Monk parakeets stand out for their lively chatter in city parks. They are originally from South America but have adapted well to urban environments, often roosting and breeding in large communal nests.



After watching these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecuadors-rare-red-faced-parrot-gets-a-new-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> for a while, it is hard not to notice the range of sounds they produce. They seem to greet each other with whistles, screeches, and abrupt squawks that vary from one bird to the next, and they interact across tree canopies and open lawns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parakeet-vocal-diversity-and-social-bonds">Parakeet vocal diversity and social bonds</h2>



Many people might think that parrots squawk randomly. Yet <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241717" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> discovered that an individual with more companions also has a more varied set of sounds.



“This research is a really important first step,” said Simeon Smeele from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>. He and his team studied hundreds of monk parakeets over a two-year period in Barcelona.



The experts mapped how each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> connected with the others, noting which individuals spent time together and which ones nested side by side. The group found that birds living in larger social units tended to use a broader mix of call types.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-calls-in-social-settings">Female calls in social settings</h2>



One detail turned heads. Females produced more types of calls than males did.



“It really looks like there are some call types that are used uniquely in social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elusive-bird-night-parrot-pezoporus-occidentalis-thought-to-be-long-extinct-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">situations</a>. And it’s really interesting to see that females appear to produce more of these, suggesting they are the more social sex,” stated Smeele.



The data showed that these calls are not only about attracting attention. Some might help them manage interactions within the nest or signal identity among neighbors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parakeet-friends-sound-distinct">Parakeet friends sound distinct</h2>



Parrots might share nest trees, but that does not mean they mimic each other’s voices. In many species, birds within the same group often sound more alike, yet in these monk parakeets the result was flipped.



“What I find really exciting is that we were able to link what individuals say to very specific levels of sociality," said Smeele.



"For example, close friends that allowed each other to approach within pecking distance sounded less like each other, as if they were trying to sound unique in their little gang."



Such individuality may help them coordinate tasks around nest building or recognize each other’s calls in busy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infanticide-or-adoption-why-parrots-kill-each-others-chicks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a>. It might also allow certain birds to stand apart if they are higher in the pecking order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-groups-more-vocalizations">Bigger groups, more vocalizations</h2>



Scientists have long noticed that species living in bigger teams often have more complex communication. Research on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16866738/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carolina chickadees</a> has shown that groups of greater size can trigger richer call structures.



Monk parakeets follow a similar pattern. According to the new study, a bird nested in a big colony made a greater variety of sounds, possibly to handle the daily hubbub of communal living.



This diversity might even scale up as more parrots settle in crowded parks, resulting in a creative environment where many types of calls are shared or invented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-parakeet-calls-further">Decoding parakeet calls further</h2>



Each call likely serves a function, whether it signals an alarm, a greeting, or a social bond. Figuring out these functions is trickier than it sounds because parakeets often chatter in large flocks.



“The next big step is to better understand what each of the sounds mean, a real mammoth task, since most of the social squawking happens in large groups with many individuals talking at the same time!” said Smeele.



Pinpointing who is calling to whom could help decode a chaotic scene that appears random but might contain important social signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-for-human-language-studies">Insights for human language studies</h2>



Parrot behavior offers an interesting peek at how complexity arises in social communication. Humans certainly lean on language for the same reason: many relationships call for many ways to express ourselves.



Experts suggest that the parakeets’ varied calls might operate much like a nuanced social toolkit. When a bird needs to defend a favorite perch or greet a nest mate, it can tweak its calls as needed.



The findings echo ideas about how social pressures in our own evolutionary past might have nudged human language toward more vocabulary and flexible ways to share information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unresolved-questions-about-parakeets">Unresolved questions about parakeets</h2>



While the study shines a light on parrot chatter, many questions remain about how these calls arise in the nest. Scientists wonder whether younger birds learn from their parents or peers, or if they pick up new call elements whenever they meet fresh faces.



Some also want to see if parakeets in other cities behave the same way. The birds have spread widely across Europe and North America, so there may be subtle differences in how they talk in each region.



Investigations like these could reveal a chain of learning that might shape entire populations of monk parakeets over many generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-ties-shape-vocal-patterns">Social ties shape vocal patterns</h2>



Many examples in the animal kingdom show that bigger families and more interactions spur new forms of communication. 



Monk parakeets highlight how even everyday chatter can reflect deeper relationships. They show that social ties can shape the sound of voices, with friend groups forging their own acoustic style. 



