Sebecid fossils are changing everything we thought we knew about the ancient Caribbean. Imagine a crocodile built like a greyhound - tall, fast, and fully land-dwelling. These agile predators, some stretching up to 20 feet long, once ruled South American landscapes after the extinction of the dinosaurs.



Scientists believed they vanished around 11 million years ago. But a surprising discovery in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caribbean-salt-affects-global-climate-study-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caribbean</a> tells a different story - one that begins with a few unusual fossilized teeth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fossil-discovery-changed-the-story">A fossil discovery changed the story</h2>



Back in the 1990s, scientists discovered a pair of fossilized teeth in Cuba. The teeth, about 18 million years old, were serrated and sharp - built for tearing meat.



Then came another one in Puerto Rico, dated to 29 million years ago. The shape of these fossils clearly pointed to a large predator. 



But researchers were baffled. Until then, they thought the Caribbean had no land predators of that size. Without more bones to go on, the mystery sat unsolved.



Then in early 2023, something changed. A new fossil tooth turned up in the Dominican Republic, but this time it came with two vertebrae. It was a small clue, but it changed everything. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-predators-in-the-caribbean">Large predators in the Caribbean </h2>



The fossils confirmed the presence of a sebecid. That meant the Caribbean had been a safe haven for these large, land-based predators. They were still roaming these islands five million years after disappearing everywhere else.



This new discovery comes from a research team led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>. 



“That emotion of finding the fossil and realizing what it is, it’s indescribable,” said Lazaro Viñola Lopez, the study's lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodiles-that-ran-like-dinosaurs">Crocodiles that ran like dinosaurs</h2>



Sebecids were part of a long-extinct family of crocodile relatives called notosuchians. Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-amphibians-swam-like-modern-crocodiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern crocodiles</a> that lurk in rivers and swamps, sebecids were fully land-dwelling. 



They ran on strong limbs and hunted like the carnivorous dinosaurs that came before them. Some were enormous. 



Sebecids had armored bodies with tough bony plates beneath their skin. Their teeth were made for slashing meat, not catching fish.



When the mass extinction 66 million years ago wiped out most life, only the sebecids from the notosuchian line managed to survive in South America. With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-winter-dinosaurs-were-likely-killed-by-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> gone, they rose to dominate the food chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sebecids-may-have-crossed-the-sea">Sebecids may have crossed the sea</h2>



How did a sebecid get to the Caribbean? The ocean has always been a serious barrier for land animals. That’s where the GAARlandia hypothesis comes in. 



The theory suggests there was once a chain of temporary land bridges or stepping-stone islands between South America and the Caribbean. 



These paths may have allowed animals like sebecids to migrate and settle. If the other teeth found across the Caribbean also belonged to sebecids, it means these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-climate-change-drove-the-rapid-evolution-of-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> weren’t just visitors. They were long-term residents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-bridges-reshaped-ecosystems">Land bridges reshaped ecosystems </h2>



The land bridges may have shaped island ecosystems for millions of years. Now that they’re gone, smaller animals like birds, snakes, and native crocodiles have taken their place.



“You wouldn’t have been able to predict this looking at the modern ecosystem,” said a paleontologist from the Florida Museum of Natural History. 



“The presence of a large predator is really different than we imagined before, and it’s exciting to think about what might be discovered next in the Caribbean fossil record as we explore back further in time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-secrets-of-the-caribbean">Fossil secrets of the Caribbean </h2>



Scientists often describe islands as natural museums. Their isolation makes them safe places for rare plants and animals to hang on after they’ve vanished elsewhere. But the Caribbean still holds many sebecid secrets - especially from deep in the past.



Until now, most Caribbean fossils have been found in caves and water-filled sinkholes called blue holes. Caves protect bones from the elements, while blue holes prevent decay by cutting off oxygen. 



These places have been valuable but only give a narrow view into recent biodiversity. They don’t tell us much about ancient species like sebecids.



Today, researchers are switching tactics. Instead of relying on caves and sinkholes, they’re going after older fossils in harder-to-reach spots.



“This is like a renaissance,” said Viñola-Lopez, describing the new wave of excitement in Caribbean paleontology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vanishing-fossil-sites">Vanishing fossil sites </h2>



In the Caribbean, fossil sites vanish quickly. Rain, wind, and forests erase rocky outcrops fast. When workers cut new roads or dig into hills, researchers have to act fast. 



