More than half a billion years ago, a tiny ancestor of today’s arthropods scuttled along the floor of a shallow sea in what’s now Yunnan, China. It had large grasping arms, stalked eyes, and a surprisingly modern-looking brain tucked into a head barely wider than the tip of a pencil.



Now, a new look at this ancient fossil - Jianfengia multisegmentalis - is reshaping what scientists thought they knew about how these animals first branched into two major evolutionary paths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arthropods-rule-the-world">Arthropods rule the world</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-think-insects-will-become-a-sustainable-food-source/">Insects</a>, spiders, crabs, centipedes - all of them are arthropods. This massive group includes more than a million known species. 



Arthropods live everywhere: in the ocean, on land, in the air, and even inside of other animals. Their tough exoskeletons, segmented bodies, and jointed legs have helped them survive and thrive for over 500 million years.



But one big puzzle has remained: where exactly did the two main branches of arthropods come from?



On one side, you have mandibulates - creatures like insects, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/">crustaceans</a>, and millipedes, which have antennae and use jaws (or mandibles) to eat. On the other hand, chelicerates - spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs - have fangs or pincers instead of jaws.



Until now, scientists weren’t sure when or how these two groups split. That’s where Jianfengia comes in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fossil-that-tells-a-different-story">A fossil that tells a different story</h2>



At first, Jianfengia was thought to belong to a group called megacheirans, meaning “large hands” in Greek. 



These extinct animals had long, claw-like limbs sticking out from their heads - similar to the claws of modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horseshoe-crabs-view-the-world-through-compound-eyes/">horseshoe crabs</a>. Because of that, scientists had placed them in the chelicerate group.



But when researchers took a closer look at the fossilized brain of Jianfengia, they noticed something didn’t add up.



The research team, led by the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, reconstructed the nervous system from four well-preserved specimens. 



What they found was unexpected: a brain that looked a lot like that of a modern shrimp or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-coloration-in-crayfish-does-not-serve-an-evolutionary-purpose/">crayfish</a>. It even had features seen in simple freshwater crustaceans, like brine shrimp - the kind sold as “sea monkeys.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ancestors-of-antennae">The ancestors of antennae </h2>



“These megacheirans didn't have antennules, which are antenna-like appendages that are common to crustaceans, insects and centipedes,” said lead researcher Nicholas Strausfeld, a professor in the U of A Department of Neuroscience. 



“Instead we see these strange, quite sturdy head appendages that were specialized for reaching and clasping things.”



Turns out, those big “claws” weren’t early versions of spider fangs after all. Instead, they were likely the ancestors of antennae - the kind found in today’s insects and crustaceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-with-ancient-eyes">Seeing with ancient eyes</h2>



Jianfengia’s head was only about 0.08 inches wide, but it packed in a lot of sensory power. It had stalked compound eyes, like those of insects and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-crabs-and-lobsters-have-emotions-and-feelings/">crabs</a>, plus at least three single-lens eyes - the simple kind also seen in many modern arthropods.



In one fossil, the researchers even looked inside the compound eyes and saw fossilized cone cells that once supported light-sensitive parts of the eye. 



“What we saw was unexpected: the brain looks really modern, comparable to that of a living crustacean,” Strausfeld said.



This level of detail is almost never seen in fossils this old. Soft tissues like brains usually break down long before they can fossilize. But thanks to the fine-grained rock and lucky conditions in this ancient seabed, a few rare specimens kept their delicate neural features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-cousins-go-separate-ways">Ancient cousins go separate ways</h2>



Another fossil - Alalcomenaeus - also belonged to the megacheiran group and had similar body parts. However, it turned out to be quite different on the inside. Its brain looked more like that of Limulus, the horseshoe crab, which is a chelicerate.



So even though these two creatures looked similar on the outside, their brains revealed that they were actually early members of different arthropod groups. One led to modern crustaceans and insects. The other led to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-species-joro-spiders-has-invaded-the-united-states-heres-what-to-look-for/">spiders</a> and scorpions.