Individual acoustic style might be a simple tool for sorting out personal space or forming alliances in a bustling colony.



As these bright green birds continue to thrive in city parks, they remind us that nature’s best talkers often lead the busiest social lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241717" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Monk parakeets develop a unique voice to navigate social life

Monk parakeets stand out for their lively chatter in city parks. They are originally from South America but have adapted well to urban environments, often roosting and breeding in large communal nests. After watching these birds for a while, it is hard not to notice the range of sounds they produce. They seem to greet each other with whistles, screeches, and abrupt squawks that vary from one bird to the next, and they interact across tree canopies and open lawns. Parakeet vocal diversity and social bonds Many...

Intricate communication strategies seen in male dolphin alliances.  It’s a well-known fact in the marine biology community that male bottlenose dolphins sometimes form long-lasting cooperative alliances with each other. These alliances can last decades, and have been the subject of intense study for decades as well.

Now, a new study in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a> puts together over 30 years of continuous research on this subject. Stephanie King, of the <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/">University of Western Australia</a>, and colleagues wanted to better understand the role that vocal communication plays in coordinating complex social behaviors – such as cooperation – in bottlenose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-decline-amazon/">dolphins</a>.

To assess the role of vocal signals, the researchers went to Shark Bay, Australia and recorded the dolphins’ vocalizations using underwater microphones. They then determined the individual vocal label used by individual males, and measured the similarity of those identity signals within and between alliances in order to determine whether males with stronger social relationships used vocal labels that were more alike. 

“We found that male bottlenose dolphins that form long-term cooperative partnerships or alliances with one another retain individual vocal labels, or ‘names,’ which allows them to recognize many different friends and rivals in their social network,” says King. “Our work shows that these ‘names’ help males keep track of their many different relationships: who are their friends, who are their friend’s friends, and who are their competitors.”

The researchers wanted to know if allied dolphins shared similar calls as a way to advertise their alliance, or if they stuck to individual vocal labels. Analysis determined that males in an alliance kept their distinct vocal labels, which suggests that these calls may serve a purpose similar to an individual name. This finding is in contrast to other species, whose individuals with close relationships converge on shared vocalizations in order to advertise their alliance to that partnership or group.

“With male bottlenose dolphins, it’s the opposite – each male retains a unique call, even though they develop incredibly strong bonds with one another,” King explains. “Therefore, retaining individual ‘names’ is more important than sharing calls for male dolphins, allowing them to keep track of or maintain a fascinating social network of cooperative relationships.”

The researchers are planning to further study male dolphins’ relationships with one another more closely. They plan on playing the “names” of individual males back to each other and seeing how males respond to members of their alliances in different contexts. “It will be interesting to reveal whether all cooperative relationships within alliances are equal or not,” says King.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Simon J Allen at the Dolphin Alliance Project

Intricate communication strategies seen in male dolphin alliances

Intricate communication strategies seen in male dolphin alliances.  It’s a...

Bee brains can understand the concept of zero.  Basic bee brains can comprehend the concept of zero, according to a new study conducted by researchers from Australia and France.

The results, published in the journal Science, show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-high-nectar-special-neurons/">bees</a> understand that nothing belongs at the lower end of the spectrum and could help with teaching Artificial Intelligence new tasks. 

Human brains have 86,000 million neurons but bees have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-high-nectar-special-neurons/">fewer than one million</a>.

It was thought that only humans, or species with similarly complex brains, could understand zero, which according to the researchers, is the backbone of modern mathematical and technological advancements. 

“Zero is a difficult concept to understand and a mathematical skill that doesn't come easily - it takes children a few years to learn,” said Adrian Dyer, a member of the research team. “We've long believed only humans had the intelligence to get the concept, but recent research has shown monkeys and birds have the brains for it as well. What we haven't known - until now - is whether insects can also understand zero.”

For the study, bees were presented with a series of images that contained different quantities of things. The bees were given a reward if they gravitated toward the image with the lowest number of elements. 

The bees would choose the image with two elements versus three and so on, and were given a sugar solution treat in return. 

Occasionally the researchers would show the bees a blank image, and even though they had not been trained to respond to an empty page or the concept of zero, the bees gravitated toward the picture with nothing. 

The fact that the bees went to the blank image shows that bees understood that nothing was lower than the other quantities shown, and the researchers say this provides a new understanding of how different brains grasp abstract concepts. 

