in maybe 200 seedlings are chosen for later grafting, which is how the U of M researchers clone their prototype. 

“You can look at it like any prototype,” Luby said. “A car manufacturer might make a new car, but then they have to make more, and keep scaling up, to make sure it’s right for the consumer.” 

This scaling up process involves growing trees from the prototype seedlings and making sure the resulting fruit or flowers are exactly what the researchers are looking for. 

With First Kiss, eventually, the researchers came upon the perfect pairing with the Honeycrisp and a variety of apple developed by the University of Arkansas, the AA-44. 

Because of this opportune crossbreed, the University of Minnesota created an apple with the same juicy texture of the Honeycrisp that would be available as early as late August. It also possesses a lovely red color. 

“With First Kiss, we got the best of both worlds,” said David Bedford, a research scientist in the UMN’s Department of Horticultural Science, in a <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/news-events/umn-plant-breeders-introduce-first-kiss-apple">U of M News release</a>. “Its crisp texture and spritely flavor make it an excellent choice for fresh eating and its early harvest date means Minnesota apple lovers can enjoy their favorite Minnesota grown fruit sooner than ever.”

Advancements in horticulture and agriculture typically start with a need. For many agricultural innovations, the aim is to find ways to make crops more resistant to droughts or disease. Looking forward, many researchers are working on creating crops that can handle climate change. 

Luby told me about how he and his colleagues find ways to cross-pollinate breeds keeping in mind pest and disease resistance, particularly fire blight and apple scab. 

Interestingly, the Honeycrisp is more resistant to apple scab than its new offspring, First Kiss. 

The U of M is slowly in the process of working on identifying genetic markers of disease, something only made possible by the advancements made in gene mapping. 

While drought and climate resistance remain a top concern for agriculturalists, I learned from Luby that this isn’t necessarily at the forefront of the U of M’s radar. Climate change’s impact is so varied and you can’t grow a perfect apple that will be able to thrive in any climate. 

For example, the Honeycrisp is grown all over the world, even in Africa and while drought and irrigation isn’t a problem so much here in Minnesota, in Africa, apple growers may face completely different challenges. The U of M creates its variety by starting with what the consumer wants. 

“We’re looking for an apple that tastes and looks good, or else no one will buy it,” Luby said.

When the Honeycrisp burst onto the scene with its incredibly juicy texture, it reinvigorated apple orchards here in Minnesota and has since become a fan favorite all over. 

Other factors that the horticultural department is looking for is storage ability and cold hardiness. Storage and shelf life are particularly important because you could have the best apple in the world, but if it doesn’t last long off the tree then it makes marketing and selling the apple difficult. 

First Kiss is available in limited quantity, but soon you’ll be able to find it at local Minnesota orchards and farmers markets and eventually your local grocery store. 

But the next time you pass by the fruits and vegetables at your local supermarket, take a second to think about all the ingenuity that went into to creating that produce, from seed to harvest to your dinner table. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a>

Scientists unveil newly cultivated First Kiss apple

Anyone who has bit into a juicy Honeycrisp apple has...

There’s a new weapon in the battle against outdoor-biting malaria mosquitoes: decoys that look and smell like cattle.

Efforts to spread mosquito netting, indoor spraying and other techniques have gone a long way toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/malaria-carrying-mosquitoes/">controlling populations of the biting insects</a> in areas where malaria is endemic. But it’s not enough, officials say. Outdoor-biting mosquitoes are just as capable of spreading the devastating illness.

So an international team of scientists from Kenya, the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States teamed up to develop a way to keep outdoor malaria mosquitoes from biting.

“In regions with high bed net coverage like western Kenya, mosquitoes are likely to rest and bite outdoors since bed nets prevent them from feeding indoors. With increased outdoor biting and resting of mosquitoes, it becomes extremely difficult to collect and study the vectors due to their wide dispersal in the outdoor environment,” Bernard Abong'o, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.lstmed.ac.uk/">Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine</a>, said in a press release.

The team created decoy traps that mimic humans and cattle using scent, heat and visual stimuli to attempt to attract the biting bugs. They compared the traps against the old method of using human volunteers to trap malaria mosquitoes. 

The team collected a total of 1,807 Anopheles mosquitoes, finding that the mosquitoes seemed most attracted to the cattle-baited traps, and less attracted to volunteers or human-baited traps. They also discovered that, in the two villages in western Kenya used for the study, four different species of malaria mosquitoes – An. arabiensis, An. gambiae, An. funestus and An. coustani – resort to outdoor biting when indoor biting doesn’t provide enough food.

"Host decoy traps may provide us with a new system to monitor and potentially control outdoor-biting mosquitoes and to obtain insights into their host choice, while minimising the risk to human volunteers otherwise exposed to mosquitoes during landing catches," Abong’o said.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-018-3099-7">Parasites &amp; Vectors</a>.

Decoys could help in the battle against malaria mosquitoes

There’s a new weapon in the battle against outdoor-biting malaria...