“Many repeats of these comparisons revealed that in the arthropod tree of life, Jianfengia sat at or near the root of all mandibulates, whereas its putative cousin, Alalcomenaeus, has the same status, but within the chelicerate branch of the tree of life,” said co-author David Andrew of Lycoming College.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-same-tools-different-outcomes">Same tools, different outcomes</h2>



The key body part in all of this are the large claws sticking out of the head. Over hundreds of millions of years, evolution shaped them into very different things.



“In chelicerates, these ‘great appendages’ shrunk, so they eventually became the spider fangs,” said Strausfeld. “In mandibulates, evolution modified them into segmented antennules.”



Some tiny marine crustaceans alive today - called ostracods - still have antennules tipped with claspers, offering living proof of this evolutionary transition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arthropods-from-the-inside-out">Arthropods from the inside out</h2>



Looking at a creature’s shell or limbs can tell scientists part of the story. But to really understand where an animal fits in the family tree, the brain may offer better clues.



“Our results demonstrate that close examination of fossilized neural remains can provide powerful data indicating evolutionary relationships impossible to obtain just from features of the exoskeleton,” Strausfeld said. 



“One needs to know what to look for in the fossil brain because it tells us a lot about a fossil’s identity.”



Frank Hirth, a co-author from King’s College London, noted that the organization of their fossilized brains perfectly aligns with that of living arthropods, suggesting that their ancient constituents are extraordinarily robust, yet diverse.



This may explain why arthropods are the most successful inhabitants of this planet, said Hirth.



Ultimately, the tiny brain of a long-dead sea creature has helped scientists solve one of the oldest mysteries in animal evolution - where the arthropod family tree began to branch.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62849-w">Nature Communications</a>.



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Tiny fossil rewrites the giant arthropod family tree

More than half a billion years ago, a tiny ancestor of today’s arthropods scuttled along the floor of a shallow sea in what’s now Yunnan, China. It had large grasping arms, stalked eyes, and a surprisingly modern-looking brain tucked into a head barely wider than the tip of a pencil. Now, a new look at this ancient fossil - Jianfengia multisegmentalis - is reshaping what scientists thought they knew about how these animals first branched into two major evolutionary paths. Arthropods rule the world Insects, spiders, crabs,...

It’s been a little over ten years since researchers discovered that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pollinator-protection/colony-collapse-disorder">Colony Collapse Disorder</a> was behind the rash of missing bees across the United States.

While there have been improvements in bee colony collapse over the years, the losses continue to be staggering. 

A recent edition of <a href="https://theconversation.com/ten-years-after-the-crisis-what-is-happening-to-the-worlds-bees-77164">the Conversation</a> details how honey bees are responsible for pollinating around one-third of the plants we eat, and continued bee declines could spell disaster <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-agricultural-issue/">for agriculture and food demand. </a>

Bee declines have happened over the world and pesticides, habitat degradation, climate change and disease all continue to impact honey bees negatively. 

Now, a new vaccine developed by researchers from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> may offer a solution to one of the diseases that threaten honey bee colonies.

The vaccine is called<a href="https://primebee.org/"> PrimeBee</a>, and it guards against American foulbrood (AFB), a particularly devastating bacterial disease that can wipe out entire colonies. 

“Even a slight improvement in their life has vast significance on a global scale,” PrimeBee’s developer Dalial Freitak told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6468895/Could-worlds-bee-vaccine-save-honeybees.html">Daily Mail. 
</a>

AFB is a fatal honey bee disease that can’t be cured, and if a hive becomes infected with it, the entire colony is in jeopardy. The disease is caused by spore-forming larvae and it’s extremely contagious.

Unfortunately, honey bees have no antibodies, and so traditional vaccine methods to guard against the disease are ineffective. 

To remedy this, Frietak and a team of researchers found an innovative way to introduce a vaccine into a hive through the eggs of the queen. 