“How does a brain represent nothing? Could bees and other animals that collect lots of food items, have evolved special neural mechanisms to enable the perception of zero?” Asked Dyer. “If bees can learn such a seemingly advanced maths skill that we don't even find in some ancient human cultures, perhaps this opens the door to considering the mechanism that allows animals and ourselves to understand the concept of nothing.”

The researchers are most excited about the implications the results could have for Artificial Intelligence and teaching relatively basic robots to operate in complex environments. 
--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Bee brains can understand the concept of zero

Bee brains can understand the concept of zero.  Basic bee...

Chemical attacks from parasites have big impacts on insects. A new study has revealed details about a behavior-modifying chemical warfare between leafcutter ants and the infectious parasites that live alongside them. The fungal parasite can overpower the leafcutter ants and control them, just as zombie ants are brainwashed to march out of their colonies by a different type of fungus.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> teamed up with experts at the John Innes Centre and other institutions to investigate colony collapse, when the highly efficient ant farmers suddenly abandon their carefully-managed gardens.

Leafcutter ants are common across Latin America and are the most highly-evolved of fungus-growing ants, adapting their farming skills around 60 million years ago. The larvae of leafcutter ants consume a specific specialized fungus, which the ants cultivate using a mulch of chewed leaves. 

The farms of leafcutter ants are infected by a fungal parasite that has co-evolved to live off their fungal food supply called Escovopsis. The ants produce specialized bacteria on their bodies to control Escovopsis attacks, but the parasite can take over the fungus farm when colonies become stressed, resulting in colony collapse. Chemical attacks from parasites have big impacts on insects

“Leafcutter ants are superb farmers,” said study co-author Professor Matt Hutchings. “They patrol their gardens, remove foreign fungi and use antibiotic-producing bacteria on their bodies to kill off parasites - effectively using them as weedkillers. But the ways in which Escovopsis succeeds in getting through their defenses is not well understood.”


For the analysis, the researchers used samples of the food fungus from leafcutter ant colonies collected in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/panama-dolphins-threatened-boat/">Panama</a> and infected them with the parasite.

The experts identified two families of molecules that were produced at high levels by the Escovopsis pathogen and tested them against the defensive bacteria produced by the ants.

The study revealed that the first molecule killed the ant’s bacteria, while the second manage to modify the behavior of the leafcutter ants. Under the influence of the second molecule, the ants fled their fungus garden. If the ants were exposed to the chemical weapon for long enough, it eventually killed them.

The strategy is similar to that used by a different fungus that is responsible for manipulating “zombie ants” to leave their colonies and climb up into the trees where they promote the spread of fungal spores after their death.

“We think the Escovopsis pathogen is always present in or around the nests and kept at bay by the ants' constant gardening and chemical defences,” said study co-author Professor Barrie Wilkinson.

“But when something unusual happens - a drought, or other environmental change perhaps - the parasite may gain a foothold and start increasing the levels of the chemical weapon compounds that cause behaviour changes and decrease the ants' weeding efficiency in their gardens.”

“From then on you have an escalating situation which leads to the appearance of dead ants, and the pathogen taking over, so the remaining ants eventually abandon the nest.”

Professor Wilkinson said that the research may lead to the development of ways to control pests such as leafcutter ants without using insecticides.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a>

Chemical attacks from parasites have big impacts on insects

Chemical attacks from parasites have big impacts on insects. A...

A new study led by the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> exposes details about the practice of killing marine mammals such as dolphins, sea lions, and seals for use as fishing bait. 

As World Oceans Day approaches, the researchers are hoping to raise awareness on this issue, which they say has received little attention from scientists and conservationists thus far.

Many animals, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-decline-amazon/">dolphins</a>, sea turtles, and birds, are accidentally caught as bycatch during commercial fishing, which is a well-known problem. What is not very well-known, however, is that the intentional capture of marine mammals for fishing bait is also widespread.

According to the study, more than 40 species of aquatic mammals have been utilized as bait since 1970 in at least 33 countries. The vast majority of these species were deliberately killed for use in at least one fishery. 

For example, dolphins are often killed to be used as shark bait in fisheries, a practice that was found to be most common in Asia and Latin America.

Study lead author Dr. Vanessa J. Mintzer said that the research was prompted by the observation of population declines in a few of the territories that are known to slaughter aquatic mammals for bait.