That’s how the sebecid fossils were found. Road work in the Dominican Republic exposed the fossil bed just in time.



A graduate student from the University of Puerto Rico in Mayagüez was studying the rocks in the area and spotted the site. He notified his colleagues, and soon after, the team from the University of Florida arrived to excavate the bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-surprises-to-come">More surprises to come</h2>



The sebecid fossils are only one piece of a much larger puzzle. In recent years, researchers have also found the first signs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a> - massive sea reptiles - in the Caribbean. 



The experts have identified the region’s oldest ground sloth fossils. And new work is hinting that early human arrival may have led to the extinction of native rodents.



It’s clear there’s more to uncover. “The sebecid is only the tip of the iceberg,” said Viñola-Lopez. And with more eyes now turned to the Caribbean, who knows what ancient giants might turn up next?



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2891" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: Illustration by Jorge Machuky



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Giant crocodile in the Caribbean? Fossils reveal a lost apex predator

Sebecid fossils are changing everything we thought we knew about the ancient Caribbean. Imagine a crocodile built like a greyhound - tall, fast, and fully land-dwelling. These agile predators, some stretching up to 20 feet long, once ruled South American landscapes after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Scientists believed they vanished around 11 million years ago. But a surprising discovery in the Caribbean tells a different story - one that begins with a few unusual fossilized teeth. A fossil discovery changed the story Back in the 1990s,...

In French Guiana, Dyeing poison frogs ward off predators with their bold yellow stripes. This unique coloring signals <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-makes-poison-dart-frogs-poisonous/">toxicity</a>, and there are many species in the animal kingdom that have evolved bright coloring as a warning. 

Alongside the yellow frogs, there are Dyeing poison frogs with white stripes, a much less vivid and bold warning color. 

Natural selection and evolution would suggest that the white coloring be weeded out in favor of the bolder yellow stripes, but a new study found that this is not the case. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.jyu.fi/en">University of Jyvaskylä</a> in Finland, the <a href="https://olemiss.edu/">University of Mississippi</a>, the <a href="http://www.cnrs.fr/">Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)</a> in France, and <a href="http://sites.jcu.edu/">John Carroll University </a>investigated how the two types of poisonous frogs can co-exist and flourish side-by-side.

Because the frogs with the white stripes have rare and weaker warning coloring, the researchers needed to find an explanation for why diversity beats the odds in this case. 

One factor in their survival is that predators first learned that yellow frogs are distasteful and poisonous and associate the same level of distastefulness to white frogs in the area. In other words, predators generalize what they know about one type of frog and apply it to the other kind of frog. 

Generalized learning has allowed for the two types of genetically distinct frogs to co-exist. 

With this study, the researchers were up against a challenge because they had to find a way to gauge a predator’s reaction to the frog’s toxicity or defense mechanism. 

“We faced the difficulty of not having an established method to quantify predator reaction to the chemical defenses,” said Dr. Bibiana Rojas, a member of the research team. “However, that difficulty turned into one of the biggest assets of our study, as we eventually succeeded at developing a method.” 

The researchers extracted toxins from the skin of Dyeing poison frogs and combined them with oats. By feeding the oats to the frog’s predators, the researchers could get a sense of how a predator chooses to spit out its prey based on distastefulness. 

“The biggest surprise came from the fact that the frogs [with] higher amount of toxins in their skin are not necessarily the ones that birds find most distasteful,” said Rojas. “This finding challenges previous assumptions that most toxic equals most unpalatable.” 

The researchers published their findings in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1901872116">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. </a>

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: University of Jyvaskyla

Poison frogs flourish even amongst stronger competitors

In French Guiana, Dyeing poison frogs ward off predators with...

“Greater scientific understanding of animals has and undeniably will continue to raise some of the most important questions for us today regarding the scope and nature of morality,” says Peter Woodford, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.union.edu/">Union College</a> and coauthor of a new paper published in <a href="https://www.aibs.org/bioscience/">BioScience</a>. 

The new paper is an effort by an interdisciplinary group of scientists and scholars who are currently urging animal behavior scientists to increase their involvement in the animal ethics conversation.

“While it is commonplace for animal behavior scientists to emphasize the conservation implications of their work, other broader impacts related to the moral standing of animals are emphasized relatively less in their public outreach,” explains coauthor Christine Webb, an animal behavior scientist at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>. “However, scientists have a social responsibility to proactively engage with the ethical debates that are informed by their evidence.”