“Now we've discovered the mechanism to show that you can actually vaccinate them,” said Freitak. “You can transfer a signal from one generation to another.” 

The researchers placed the vaccine containing AFB pathogens into a sugar patty that the queen bee ate over a week. 

The pathogens were then transferred to the queen’s young and helped create an immune response against AFB in the new bees.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

World’s first vaccine for bees could save colony declines

It’s been a little over ten years since researchers discovered...

Seabird populations have been steadily declining over the last seven decades. In the past 50 years alone, their numbers have dropped by as much as 70 percent.

A new study by scientists from the <a href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/">University of Aberdeen</a> has revealed that the rapid disappearance of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-renewable-tide-energy/">seabirds</a> can be attributed to human activities, including habitat destruction, overfishing, and pollution.

For their analysis, the team examined two separate time periods: from 1970 to 1989 and from 1990 to 2010. The experts evaluated the extent of the competition that seabird species would have encountered when they searched for food, including anchovies, sardines, mackerel, squid, krill, and crustaceans. 

In addition, the annual consumption rate of these animals was estimated for 276 different types of seabird species. This calculation was based on population counts and models, which they compared to data from the <a href="http://www.seaaroundus.org/">Sea Around Us</a> world database - a record of annual catches by fishing boats.

Between 1970 to 1990 and 1990 to 2010, the total annual seabird consumption was found to drop from 70 million tons to 57 million tons. At the same time, annual fishery catches jumped from 59 to 65 million tons.

“Our research shows, that despite the decline of the world seabird community between 1970 to 1989 and 1990 to 2010, competition with,” said study co-author Dr. Aurore Ponchon. “This competition was even enhanced in almost half the oceans.”

“In addition to other factors such as pollution, predation by invasive species on chicks, the destruction and changes in their habitat by human activities and environmental changes caused by climate change, puts seabirds at risk, making them the most threatened bird group, with a 70 per cent decline over the past seven decades.”

“This study calls for an improved management of the world's fisheries to alleviate competition pressure on seabird populations.”

The research is published in the journal  <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seabird numbers drop 70 percent in the last 50 years, study confirms

Seabird populations have been steadily declining over the last seven...

The genome analysis of a blue-fronted Amazon parrot named Moises is offering new insights into the longevity and cognitive abilities that these birds have in common with humans. The research may ultimately explain how parrots got their impressive vocalization skills. 

In the first comparative study of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/parrots-blush-communicate/">parrot</a> genomes, the experts looked at the blue-fronted Amazon versus 30 other types of birds with both short and long lifespans, including four additional parrot species. The team identified a suite of genes that were not previously known to play a role in longevity.

Study first author Morgan Wirthlin is a BrainHub postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/">Carnegie Mellon University</a>. “In many cases, this is the first time we've connected those genes to longevity in vertebrates,” she explained.

Wirthlin said parrots are known to live up to 90 years in captivity - a lifespan that would be equivalent to hundreds of years for humans. The genes associated with longevity include telomerase, which is responsible for DNA repair of the ends of chromosomes that shorten during the aging process. 

The researchers noted that changes in the DNA repair genes of long-lived birds appeared to coincide with changes in genes that control cell proliferation and cancer. They also found genetic evidence that both humans and parrots evolved similar methods for developing higher cognitive abilities.

“Unfortunately, we didn't find as many speech-related changes as I had hoped,” said Wirthlin, whose research is focused on the evolution of vocal behaviors, including speech. 

Animals that have the capacity to learn speech or songs are relatively rare. A better understanding of how they evolved this capacity would give experts more insight into a similar evolutionary process in humans. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Glaucia Seixas

New insight into the cognitive ability and longevity of parrots

The genome analysis of a blue-fronted Amazon parrot named Moises...

A new study from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> is revealing how much wild animals can affect the capacity of a region to store carbon. According to the researchers, the ability of a landscape to absorb, release, or transport <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-2018/">carbon</a> is greatly influenced by the presence of wild animals.