Forensic genealogy is bringing new life to a hobby that’s been around for more than a century. Crime technicians in California and an innovative company in Virginia have cracked one cold case after another since the technique was first used to track a suspect in the 40-year-old East Area Rapist serial murders in April of this year.

But the new technique is raising some ethical questions about the use of commercial DNA tests. Those questions are about to be amplified as computer scientists work to make searching public DNA-sharing databases easier for law enforcement officials.

“We think when we upload DNA that it's our information, but it's not. It's the information of everyone who is biologically related to us,” Toronto-based family history research Julia Creet told <a href="http://dailymail.com/">DailyMail.com</a>.

In April, investigators arrested Joseph DeAngelo on suspicion of committing more than 50 rapes and at least 13 murders across California in the 1970s and 1980s. They announced that they’d used an open source DNA site called <a href="https://www.gedmatch.com/">GEDMatch</a> and forensic genealogy to home in on a suspect.

Police had been tracking the East Area Rapist – also known as the Original Night Stalker, Visalia Ransacker and Golden State Killer, among other nicknames – since the early ‘70s, when a series of burglaries were attributed to the suspect. 

They connected the crime sprees in the early 2000s using DNA, but made little headway until they used DNA evidence from one of the crime scenes to create a genetic profile similar to the ones produced by personal DNA tests like <a href="https://www.23andme.com/">23andMe</a>, <a href="https://www.myheritage.com/">MyHeritage</a> and <a href="https://www.ancestry.com/dna/">AncestryDNA</a>. They uploaded the results to GEDMatch, then used the potential relatives the site turned up to build a family tree leading back to their suspect.

Since then, investigators have also named a suspect in the NorCal Rapist series. Across the country in Reston, Virginia, Parabon NanoLabs has used forensic genealogy to crack another dozen or so cold cases.

The technique used by genealogists to hunt criminals has been used by adoptees seeking their birth parents for years. But as law enforcement officers arrest suspects and identify John and Jane Does, some are questioning the ethics involved in personal DNA testing.

While AncestryDNA and 23andMe require a subpoena before they will share data with law enforcement, the companies allow users to download their raw data. That information can be voluntarily uploaded to sites like GEDMatch, a public site that anyone can access. Because the two companies don’t share their databases, users looking for additional family members often upload their raw data to other sites.

Those ethical questions are only becoming more urgent as researchers develop a new algorithm that can make finding criminals with forensic genealogy easier.

“There's a legacy problem in that so many DNA profiles have been collected with this older genetic marker system that's been used by law enforcement since the 1990s,” senior author Noah Rosenberg of <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> told the Daily Mail. “The system is not designed for the more challenging queries that are currently of interest, such as identifying people represented in a DNA mixture or identifying relatives of the contributor of a DNA sample.”

So far, in order to use GEDMatch and other public DNA sharing sites, technicians have had to retest DNA using the same methods as commercial companies. New computer technology is being tested, however, that would convert the data stored in systems like <a href="https://www.fbi.gov/services/laboratory/biometric-analysis/codis">CODIS</a> to a file usable for forensic genealogy.

A team of researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>, the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a> and the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> found that they could develop an algorithm that would correctly find DNA relatives for suspects in criminal cases. The algorithm works even though crime labs test far fewer points on the genome than commercial companies do – and even when there is no overlap between the two – the researchers reported in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(18)31180-2#%20">Cell</a>.

“We wanted to examine to what extent these different types of databases can communicate with each other,” Rosenberg said. “It's important for the public to be aware that information between these two types of genetic data can be connected, often in unexpected ways.”

Another recent study, published in the journal <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2018/10/10/science.aau4832">Science</a>, has found that the forensic genealogy technique used to track down DeAngelo and other suspects can be used to identify most white Americans (the most common customers among personal DNA testing companies).

That’s why researchers like Creet are now reminding DNA testers that they’re not just sharing their own unique genetic code. They’re also giving companies and potentially law enforcement access to the DNA they got from their parents, grandparents and more distant ancestors – DNA that could be shared by living people they’ve never even met.

“Your results aren't just about you, they're about everyone you're related to, which is how the police can use your results to track down a criminal who is distantly related to you,” she told the Mail. “We're not just talking about personal privacy; we're talking about relational privacy.”

And right now, because the use of forensic genealogy for law enforcement is so new, there are also questions about when and how police should use it.

“Do you want to say that law enforcement should only use these kinds of data to find people who you suspect are perpetrators of very heinous violent crimes: rape, murder, etc.?” Dr. Ellen Clayton of <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a> said.

Few would argue against using DNA to find violent serial murderers or the families of unidentified murder victims. But what about suspects in non-violent or petty crimes? DNA technology has already improved to the point where “touch DNA” can be used to create a suspect’s profile.