“Killing for use as bait is a primary threat affecting Amazon river dolphins, known as botos - the species and issue I have studied since my Ph.D. dissertation,” said Dr. Mintzer. “With this global review we wanted to see whether, and where, other species were killed for bait, and learn about possible solutions to stop the problem.”


The extent of killing and impact on the species identified in this study will remain largely unknown due to the fact that this is a convert practice. Dr. Mintzer said that obtaining better data should now become an urgent priority.

“For scientists already working on species and locations identified as ‘hot spots’ in this review, organized efforts should begin right away to estimate these numbers,” said Dr. Mintzer. 

“It took years to determine that the hunt for botos was unsustainable and now conservation actions need to be expedited. We need to identify other affected populations now to facilitate timely conservation actions.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dolphins are being killed for use as bait in fisheries

A new study led by the University of Florida exposes...

A new report from <a href="http://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a> has revealed that there is a substantial increase in white shark activity when the animals are interacting with tourists and cage-diving operators. It is not yet known how this shift in behavior may be affecting the health of white shark individuals or populations.

In recent decades, wildlife tourism has emerged as one of the fastest growing sectors of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-footprint-tourism-industry/">tourism</a> industry. Tourists can cage-dive with white sharks in Australia, South Africa, the United States, Mexico, and New Zealand.


Previous research has demonstrated that wildlife tourism can cause species to behave unnaturally by changing their habitats or eating patterns. The current investigation shows that white sharks are more active and use up more energy when tourism operators are present compared to when they are not.

The researchers used monitoring devices to track ten white sharks at South Australia's Neptune Islands for nine days. They found that the overall dynamic body acceleration of the sharks was 61 percent higher when cage divers and operators were present.

Study lead author Charlie Huveneers is an associate professor in the Southern Shark Ecology Group (SSEG) research lab at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>.

“This suggests that the cage-diving industry has the potential to affect the energy budget of white sharks,” said Huveneers. “However, the mere presence of the cage-diving operators in the general vicinity of the sharks was not sufficient to elicit such behavioral changes. These only occurred when white sharks were close to the cage-diving vessels.”

“Spending time interacting with cage-diving operators might distract sharks from normal behaviors such as foraging on natural, energy-rich prey like pinnipeds.”

The study highlights the need for a better understanding of the impact of ecotourism on the health of white sharks.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/conphys">Conservation Physiology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cage diving may be affecting the health of great white sharks

A new report from Oxford University Press has revealed that...

The bond between a dog and their owner is a strong one, but how exactly does this connection form so cohesively and how does it impact human brain chemistry? 

Dog expert and author Meg Olmert spoke in-depth about just how exactly dogs affect our brain chemistry, and how a relationship between canines and humans that started 45,000 years ago has become such an integral part of our lives today.

It all boils down to hormones, particularly the pleasure hormones like dopamine and oxytocin.

Olmert told <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/how-having-dog-affects-your-body-brain-pet-oxytocin-animal-baby-2018-5?r=US&amp;IR=T">Business Insider</a> that seeing and petting your dog releases oxytocin in the brain. 

Oxytocin is a central hormone for bonding between mothers and their children and it promotes breast milk production in mammals. 

The fact that oxytocin strengthens mother and child bonds  helps explain why the connection with a pet can be so strong.

Spending time with your pet also alleviates stress as a result of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-loves-smile/">mood-boosting hormones released</a> after interacting with your four-legged friend.

“You release oxytocin, the opioids, adrenaline, and serotonin. So, all of these great reward chemicals and anti-stress chemicals can be released in both you and the pet,” Olmert told Business Insider.

Not all dogs produce this response according to Olmert. When people are faced with any dog off the street, or even different breeds, the brain reacts in different ways.

Some breeds that are perceived as more aggressive like pit bulls or rottweilers will increase heart rate and anxiety, even triggering the fight or flight response.

“Dogs perceived as being fierce will trigger a different hormonal profile (increased cortisol, adrenaline, etc). They may not be an actual threat to illicit this defensive response,” Olmert told the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5807069/Dogs-trigger-release-dopamine-oxytocin-way-children.html">Daily Mail</a>.

On the other hand, dogs from breeds that are considered more social and loyal like golden retrievers will trigger more of the pleasure response and oxytocin.

Having a pet can be a greatly rewarding experience as studies have shown that owning a dog comes with many health benefits, and Olmert’s work helps explain why the bond between pets and humans are so strong and long-lasting.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How your bond with your dog changes your brain

The bond between a dog and their owner is a...