After reviewing a collection of research, the experts determined that animals can increase or decrease rates of biogeochemical processes by 15 to 250 percent or more. The researchers argue that failure to account for the role of animals can undermine the accuracy of ecosystem carbon budget estimates. 

Study lead author Oswald J. Schmitz is the Oastler Professor of Population and Community Ecology at the Yale School of Forestry &amp; Environmental Studies. 

“Some of us have been saying for a long time that it's not just animal abundance that matters but what these animals do that is important,” said Schmitz. “We're finally to the point that there's some pretty strong evidence to support these ideas.”

Previous studies have demonstrated that animal abundance can cause major shifts in the carbon storage capacity of ecosystems. In some cases, an ecosystem transitioned from a significant source of carbon emissions when animals were not abundant to a carbon sink when animal populations were restored.

Large mammals play critical roles in the vitality of tropical forests through activities such as seed dispersal by frugivores and the support of plant production by herbivores. One particular study found that a 3.5-fold increase in the number of mammal species can increase carbon retention by 230 to 400 percent.


In other ecosystems, however, grazing herbivores can be detrimental to the landscape's carbon storage capacity. For example, an abundance of caribou and muskox in the Arctic or moose in boreal forests can decrease CO2 uptake and storage by up to 70 percent.

Human activities such as poaching and overfishing are increasingly affecting these relationships. Study co-author Professor Chris Wilmers explained that humans have played a huge role in shaping animal communities, from the composition of species to the distances, directions, and speeds at which they move across landscapes.

“If we want to understand how our impacts on and/or management of animal populations scale up to influence ecosystem wide carbon cycling then we need tools that allow us to link the things animals do to their ultimate consequences on the carbon cycle,” said Professor Wilmers.

The researchers offered insights into how researchers could combine animal ecology, ecosystem modeling, and remote sensing to more accurately predict and manage carbon cycling across ecosystems. 

Study co-author Scott Goetz is a professor at Northern Arizona University who has conducted satellite remote sensing research for more than three decades.

“We show the effects of animals are large and important, but also that remote sensing can greatly inform what we know about how animals alter ecosystems through time, whether appropriating biomass through herbivory or trampling or enhancing productivity through nutrient and seed dispersal,” said Professor Goetz.

“New remote sensing technology, like the GEDI Lidar instrument launched this week to the International Space Station, will help us do a much better job of capturing the influence of animals on plant biomass and productivity dynamics.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals impact an ecosystem’s ability to store carbon

A new study from Yale University is revealing how much...

An international team of researchers analyzed the remains of an <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/texas-fossil-dolphin-like-ichthyosaur/">ichthyosaur</a> from the Early Jurassic and found evidence that the extinct marine reptiles were most likely warm-blooded. The specimen was so extraordinarily well-preserved that the scientists were able to access samples of the creature's original scaleless skin containing distinct epidermal and dermal layers.

Underneath the skin, the experts discovered insulating blubber that would have been useful for buoyancy and streamlining. Blubber also indicates that ichthyosaurs were homeothermic, which means they had the ability to maintain a stable internal temperature regardless of the external conditions. 

“Ichthyosaurs are extinct marine reptiles that display a notable external similarity to modern toothed whales,” wrote the study authors. “Here we show that this resemblance is more than skin deep.”

According to <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a>, study co-author Johan Lindgren of <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> explained that all modern sea animals with blubber either maintain a constant body temperature like seals and whales, or keep their body well above the water temperature like leatherback turtles.

Scientists have also theorized that ichthyosaurs had dark backs with lighter undersides, just like many modern marine creatures. This protective coloration is known as countershading, where body parts that will be exposed to the light are dark and vice versa.

Under the microscope, the skin from the 180-million-year-old fossil appeared to have the remnants of individual pigment cells that were basically identical to those of modern reptiles, including a distinctive branched structure. This indicates that ichthyosaurs did, in fact, have countershading.

Lindgren told New Scientist: “There is more to the fossil record than we could ever imagine.”