“The use of DNA databases to identify family members who are not themselves in the database raises serious and troubling questions about genetic privacy,” Natalie Ram, a law professor at the <a href="http://www.ubalt.edu/">University of Baltimore</a>, told <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/dna-ancestry-searches-can-now-identify-most-white-americans-heres-why-thats-legally-questionable">PBS</a>. “Individuals who are not directly a part of a database are findable as a byproduct of biology, and not through any voluntary conduct of their own.”

Forensic genealogy can crack cold cases, but where to draw the line?

Forensic genealogy is bringing new life to a hobby that’s...

An experiment on mice in China has one fertility expert looking toward a future of pregnancy without men.

Dr. David Molloy, a <a href="http://www.gynaecologymolloy.com/">fertility expert from Australia</a>, believes that women will be able to reproduce without male input within the next few decades. 

“It would mean that heterosexual couples where the man has low-quality sperm, and women couples, can have their own genetic child,” Molloy told the <a href="https://www.couriermail.com.au/">Courier-Mail</a>. “I think it will be possible to fertilise an egg with a set of half chromosomes and targeted gene editing.”

The <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/">Daily Mail</a> reported Molloy’s comments just a few weeks after researchers at the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> reported that they’d used gene editing to create 29 healthy baby mice using stem cells from female mice alone.

The baby mice grew up into healthy adults and had their own healthy offspring.

The experiment raises hopes for pregnancy without men, giving hope that two women could have their own biological children someday. The team of researchers used haploid stem cells, which contain half the number of chromosomes that other cells do. The team used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prenatal-gene-editing-fatal-disease/">CRISPR–Cas9 gene editing</a> to merge two haploid stem cells, mimicking the way reproductive cells merge to create a fetus.

However, the experiment was less hopeful for men. The scientists were able to use the sperm from two male mice to create living offspring, but the infant mice survived no more than 48 hours. Several had “gruesome” mutations, the Mail reported.

That’s one of several reasons some scientists not involved with the experiment are cautioning people to wait. As fascinating as the prospect of pregnancy without men may seem, more testing and rigorous studies are needed to ensure that the method is safe.

“The amount of work that is necessary to convince us that doing this in humans will do no harm is enormous, and is very much ahead of us,” Fyodor Urnov, deputy director of Altius Institute for Biomedical Sciences in Seattle, told <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/">Scientific American</a>. Urnov was not involved in the research. 

While the experiment gives hope to same-sex couples who want to someday have their own biological children, there is more work ahead before it is a viable possibility, researchers said.

“The concept is intriguing for human reproduction, particularly for same-sex couples, but there are far too many uncertainties at present to attempt such an approach for many years to come,” Robert Norman, a reproductive expert at the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a>, told the Mail.

Some scientists see pregnancy without men in future

An experiment on mice in China has one fertility expert...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-capture-profitable-business/">Carbon capture</a> is becoming an incredibly important component to consider when developing methods to reduce emissions and mitigate climate change. Catalyst in converting coal to fuel could help with carbon capture

Even with a shift towards renewable and sustainable energy, coal has remained a dominant energy source. Experts predict that coal will continue to serve as one of the world’s main energy sources over the next few decades and with that, carbon emissions will continue to accumulate in the atmosphere. 

Finding a way to capture carbon in the early stages of fuel conversion could help keep emissions in check. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.nicenergy.com/en/">National Institute of Clean-and-Low-Carbon Energy</a> in Beijing and <a href="https://www.tue.nl/en/">Eindhoven University of Technology</a> have developed a new kind of catalyst for coal to fuel conversion that has a great deal of promise in reducing fuel costs and power plant emissions. 

A study detailing the catalyst and the researchers’ methods was published in the journal Science Advances. 

A large majority of coal is used in CTL, the process that converts coal to liquid fuel. CTL starts changing coal to syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. A process called the Fisher-Tropsch process converts the syngas to a liquid fuel.Catalyst in converting coal to fuel could help with carbon capture 

Converting coal to liquid fuels with this process creates a great deal of unwanted CO2 as a byproduct. As much as 30 percent of carbon monoxide is converted into CO2 in CTL. 

For this study, the researchers worked on finding a better process for CTL that produces less CO2 and makes carbon capture easier. 

CO2 release in CTL is caused by impure iron-based catalysts according to the researchers. Catalysts are crucial to jumpstarting chemical reactions, like converting coal to fuel, and so the researchers created a pure catalyst using epsilon iron carbide.

Epsilon iron carbide generates almost no CO2 during the Fischer-Tropsch process and the researchers say this could reduce operating costs for CTL plants by 2.5 million euros per year. 


Previously released CO2 is also easier to remove using the new catalyst. 

The study offers a cleaner solution to coal CTL for countries that prioritize fossil fuels and paves the way for new advances in energy conversion in the future. 

“We are aware that our new technology facilitates the use of coal-derived fossil fuels,” said  Emiel Hensen, a lead researcher for the study. “However, it is very likely that coal-rich countries will keep on exploiting their coal reserves in the decades ahead. We want to help them do this in the most sustainable way.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Catalyst in converting coal to fuel could help with carbon capture

Carbon capture is becoming an incredibly important component to consider...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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