Today, the moral status of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/working-with-animals-mental-health/">animals</a> is becoming an increasingly visible topic within both developed and developing nations. It has spurred change in the academic, political, and legal fields as research and further insight gives us a better understanding of our responsibilities for how we represent and understand nature. 

Despite this, fields such as animal behavior science have been less integrated in this paradigm shift, despite the growing evidence that has been linked with animal ethics arguments.

The authors state that a greater integration between animal ethics and behavior communities may be valuable for both ethical and pragmatic reasons. 

Elise Huchard, a behavioral ecologist at the <a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/university-of-montpellier">University of Montpellier/CNRS</a> adds that further integrating science and philosophy “may encourage scientists to embark on new research about the nature of animal minds, question the anthropocentric legacy of behavioral studies, and enrich other aspects of their scientific practices through a more careful consideration of animal interests and subjectivity.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Mark Whiten

Scientists call for increased focus on animal ethics

“Greater scientific understanding of animals has and undeniably will continue...

Ancient rodent teeth help to map out Miocene mouse migration. Raquel López-Antoñanzas, from the <a href="http://www.isem.univ-montp2.fr/fr/">Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution</a> in Montpellier, France, and colleagues unearthed fossils of a new species of prehistoric murine — the mammalian group that includes mice, rats, and their kin — in Lebanon. 

These fossils are the first physical evidence that the first dispersal of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-mouse-blood-improved-memory-learning/">mice</a> from Asia to Africa took place via the Levant.

Archaeologists believe murinae, the largest subfamily of mammals, originated in southern Asia about 16 million years ago. However, the route and timing of the first murine dispersal has remained a mystery until now.

By analyzing the fossil’s teeth, which were excavated from the Lebanese site in 2013 and 2018, López-Antoñanzas and team were able to identify them as belonging to a previously unknown species. They named the new species, similar to the oldest populations of Progonomys known, which lived about 10.5 to 11 million years ago, Progonomys manolo (P. manolo).

P. manolo may be one of the earliest representatives of Progonomys, which was the first mouse to migrate out of southern Asia. In fact, researchers believe that P. manolo is most likely responsible for spreading Progonomys populations to Africa.

During the dental analysis of various Progonomys species, researchers saw how their teeth changed throughout the course of evolution with later species showing broader molars, suggesting a switch from an omnivorous diet to a herbivorous one during the shift from the moist middle Miocene era to the dry Late Miocene.

Finding the P. manolo fossil is a huge breakthrough for those studying the migration of the Progonomys, as it’s the first piece of evidence that the genus did, in fact, move through the Arabian Peninsula, therefore the “Levantine Corridor” is as important for mammal migration as researchers have believed it to be.

This new discovery is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-47894-y">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Rudmer Zwerver

Ancient rodent teeth help to map out Miocene mouse migration

Ancient rodent teeth help to map out Miocene mouse migration....

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a> have discovered the potential to make white sustainable paint using recycled plastic waste by mimicking the structure of the Cyphochilus beetle's scales, which contain one of the brightest whites found in nature. 

According to the researchers, the new paint would not only have a much lower carbon footprint, but could also help to tackle the challenge of recycling <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-ban-on-single-use-plastics/">single-use plastics</a>.

The brilliant white shade of the Cyphochilus beetle is not created by pigments, but by the nanostructure of its tiny scales. The team has managed to reconstruct and refine this scale structure in the lab using inexpensive materials. The technique used to recreate the nanostructure could be used to produce a sustainable alternative to titanium dioxide in white paint.

"In the natural world, whiteness is usually created by a foamy, Swiss cheese-like structure made of a solid interconnected network and air. Until now, how these structures form and develop and how they have evolved light-scattering properties has remained a mystery," said study lead author Dr. Andrew Parnell.

"Having understood these structures we were able to take plastic and structure it in the same way. Ideally, we could recycle plastic waste that would normally be burnt or sent to landfill, structure it just like the beetle scale and then use it to make super white paint. This would make paint with a much lower carbon footprint and help tackle the challenge of recycling single-use plastics."

The study revealed that the foamy structure of the beetle scales had the ideal proportion of empty spaces to optimize the scattering of light. 

Currently, nanoparticles of titanium dioxide are used in white paint because they can strongly scatter visible light. However, titanium dioxide is harmful to the environment, contributing to nearly 75 percent of white paint's carbon footprint.

"This research answers long-standing questions about how the structure inside these scales actually form and we hope these lessons from nature will help inform the future of sustainable manufacturing for paint," said study co-author Dr. Stephanie Burg.