The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Extinct marine reptiles known as ichthyosaurs were warm-blooded

An international team of researchers analyzed the remains of an...

Last year, I reported on the management of wild horses in the western US in a somewhat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-horses-western-us/">controversial article</a>.  At that time I promoted a western US with wild horses.  I still feel it’s an idea with some merit even if distasteful to many.  The problem is nuanced and complex with well-intentioned people who care about the land on both sides.  

Part of the issue is in the question of whether wild horses constitute a return of a species present in North America in deep time or the introduction of a non-native.  Either way, wild horses are here now and the United States has its share of quixotic efforts to eradicate non-native species. Invasive plants like <a href="https://www.discovermoab.com/tamarisk-tree/">tamarisk</a> seem to be thriving along the Colorado River and <a href="https://www.desertmuseum.org/invaders/invaders_buffelgrass.php">buffelgrass</a> can still be found in the Sonoran Desert despite countless volunteer hours and dollars spent.  Wearing Nutria fur has been promoted as a way to eradicate the invasive mammal from the southeastern wetlands by organizations like <a href="http://www.righteousfur.com/">Righteous Fur</a>.  Using fur for conservation is clearly an effort that pits environmental concerns against animal welfare.  

To my mind, the effort to eradicate species sometimes misses the point of wild ecosystems as well as the weight of Earth’s long history.  Horses were once before native to North America as well as camels and many other species. The history of life on Earth is a history of change.  

I’m not promoting introducing more species to the continent and if eradicating a destructive species is easy, it should be done.  The point is, we spend too much effort and money trying to change nature to our idealistic liking without reducing our own consumption and destructive caprice.  Wild Horses are unfairly targeted often when people ranching cows, sheep and other livestock on public lands are all but untouchable due to their financial influence.  

When it comes down to killing a horse or keeping a cow off public acres, the horse is going to die.  Not only horses but unquestionably wild animals like Bighorn sheep suffer from <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/50.15/wildlife-agricultural-interests-steer-colorados-wildlife-management">public grazing</a>.  If you ask the average American to forgo a hamburger, they’d probably kill the horse personally.  <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/national-burger-day-all-your-beefy-questions-answered-9693243.html">The Independent</a> reported that McDonald’s alone sells 75 burgers a second.  As a part of a greater fight over public lands, wildlife and the environment, the fight over wild horses is a side skirmish in a nasty war.  Earlier this month, <a href="https://americanwildhorsecampaign.org/media/bureau-land-management-drop-plans-sterilize-oregon-wild-horses">American Wild Horse Campaign</a> announced their victory in a lawsuit.

The lawsuit takes place in Oregon, where U.S. District Court Judge Michael W. Mosman issued a preliminary injunction blocking the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) from experimenting with sterilization of wild mares.  The bureau cancelled the planned sterilization experiments after the injunction.  The experiments were planned to take place in the Warm Springs Management Area with the purpose of removing excess horses from the area herd.  

The American Animal Welfare Institute, American Wild Horse Campaign and others claimed the surgery to be inhumane.  The bureau’s refusal to allow independent veterinarians’ access to horses to observe recovery or the installation of video cameras to monitor the horses was cited.  

<a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/environment/index.ssf/2018/11/oregon_judge_stops_blm_from_st.html">Oregon Live</a> reported that the animal advocacy groups in question promote the use of a temporary contraception administered by dart to manage horse populations.  The problem is that this solution falls short of curtailing wild horse populations. 