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you.  How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you. Scientists at the <a href="http://www.butantan.gov.br/">Instituto Butantan</a> in Brazil have been analyzing the sugar molecules and proteins in several species of lancehead vipers. The experts found that sugar chains within the snakes known as glycans can modify the toxic proteins in snake venom, causing it to become more lethal.

The lancehead viper is one of the most dangerous snakes in South America, and a single bite can be fatal. Species found throughout Central and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-south-american-forests/">South America</a> have venom that can cause hemorrhaging, strokes, and kidney failure.

The team was led by Solange Serrano, a researcher in the Laboratory of Applied Toxicology at Instituto Butantan. According to Serrano, most proteins in lancehead venom are modified with glycans, which can affect the folding, stability, and binding of the proteins. However, little is known about glycan structure in the snakes' venom.

Serrano's graduate student Debora Andrade-Silva visited the lab of glycomics expert Vernon Reinhold at the <a href="https://unh.edu/">University of New Hampshire</a> to learn ways to structurally characterize glycans. 

Using mass spectrometry, the team characterized the structure of 60 glycan chains in eight lancehead venoms. They were able to determine which sugars were present and how they were linked into glycan structures.

Lancehead venom contains nearly 100 milligrams of protein per milliliter of liquid. At this concentration, protein solutions tend to become very viscous or form gels. 

The researchers found that a disproportionate number of glycans attached to the proteins were tipped with sialic acid, a sugar with a negative charge. 

Sialic acid on a toxic enzyme may also bind to host proteins called siglecs, pulling the enzyme closer to target cells for a type of “supercharged” venom, which is an effect that has been observed in other types of venom.


The team in Brazil continues working to gain a better understanding of how venom differs among snake species. This discovery could lead to the development of improved anti-venom treatment. 

Serrano explained that “the antivenoms do a reasonable job, but they are not so good at neutralizing the local effects of snakebite,” which include swelling, hemorrhage and necrosis. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.mcponline.org/">Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill...

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China. Researchers may have uncovered the oldest fossil footprints on record, dating back to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-animals-grew-large/">Ediacaran Period</a> 600 million years ago, in China. 

Fossils and footprints can reveal a great deal about what life was like millions of years before humans walked the Earth. 

The Cambrian Period marks the time in the fossil record when most major groups of animals <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php">first appeared</a>. This abundance of life is known as the Cambrian Explosion and some of the oldest fossils ever discovered come from this period. 

Some forms of life are suspected to have evolved before the Cambrian Explosion, for example, bilaterian animals with paired appendages, and now researchers can confirm that this is true. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://english.nigpas.cas.cn/">Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in collaboration with the <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University</a> examined trackways and burrows in sediment dating back to the Ediacaran Period. 

The burrows were found in the Ediacaran Shibantan Member of the Dengying Formation (551 to 541 million years ago) in the Yangtze Gorges area of South China, and the trackway patterns suggested that they were left by species with paired appendages. 

The trackways were also connected to the burrows which just strengthened the hypothesis that they were left by animals who dug burrows in the sediment for food. 

These are thought to be the earliest fossil footprints ever discovered and the find extends the fossil record of animals with appendages from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-seek-solve-mystery-cambrian-oxygen-spike/">Cambrian</a> to the late Ediacaran Period. 

A paper detailing the new fossil footprints was published in the journal Science Advances. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: NIGP

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China. Researchers...

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve. In the Mexican state of Tamualipas, it's possible to drive past a small sign marking the Tropic of Cancer.  As you head south past this boundary marking out the tropical belt surrounding the center of the globe, some changes are obvious.  Power lines are hung with the intricately woven, pendulous nests of Oropendolas; trees are draped with moss, wrapped in vines and spotted with lichen.  Lurid butterflies are noticeably more common everywhere. 

On an ongoing road trip through Mexico, my fiancé and I decided to venture into the tropics.  As we drove south, hills rose around us, covered with an abundance of green life.  The air became sticky.  It was hot.  It was humid.  We were driving to El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.  

El Cielo translates as 'Heaven' and the beauty of the place fit the descriptor.  El Cielo is the northernmost extent of tropical forests in North America and contains several different habitats including montane cloud forest, sub-deciduous tropical forest and dry, high elevation xerophyte shrublands.  The park itself extends for 357,100 acres, is an UNESCO World Heritage Site, and contains within it a few small, semi-remote villages. According to a 1999 survey, 6,208 people live inside the park. The human population is scattered among at least seven small villages strung along a road that gets rougher the further into the park you venture.       