The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/commschem">Nature Communications Chemistry</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Wuttipon

The structure of beetle scales could help scientists create sustainable paint

Scientists at the University of Sheffield have discovered the potential...

The jellyfish is one of the most delicate animals on Earth. Jellyfish are 95 percent water and the thin gelatinous layers that make jellyfish so mysterious and beautiful to watch as they float in the ocean also make them incredibly difficult to study. 

What little researchers have been able to glean from jellyfish has paved the way for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-kill-toxin-genes/">several important discoveries</a>, including a protein that could help slow aging. 

The ability to study jellyfish safely without damaging or tearing their delicate dermis layer is important, but most underwater research tools that marine biologists can use are cumbersome and heavy. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> and the <a href="https://www2.cuny.edu/">City University of New York</a> have developed a new kind of ‘gripper’ that can gently capture and release jellyfish, opening up new research opportunities to study jellyfish in their native habitats. 

The gripper has six thin hollow strips made of silicone which are meant to serve as fingers. 

The strips are attached to a small rectangular “palm,” and as the strips fill with water, they curl up, exerting just enough pressure to keep a jellyfish contained in its grasp but gentle enough to ensure the jellyfish is unharmed. 

“Our ultra-gentle gripper is a clear improvement over existing deep-sea sampling devices for jellies and other soft-bodied creatures that are otherwise nearly impossible to collect intact,” said Nina Sinatra, Ph.D., the first author of the study. “This technology can also be extended to improve underwater analysis techniques and allow extensive study of the ecological and genetic features of marine organisms without taking them out of the water.”

After testing the gripper at the New England Aquarium, the device was successful in capturing jellyfish and keeping them in place until released. 

More tests revealed that the gripper could open and close around 100 times before showing any signs of wear. 

The researchers are continuing to refine the technology, but so far the gripper has promising potential is solving a major problem for marine biologists hoping to unlock the mysteries of jellyfish. 

“Marine biologists have been waiting a long time for a tool that replicates the gentleness of human hands in interacting with delicate animals like jellyfish from inaccessible environments,” said David Gruber, Ph.D., a co-author of the study. “This gripper is part of an ever-growing soft robotic toolbox that promises to make underwater species collection easier and safer, which would greatly improve the pace and quality of research on animals that have been under-studied for hundreds of years, giving us a more complete picture of the complex ecosystems that make up our oceans.”

The team published their findings in the journal Science Robotics.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/HelloRF Zcool

New gripper device allows researchers to study jellyfish safely

The jellyfish is one of the most delicate animals on...

Mathematical modelling explains why some animals can see at night. Researchers from <a href="https://www.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/en">Hiroshima University</a> have used mathematical modelling to explain how the structure of chromatin in cells of some animals’ eyes shifts from diurnal to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nocturnal-birds-night/">nocturnal</a> after birth.

Associate Professor Sungrim Seirin-Lee, and Lecturer Hiroshi Ochiai, both from the Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life at HU, believed the chromatin caused the shape of the nuclei warp and change. 

"When we started this research, our hypothesis was based 100 percent on mathematics," Seirin-Lee said. "Because of our mathematical modeling, we found that nuclear deformation might be a key point in DNA's structure change."

Chromatin appears in different forms and exists in varying territories within the nucleus. For example, it appears as euchromatin, or largely active DNA, around the center of the nucleus. And it also takes the form of heterochromatin, a type of mostly-stagnant DNA that exists around the envelope or ceiling of the nucleus.

However, when it comes to differentiating nocturnal and diurnal animals, the differences in chromatin are largest around the retina. There, the DNA is the center of the nucleus in nocturnal animals, and, as Seirin-Lee and Ochiai found, heterochromatin can be moved from the envelope and ceiling via the nucleus changing shape.

To better understand this movement, Seirin-Lee and team used “phase-field” mathematical modelling, which is more commonly used in physics.

"It is not common in the biological sciences,” Seirin-Lee said. “In chromatin dynamics, it is the first trial in the world!" 

By using this model, the researchers could determine and define the inside and outside of the nucleus, as well as the euchromatin versus heterochromatin, in order to see the movement of of chromatin and nucleus.

When observing heterochromatin in a nocturnal mouse’s eye, they saw that conditional architecture spurred dynamic deformation, thus resulting in an inversion in the nuclear architecture in which two proteins are removed and heterochromatin is allowed to move.