<a href="https://www.opb.org/mustangs/">Oregon Public Broadcasting</a> reports that when the 1971 Wild Horse and Burro Act was made law, there were an estimated 17,000 wild horses and burros living in 10 western states.  Today, the BLM estimates the population of wild horses and burros at 40,605. The BLM estimates that the environment can sustainably support only 26,677 wild horses.  The consequences of an overpopulation of horses could be starvation, disease and environmental degradation.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Bureau-of-Land-Management-backs-out-of-plan-to-sterilize-wild-horses.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-1863562" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Bureau-of-Land-Management-backs-out-of-plan-to-sterilize-wild-horses-1024x682.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="466" /></a>

In Oregon, a holding pen for captured wild horses was expanded in 2013 to hold 800 animals, once held 1200.  The pen holds horses offered for adoption. After three adoption efforts per horse, the animals are moved to long term facilities where they live out the remainder of their lives in captivity in places like Kansas or Oklahoma.  The number of ‘wild’ horses now in captivity exceeds the number now in the wild, 49,768 are in holding, according to <a href="https://www.opb.org/mustangs/index.html">Oregon Public Broadcasting</a>.  

The number of horses the BLM manages for is determined as part of its balance to maintain land for wildlife, grazing, recreation and other uses, not just for wild horses.  Rather than a natural balanced reached in any population, each is maintained to give room to the others, wild creatures being forced to give space to livestock. 

The BLM, the main management agency for wild horses, also leases 155 million acres of land for livestock grazing and actively improves the land for livestock at a cost to taxpayers.  <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/grazing/pdfs/CostsAndConsequences_01-2015.pdf">The Center for Biological Diversity</a> reports that grazing on public lands has cost the government a billion dollars over a decade.  Grazing fees for the BLM are only $1.41 per AUM for 2018 compared to $1.87 AUM for 2017 (AUM is the amount of forage to support one head of livestock for a month).  

The cost for management of wild horses is also ridiculously high but the focus is on limiting their numbers. According to the <a href="http://www.wildhorserange.org/taxpayer-dollars.html">National Horse &amp; Burro Rangeland Management Coalition</a>, the BLM spent $82.567 million on wild horse and burro management in the Fiscal Year 2017.  It seems a little strange that private agriculture would cost the government money and it’s unnecessary that management of wild horses costs as much as it does.  About half the money spent on wild horse and burro management goes to the running of long term holding facilities for the animals. 

The <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/13511/chapter/2">National Academies Press</a> issued a report showing that much of the BLM’s management of wild horses and burros is based on faulty science and bad data.  The report showed that the BLM’s estimation of populations was not scientifically rigorous and that the agency consistently estimated below actual populations.  The report also found that management techniques are making the problem worse. 

Horses are removed from the land before reaching a carrying capacity which would naturally limit populations.  Because the carrying capacity is never reached, populations continue to grow at a dizzying pace.  Increased competition over forage the report says actually naturally limits horse populations. In the end, it all comes back to population control.  BLM surgical intervention may be cruel as some claim but surely, a fight for food and starvation is as well. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Bureau of Land Management backs out of plan to sterilize wild horses

Last year, I reported on the management of wild horses...

A lowly marine creature known for living in colonies that resemble <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/star-ascidian-botryllus-schlosseri/">flat sheets of fuzzy flowers or stars</a> has a blood-forming system remarkably similar to our own, according to a new study. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> conducted the research which was published in the journal Nature. 

The researchers discovered that the marine invertebrate Botryllus schlosseri have blood stem cells that are similar to the cells in mammalian blood which sheds light on the evolution of human blood. 

“The mammalian and Botryllus blood-forming systems also share hundreds of homologous genes, even though the two species are separated by over 500 million years of evolution,” said Benyamin Rosental, an author of the study. 

Irving Weissman, a senior author of the study, even suggested that the blood stem cells of  Botryllus schlosseri may be a “missing link” between vertebrate and invertebrates. 

Botryllus does not spend its whole life a part of a colony but instead attaches itself to a rock and joins colony after spending time as a tadpole. 

Once part of a colony, the invertebrate shares a bloodstream with the other Botryllus’ organisms in the colony and stem cells are shared and transported throughout the colony within the public blood supply.

Upon further examination, the researchers found that Botryllus has an incubator for special cells like blood stem cells called a niche, and within the colony, the stem cells naturally gravitate toward the niche. 