[caption id="attachment_1215177" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/el-cielo-2.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1215177" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/el-cielo-2-300x225.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="225" /></a> Image Credit: Erin Moody[/caption]

Arriving in El Cielo, we were too late in the day for camping, so we found a nice hotel hugged by trees overlooking an impressive valley and hillside.  Birds called loudly from the trees. Humidity was omnipresent, sticking clothes to my body, dusting my face. The town we spent our first night in is at the end of the paved road, the rest of the roads are rocky dirt things with patches of concrete that apparently were last officially maintained before I was born.  As day turned to darkness, the songs of insects were everywhere: cicadas and katydids competing with frogs in their calls for sex. The people acted like they lived in heaven too, delicious street food was cheap and live music mingled with the animal sounds in the tropical night. The next day we drove on, following a road I wouldn’t again take our two wheel drive van on to start camping and really experience El Cielo if for but a short time.      

[caption id="attachment_1215174" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/millipede-el-cielo1.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1215174" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/millipede-el-cielo1-300x225.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="225" /></a> Image Credit: Erin Moody[/caption]

In El Cielo, black bear, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaguar-conservation-attitude/">jaguar</a>, and mountain lions coexist.  If you remember that jaguars are often called 'el tigre' in Spanish, you could almost say, 'lions and tigers and bears, oh my!' It's rare to be in the habitat of so many large predators in North America.  Military Macaws nest in El Cielo and we saw a Mot Mot perch briefly in a tree before flitting away into a bank of fog.  Mot mots are an interesting tropical bird, sometimes referred to as ‘pajaro del reloj’ for the resemblance of their long tails to pendulums in old grandfather clocks.  I visited a cave with large clear pools of water and dripping stalactites that shelters vampire bats. Hiding under rocks and leaves are an abundance of interesting arthropods, giant millipedes are common.  I found a dead specimen of one of the world's strangest arachnids, an animal known as the vinegaroon.  Vinegaroons look mainly like scorpions except for delicate whip-like tails without stingers.  Instead of stinging vinegaroons squirt a stream of acid into the eyes of would-be attackers.

The park is also home to extensive karst formations that filter the local rain and supply delicious drinking water for the park’s inhabitants.  There are even caves where the rare blind Mexican Tetra (Astyanax mexicanus) a fish adapted to the subterranean dark lives.  The form of fish living in caves is whitish but not technically albino.  Without the use of eyes, the fish navigates with a lateral line system, sensing slight differences in water pressure.

There are at least 255 species of resident birds in El Cielo and more than 175 migrants have been recorded in the reserve.  There are also 81 reptile and amphibian species and 40 types of bats, according to a pamphlet written by Alejandra Sosa Florescano.  Reptiles include dangerous snakes like the neotropical rattlesnake, the coral snake and the lancehead. There is an alligator lizard adapted to living in trees that can be found in El Cielo as well as throughout the Sierra Madre Oriental.     

Continuing the weird mash-up of tropical and temperate mammal species resulting from such a far north tropical forest, small cat species are all over the map.  Bobcats share El Cielo with Margays, ocelots and jaguarundi. White Tailed deer live in the park as well as the more typically tropical Red Brocket Deer. The ubiquitous raccoon lives in El Cielo as well as the hooded skunk, a species at the northern edge of its range in the southwestern United States.

Trees range from Mexican Maple, Mexican Yew and Mexican Beech to the more obviously tropical species like the beautiful magnolia.  For those like me who are used to seeing maples on in the far north, seeing one in the tropics is exciting. 

Part of the reason for the amazing array of species in El Cielo is the elevation gradient.  The park is full of mountains and hills, half of the reserve being made up by the Cucharas Mountains and ranging in elevation from about 660 feet above sea level to 7,500 feet.  Being in the northern range of the tropics where species from North America as well as species originating further south also adds a dimension to the assemblage of species in El Cielo.

El Cielo is also part of a migration corridor.  Monarch Butterflies rest in El Cielo on their yearly trip to wintering grounds further south in Mexico, near Mexico City.  The Central Flyway birds in North America use for migration also extends into this part of Mexico. 