The team then applied their phase-field model to neural stem cells, which mimic retinal cells. They first treated the cells with proteins that keep heterochromatin at the nuclear periphery, and noticed that the deformation stopped. Nuclear architecture could not invert. Whether or not this applies to other mammals is still unclear.

"At this stage, we think it is just mouse eyes," Seirin-Lee said, "but we don't know! Maybe humans could have such structures by dynamic nuclear deformation."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Gregory Johnston

Mathematical modelling explains why some animals can see at night

Mathematical modelling explains why some animals can see at night....

A near-total ban on capturing and selling wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-recovering-poaching/">African elephants</a> to zoos was approved on Tuesday during a conference of the <a href="https://www.cites.org/">Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species </a>(CITES). 

Many are calling the ban “momentous” as it marks an important landmark decision to protect African elephants and prevent the sale of elephants to zoos or the entertainment sector. 

Currently, 183 nations and governments are parties to CITES, and although not all parties approved of the ban, the majority (87) voted in favor following a heated debate on the subject. 

Both Zimbabwe and the United States voted against the ban. 

For Zimbabwe, where elephant populations are healthier compared to Southern Africa, elephants are an important economic asset and the ban prevents the country from profiting off their numerous elephants. 

Since 2012, Zimbabwe captured and sold more than 100 young elephants to zoos in China according to <a href="https://www.hsi.org/">Humane Society International</a>. 

“The government has been pumping out a lot of money for conservation with no real return, yet our government has competing social needs,” said Tinashe Farawo, spokesman for <a href="https://zimparks.org/">The Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority</a>. “We view our animals as an economic opportunity...Why should we continue to impoverish our people when we have the resource?”

The European Union initially rejected the ban but that changes with the addition of an important amendment that serves as a loophole of sorts. 

The EU amendment states that elephants should remain in their “natural and historical range in Africa, except in exceptional circumstances.”

Still, the EU made it clear that any decisions involving elephant transfers or sales will have to be made under the recommendations of CITES and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. 

“This is a momentous CITES decision for Africa’s elephants, and despite compromised language being introduced by the EU, we are relieved by its passing,” Audrey Delsink, wildlife director at Humane Society International, told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7399017/CITES-agrees-near-total-ban-sending-wild-elephants-zoos.html">Daily Mail Online.</a> “While it is disappointing that it is not an outright ban on trade in live elephants, the new language adds vital independent oversight and scrutiny.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/tobkatrina

Near-total ban on capturing African elephants for zoos hailed as major step

A near-total ban on capturing and selling wild African elephants...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flying-reptiles-late-jurassic/">Fossilized poop</a> discovered in Argentina contains the oldest parasite DNA ever recorded. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.conicet.gov.ar/?lan=en">National Council of Scientific and Technical Research</a> were examining a coprolite (fossilized feces) excavated from the Catamarca Province. 

DNA analysis revealed not only that the poop belonged to an ancient Puma but also that the animal had been infected with roundworms. 

Toxascaris leonina roundworm eggs were found in the poop which dates back between 16,570 and 17,000 years ago, making it the oldest example of parasitic DNA discovered so far. 

At the end of the last Ice Age, Catamarca Province was likely wetter than today and inhabited by a range of megafauna and herbivorous animals.  

Luckily the coprolite was well preserved that the parasite DNA could be adequately studied. 

“While we have found evidence of parasites in coprolites before, those remains were much more recent, dating back only a few thousand years,” said Dr. Romina Petrigh, a leader of the study. “The latest find shows that these roundworms were infecting the fauna of South America before the arrival of the first humans in the area around 11,000 years ago.” 

The researchers used special decontaminated mixtures to analyze the feces, and several experiments were needed to confirm the DNA sequences identified, according to Petrigh. 

Not only is the roundworm DNA the oldest ever recorded, but the discovery calls into question when and how Toxascaris leonina first spread among animals.  

“The common interpretation is that the presence of T. leonina in American wild carnivores today is a consequence of their contact with domestic dogs or cats, but that should no longer be assumed as the only possible explanation,” said Petrigh. 

The findings were published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/parasitology/article/ancient-parasitic-dna-reveals-toxascaris-leonina-presence-in-final-pleistocene-of-south-america/9E406417164E40114F819AA78D60C667">Parasitology</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/Agami Photo Agency

Fossilized poop contains oldest parasite DNA ever discovered

Fossilized poop discovered in Argentina contains the oldest parasite DNA...