El Cielo was protected relatively late. From 1900 to the 1930s, the area was under an intensively managed forestry program.  In 1935, a Canadian farmer named John William Francis Harrison created a homestead in what is now El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.  In 1965 Harrison along with Juan Fidel Zorrilla and Francisco García San Miguel created an institution, El Cielo, S.A., created initially with 25 hectares of land, to study and preserve the important environment of the area.  Harrison was later murdered over a land dispute. Harrison’s homestead is now El Cielo Biological Research Center. In 1975, the Tamaulipas government made El Cielo state park. In 1985, the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve was created and in 1987 El Cielo was recognized by UNESCO.                 

We spent five nights at El Cielo and went hiking every day, exploring a small amount of the tropical forest.  The place is beautiful but also somewhat perilous.  Besides the more obvious dangers of large predators, there is the overbearing presence of mosquitoes that descend in the evening.  I picked as many as 15 ticks from my body in a day and Erin found a similar amount on herself.  It also rained every night we were there.  It rained hard enough that we tied a tarp over the back of the van to keep water out.  For me, the hardships highlight the wildness of the place and accentuate its beauty.  You know a place better if you know its nastier moods.

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Images by Erin Moody

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve. In the...

&nbsp;

  Both humans and animals use language tactic of turn-taking. Language is a distinct trait that separates humans from the rest of the pack, even if we don’t all speak the same language. It is a trait characterized by cooperative turn-taking, where we exchange information by taking short and flexible turns as we speak with each other. Turn-taking is used universally across languages and cultures, and some signs of it can be found in all clades of the primate lineage. Because of this, turn-taking has been suggested as an ancient mechanism of the language system that bridges the gap between us humans and our inarticulate primate cousins. 

Since language is a major area of study for evolutionary theory, researchers from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index.html">Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology</a> wanted to determine what nonhuman primates and other animal taxa may exhibit for similar behavior.

The researchers assessed previous literature by reviewing turn-taking phenomena in birds, mammals, insects, and anurans. 

“Direct comparisons of turn-taking skills of nonhuman animals in relation to language origins are highly constrained by lack of data, the application of different terms, methodological designs, and study environments,” says Simone Pika, first author of the study from Department of Primatology at the Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology.

Pika also points out that studies have been biased toward birds and vocal interactions, and are mostly focused on just one key element of full-blown human turn-taking, known as the time window. The time window is the gap between an initiating turn and the response turn, and varies in human conversation from 0-500 milliseconds and across nonhuman animal taxa from less than 50 milliseconds to 5,000 milliseconds.

“Research studies on other turn-taking systems – for example gestural interactions of bonobos and chimpanzees – are currently relatively rare, but represent, due to the application of key elements characterizing human full-blown turn-taking, the most promising avenue to tackle the question whether turn-taking played a key role in language evolution,” says Pika.

To improve research efforts, the researchers propose a new framework, which looks to enable comparative research through focusing on four key elements that characterize human conversations. These four elements are flexibility of turn-taking organization, which individual is taking the next turn, when the response turns occur, and what the next turn does. The study’s authors suggest applying this framework to precisely chosen representatives of over 50 genera of primates, and using it to characterize the current turn-taking phenotypes.

The researchers also believe that more attention should be paid to related phenomena due to convergent evolution. Past studies on language competence and cognitive skills of parrots and corvids have put into question the previously assumed simple inverse correlation between language-readiness and genetic distance from humans. The new field of comparative turn-taking could help solve one of the most difficult problems in science through testing whether turn-taking had significant downstream effects on human culture and cooperation, and determine whether it may have laid the foundation for the evolution of language. Also Both humans and animals use language tactic of turn-taking shown in the images with show.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Simone Pika

Both humans and animals use language tactic of turn-taking

&nbsp;   Both humans and animals use language tactic of...

Will dogs be the source of the next global flu outbreak?.  A new study from the <a href="https://www.asm.org/">American Society for Microbiology</a> has found that dogs have become the potential source of a global flu outbreak. The researchers demonstrated that influenza is becoming increasingly diverse in canines, and that the flu virus can jump from pigs into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-experience-complex-emotions/">dogs</a>.

Study author Dr. Adolfo García-Sastre is the director of the <a href="http://icahn.mssm.edu/research/global-health">Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute</a> and a principal investigator at the <a href="http://icahn.mssm.edu/research/influenza-pathogenesis">Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis</a> (CRIP) in the Icahn School of Medicine.