Small albino lizards have successfully become the first reptiles that were gene-edited with CRISPR-Cas9 technology. 

In the past, CRISPR technology has been used with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hiv-dna-eliminate-animals/">mice</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-editing-tool-color-plants/">plants</a> and earlier this year, researchers from the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> found a way to work with CRISPR and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-gene-edited-lizards/">edit the genes of reptiles.</a> 

Now, that same research team has published their findings in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(19)31005-8?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2211124719310058%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Cell Reports</a>, and the study shows how gene-edited reptiles pass modified traits, in this case albinism, onto their offspring. 

The researchers found a workaround to gene-edit reptile embryos by injecting CRISPR-Cas9 edits into the unfertilized eggs of anole lizards. 

“For quite some time we’ve been wrestling with how to modify reptile genomes and manipulate genes in reptiles, but we’ve been stuck in the mode of how gene editing is being done in the major model systems,” said Doug Menke, the corresponding author of the study. “We wanted to explore anole lizards to study the evolution of gene regulation, since they’ve experienced a series of speciation events on Caribbean islands, much like Darwin’s finches of the Galapagos.”

[caption id="attachment_1877074" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/albino-lizard.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1877074" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/albino-lizard.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="870" /></a> Albino lizard hatchling, Image Credit: Doug Menke[/caption]

The researchers had to wait three months for the lizard offspring to hatch to see if their gene-editing attempts were successful and around six to nine percent of the lizards produced gene-edited offspring. 

“Relative to the very established model systems that can have efficiencies up to 80% or higher, 6% seems low, but no one has been able to do these sorts of manipulations in any reptile before,” said Menke. “There’s not a large community of developmental geneticists that are studying reptiles, so we’re hoping to tap into exciting functional biology that has been unexplored.”

The researchers specifically wanted to create ablino offspring because albinism isn’t lethal to animals, but for humans, abilinsism is linked to vision problems and having a better model to study this link could help future research into pigemental loss. 

The researchers have also provided a new framework for using CRISPR outside of popular animal models. 

“We never know where the next major insights are going to come from, and if we can’t even study how genes work in a huge group of animals, then there’s no way to know if we’ve explored everything there is to explore in the realm of gene function in animals,” said Menke. “Each species undoubtedly has things to tell us, if we take the time to develop the methods to perform gene editing.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Say hello to the world’s first gene-edited reptiles

Small albino lizards have successfully become the first reptiles that...

There are two species of Mako Shark, shortfin and longfin. Although, shortfin makos are certainly more abundant than longfins. 

Shortfin Mako sharks (Isurus oxyrinchus) are open water sharks like the more famous Great Whites. They are found around the world in tropical to temperate seas. Together the two species of mako sharks are sometimes known as the ‘cheetahs of the sharks’ for being the fastest known sharks. These sharks can grow to be twelve feet long but the average one is roughly half that length. 

The shortfin makos can live to be 30 years old but don’t mate until males are 8 years old and females are 20 years old. <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/pacific-shortfin-mako-shark">NOAA</a> advises that shortfin mako sharks caught in the US are sustainably and responsibly fished, making them a responsible choice for seafood. The longfin mako shark is another matter.

Longfin mako sharks (Isurus paucus) are one of the least known sharks, first scientifically described in only in 1966. <a href="https://marinebio.org/species/longfin-mako-sharks/isurus-paucus/">MarineBio</a> reports that longfin makos are just a bit larger than their shortfin cousins, making them the second largest shark in their family after white sharks. With little research available on longfin mako sharks, scientists must rely on conjecture to hypothesize about their lives. The eyes indicate this is a deep dwelling shark and it’s assumed that longfin makos eat a similar diet to their shortfin relatives. If this is true, it means longfin makos mainly eat squid and schooling fishes. Despite a lack of basic information on longfin mako sharks, their populations are declining. 

The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/60225/3095898">IUCN</a> lists longfin makos as endangered. The declines of longfin makos seems to be due largely to overfishing. According to the <a href="https://newsroom.wcs.org/News-Releases/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/12940/All-You-Need-to-Know-about-the-Sharks-and-Rays-Votes-at-CITES-CoP18.aspx">Wildlife Conservation Society</a>, mako shark populations in the Atlantic have declined by roughly 90% over the last 75 years. The Mediterranean shows a <a href="https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/18/prop/060319/E-CoP18-Prop-42.pdf">96% decline</a> from historic mako population. Sometimes the sharks are killed merely for their fins, the rest of the animal tossed back into the ocean.