“The majority of pandemics have been associated with pigs as an intermediate host between avian viruses and human hosts,” explained Dr. García-Sastre. “In this study, we identified influenza viruses jumping from pigs into dogs.”

Pandemic influenza occurs when viruses jump from animal reservoirs to humans, who do not usually have immunity to the viruses because they have never been exposed to them. Wild birds, poultry, pigs, and horses are some of the primary hosts for influenza.

Viral genes from the 2009 pandemic H1N1 virus originated from an avian virus that jumped to pigs and then into humans. Birds and swine are major reservoirs of viral genetic diversity, while horses and dogs have historically been restricted to one or two stable influenza A viruses lineages with very limited transmission to humans.

Researchers documented the first circulating canine influenza virus that jumped from a horse to a dog fifteen years ago. In 2013, researchers identified an avian-origin H3N2 canine influenza virus circulating in farmed dogs in Guangdong, China.

“In our study, what we have found is another set of viruses that come from swine that are originally avian in origin, and now they are jumping into dogs and have been reassorted with other viruses in dogs,” said Dr. García-Sastre. “We now have H1N1, H3N2, and H3N8 in dogs. They are starting to interact with each other. This is very reminiscent of what happened in swine ten years before the H1N1 pandemic.”


The research team sequenced the complete genomes of 16 influenza viruses obtained from canines in southern China between 2013 and 2015. The researchers found three lineages of the influenza virus that circulate among pigs.

“The new virus we have identified in our study is H1N1, but it comes from swine and is of avian origin, so it is different antigenically from the new H1N1s that were seen in the pandemic and a different origin as the previous H1N1 seen in humans," said Dr. García-Sastre.

Further research is needed to characterize the virus further and to determine whether or not humans have existing immunity against canine H1N1. 

“If there is a lot of immunity against these viruses, they will represent less of a risk, but we now have one more host in which influenza virus is starting to have a diverse genotypic and phenotypic characteristics, creating diversity in a host which is in very close contact to humans.”

“The diversity in dogs has increased so much now that the type of combinations of viruses that can be created in dogs represent potential risk for a virus to jump to a dog into a human.”

According to the experts, methods of restricting the influenza virus in dogs are needed. Dr. García-Sastre said that there are attempts to restrict influenza virus in pigs through vaccination, and that flu vaccinations for dogs should be considered as well.

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://mbio.asm.org/">mBio</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Will dogs be the source of the next global flu outbreak?

Will dogs be the source of the next global flu...

Poison dart frogs use their bright colors as camouflage. Scientists at the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have found that the bright colors of the poison dart frog not only function as a way to ward off predators, but also serve as a second type of defense mechanism. Surprisingly, the vivid color patterns also help the frogs to blend in with their surroundings.

“Effective as warning signals are, it's not necessarily the best strategy to be maximally conspicuous,” explained study lead author Jim Barnett. 

“Certain predators have evolved tolerance of toxins that would be deadly for humans, and some individual predators may have not encountered the warning signal prey before (a dangerous mistake for the predator, but also for the frog).”

“So, color patterns that could be distinctive close-up, but work as camouflage from a distance, would provide a clear advantage.” Poison dart frogs use their bright colors as camouflage

The researchers used a combination of computational modeling, lab experiments, and fieldwork in the jungles of French Guiana for their analysis, which was focused on the Dyeing Dart Frog. 

The experts wanted to find out how this particular frog uses its colors to balance the advantages of effective warning signals with the benefits of concealment. The study revealed that the specific colors and their patterns, which attract attention at close range, actually work as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iridescent-colors-started-camouflage/">camouflage</a> when viewed from far away. 

This means that the Dyeing Dart Frog does not have to strike a balance between cautioning rivals or being concealed, because the frog’s bright yellow-and-black pattern functions both ways - as a camouflage from a distance and as a warning signal up close.

“How many other animals use ‘distance-dependent coloration’ to balance competing evolutionary pressures is yet to be explored,” said study co-author Professor Innes Cuthill. “Being able to signal when close to a would-be mate, whilst remaining inconspicuous to more distant predators would seem beneficial.” 

“So too for human applications such as military camouflage, where recognition by allies is as important as concealment from foes. Also, signage that only need be clear at the distance where the information is needed, but might be distracting if detected earlier.”

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: James B. Barnett

Poison dart frogs use their bright colors as camouflage

Poison dart frogs use their bright colors as camouflage. Scientists...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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