CoP18 is an international conference set to discuss protections for species under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (<a href="https://www.cites.org/eng">CITES</a>). The goal of CITES is to ensure that the trade in species or species parts such as skins or lumber don’t threaten the long term survival of those species. CITES sets a framework for laws in the countries that voluntarily agree to be bound by. This framework allows countries to relieve threatening pressure on species, even if those species live outside of CITES countries, by cutting off international trade. In this way, a country like the US takes part in the protection of endangered species in Africa, Asia and elsewhere by slowing trade in those species. 

Three layers of protection are used under CITES. Appendix II species are not necessarily threatened with extinction, yet trade is severely limited to limit actions that threaten long term survival. The idea of listing a species under Section II is to keep it from becoming endangered. Today, there are more than 35,000 species of animals and plants protected to some degree under CITES.          

Every year during the COP (Conference of Parties) meeting, the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/">United Nations</a> discusses policy changes and new resolutions. Most known for climate change negotiations, COP meetings every three years include conferences to consider new protections for species under CITES. 

This year, the CoP18 in Geneva Switzerland will consider new international protections for mako sharks. Under consideration at the same time are protections for giant guitarfish and wedgefish, both cartilaginous fish related to sharks. The protections being voted on would extend to both longfin and shortfin mako sharks.

<a href="https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/18/prop/060319/E-CoP18-Prop-42.pdf">Proposal 42: 2</a> would make both species of mako sharks protected as appendix II species. The proponents of this listing are over sixty five countries, including African, South American, Caribbean and European nations. The extremely widespread and migratory nature of the mako shark makes its protection a truly global affair. 

The U.S. and Canada are <a href="https://earther.gizmodo.com/one-of-the-most-eaten-sharks-in-the-world-is-now-in-gre-1837506887">opposing</a> the listing. The proposal notes that because the main threat to the longfin mako shark is fishing for shark meat, it is sometimes extremely difficult to distinguish between longfin and shortfin mako sharks. The shortfin mako is being considered under CITES protection for the sake of the longfin. This type of listing happens sometimes under wildlife protection laws. Some US state laws prohibit the sale of mammoth ivory for instance, so that elephant ivory cannot be passed off as mammoth.

Protection as a CITES Section II species for mako sharks would mean that catching the sharks would be highly monitored and numbers of shark catches shared internationally. It would also mean that sharks caught as bycatch (a major source of fatality for makos) would be required to be released alive. Verifiably sustainably caught mako shark meat would still be allowed to be traded internationally. This step is one towards regulating shark fishing on an international level, a necessity for the long term survival of animals that cross international borders regularly. 

The <a href="https://newsroom.wcs.org/News-Releases/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/12940/All-You-Need-to-Know-about-the-Sharks-and-Rays-Votes-at-CITES-CoP18.aspx">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> notes that most international trade in shark fins, meat and other parts are still unregulated, leaving the group as a whole threatened, despite their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-important-deserve-protections/">importance</a> to marine ecosystems. <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2019/01/11/record-number-of-countries-sign-on-to-protect-sharks-and-rays">Pew Charitable Trust</a> reports that it’s estimated less than 20% of the shark fin trade is regulated under CITES. As top predators, sharks are in a unique position of ecological importance. By preying on abundant prey species, sharks allow less abundant species to compete and survive. In this way, sharks promote biodiversity in the world’s oceans. 

The importance of mako sharks is clearly recognized by the fact that a <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2019/01/11/record-number-of-countries-sign-on-to-protect-sharks-and-rays">record number of countries</a> signed on for their protection under CITES. What’s worrying is that the US, seen previously as an international leader in conservation, was not one of them. Along with other recent <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/trumps-epa-environmental-protections/">environmental policies</a>, it seems that the US federal government may be stepping back from not just it’s leadership role but it’s international responsibility. The US does have some federal laws protecting mako sharks, but alone they are insufficient to protect sharks that clearly need it.                   

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/wildestanimal

Mako shark protections supported by many countries, opposed by the US and Canada

There are two species of Mako Shark, shortfin and longfin....

Clothing lined with graphene, an ultra-thin nanomaterial comprised of carbon atoms arranged in a lattice configuration, could help prevent mosquito bites. 

Graphene is lightweight, flexible, stronger than steel, and can be used in a single layer or stacked together. There are a wide variety of potential uses for the material including in batteries, solar cells, and even DNA sequencing. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.brown.edu/">Brown University</a> have now discovered a new use for graphene as a mosquito deterrent. 

The team discovered that graphene layers are impenetrable for mosquitoes in search of a blood meal, and the material blocks the chemical signals a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-sense-smell-disease/">mosquito uses to find a host</a>. 

Clothing lined with layers of graphene could keep people safe from disease-carrying mosquitoes. 

The researchers detailed their findings in a new study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

“Mosquitoes are important vectors for disease all over the world, and there’s a lot of interest in non-chemical mosquito bite protection,” said Robert Hurt, a senior author of the study. “We had been working on fabrics that incorporate graphene as a barrier against toxic chemicals, and we started thinking about what else the approach might be good for. We thought maybe graphene could provide mosquito bite protection as well.”

For the study, participants were asked to put their arm in an enclosure filled with lab-bred, disease-free mosquitoes. 

Some of the participants either had a patch of cheesecloth or a graphene oxide lined cheesecloth patch on their skin. The other participants just exposed bare skin to the mosquitoes. 

Only a small patch of skin was exposed, and the researchers recorded how many participants were bitten. 

Graphene repelled mosquitoes, and participants that had the graphene oxide patch didn’t get bit once. Mosquitoes also responded differently when presented with graphene. 

“With the graphene, the mosquitoes weren’t even landing on the skin patch -- they just didn’t seem to care,” said Cintia Castilho, the lead author of the study. “We had assumed that graphene would be a physical barrier to biting, through puncture resistance, but when we saw these experiments, we started to think that it was also a chemical barrier that prevents mosquitoes from sensing that someone is there.” 

The researchers confirmed that graphene acts as a chemical barrier, and some forms of graphene oxide can only effectively prevent mosquitoes from puncturing the material when dry. 

Reduced oxygen content (called rGO) graphene oxide works wet or dry but lacks the breathability of graphene oxide. 

“GO is breathable, meaning you can sweat through it, while rGO isn’t,” said Hurt said. “So our preferred embodiment of this technology would be to find a way to stabilize GO mechanically, so that is remains strong when wet. This next step would give us the full benefits of breathability and bite protection.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Hurt Lab / Brown University

Clothing lined with graphene could help deter mosquitoes

Clothing lined with graphene, an ultra-thin nanomaterial comprised of carbon...

There are only two northern white rhinos left in the world – Najin and Fatu, two females, both unable to carry a calf. But there’s hope for the species: on Aug. 22, scientists were successful in harvesting eggs from the pair.

The eggs were immediately sent to Italy, where researchers have attempted to fertilize them with cryogenically frozen sperm from four deceased male members of the species.

“We were able to harvest a total of 10 oocytes – five from Najin and five from Fatu – showing that both females can still provide eggs and thus help to save these magnificent creatures,” said Dr. Thomas Hildebrandt from the <a href="http://www.izw-berlin.de/welcome.html">Leibniz Institute for Zoo &amp; Wildlife Research</a>. “Both the technique and the equipment had to be developed entirely from scratch.”

Any resulting embryos will be frozen until southern white rhino surrogates can be found. 

The new procedure brings hope for the species that has been functionally extinct since March 2018, when the last male northern white rhino died.

“We are delighted that this partnership gets us one step closer to prevent extinction of the northern white rhinos,” John Waweru, director general of the <a href="http://www.kws.go.ke/">Kenya Wildlife Service</a>, told the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/">Daily Mail</a>. “This is particularly touching given the heartbreaking death of Sudan, the last male, who died of old age last year in Kenya.”

There are still challenges ahead, even if the in vitro fertilization goes well. Harvesting eggs from the two females is limited to three times per year; any more would risk their health. And working from a pool of two females and four males could cause a major genetic bottleneck in the species. 

However, scientists do have access to frozen tissues from other northern white rhinos. The group <a href="https://www.facebook.com/biorescueproject/">BioRescue</a> is hoping to create artificial sex cells using those genomes to increase the diversity of rhino embryos in the future. 

Researchers are hoping to re-introduce the northern white rhinos – one of five rhino species – back into their natural habitats. But poachers still pose a major danger; it was poaching for ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine and dagger handles in Yemen that reduced the northern white rhino numbers so drastically, the Daily Mail reported. 

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Harvesting eggs of last northern white rhinos may save species

There are only two northern white rhinos left in the...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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