The researchers isolated the Botryllus blood stem cells and found 327 similar genes between mammals and Botryllus that are responsible for blood formation. 

“Blood stem cells in mammals are hard to find and, when found, it's very hard to follow what is going on in the blood stem cell niche,” said Ayelet Voskoboynik, a senior author of the paper. “Botryllus is a translucent organism, so we can easily spot the niche and visually follow the migration of each type of cell from one part of their body to the other.”

Botryllus colonies offer an excellent opportunity for further research and could help provide insight into the immune system and what causes an organism to accept or reject foreign cells, as a Botryllus’ success relies on whether or not a colony accepts it. 

“With its primitive but effective immune system, Botryllus may also give us insights into how we can boost our own immune responses to pathogens and cancer,” said Voskoboynik. “But in addition to any practical benefits this research may produce, we are delighted to explore this important guidepost on the path to understanding the evolution of vertebrates, and of their blood-forming and immune systems. Isn't that what curiosity-driven science is supposed to do

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lowly sea creature sheds light on the evolution of human blood

A lowly marine creature known for living in colonies that...

Approximately 187 million years before dinosaurs were wiped out, the largest mass extinction in the history of the planet took place. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> and Stanford University may have just solved the mystery of what caused the “Great Dying.” Their study reveals that the mass extinction was triggered by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-industrial-revolution/">global warming</a>, which left marine animals unable to breathe. 

Also known as the Permian extinction, the event killed off 96 percent of all plants and animals. Ancient fossils from the seafloor show a thriving and diverse marine ecosystem, followed by a layer of corpses. 

Prior to this study, scientists had long debated what exactly caused the oceans to become so toxic. Experts theorized that the inhospitable conditions may have resulted from the high acidity of the water, metal and sulfide poisoning, a complete lack of oxygen, or simply higher temperatures.

For the current investigation, the researchers combined models of ocean conditions and animal metabolism with published lab data and paleoceanographic records. They determined that the metabolism of the animals sped up as the temperatures rose, and the warmer waters could not hold enough oxygen for them to survive.

“This is the first time that we have made a mechanistic prediction about what caused the extinction that can be directly tested with the fossil record, which then allows us to make predictions about the causes of extinction in the future,” said study first author Justin Penn.


The global warming experienced during the Great Dying was initiated by a series of massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia. When the researchers ran a climate model based on the conditions of the Earth during the Permian, they determined that the oceans had temperatures and oxygen levels similar to those found on our planet today. 

“Under a business-as-usual emissions scenarios, by 2100 warming in the upper ocean will have approached 20 percent of warming in the late Permian, and by the year 2300 it will reach between 35 and 50 percent,” said Penn. “This study highlights the potential for a mass extinction arising from a similar mechanism under anthropogenic climate change.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

The Earth’s deadliest mass extinction was caused by global warming

Approximately 187 million years before dinosaurs were wiped out, the...

Bullfighting continues in Spain despite growing opposition. For many people, the country of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/125-million-dinosaur-fossil-found-spain/">Spain</a> evokes images of a majestic matador waving a crimson red cape next to a stomping bull. What this scene does not portray is the immense cruelty and pain the bull suffers during the bullfight, ending only when the bull is ultimately slaughtered. While Spanish bullfighting has traditionally been a symbol of local culture and pride, citizens are increasingly rejecting the practice.

Bullfighting has a deep history in the country of Spain. The first known bullfight traces as far back at 711 A.D. and was romanticized in the 1900s by Ernest Hemingway who inspired a wave of travelers to watch a bullfight firsthand. 

Travelers attending a bullfight may come unprepared for the grotesque scene. Images of bullfighting across the U.S. rarely go beyond the waving capes, elegant costumes and stampeding bulls. Contrary to what pop culture portrays, bulls are not agitated by the color red, in fact they are actually color blind to the color. It is believed that the capes are red to hide the vast amount of blood transferring from the bull to the cape.

Bullfighting is an inherently violent spectacle. A traditional Spanish bullfight is divided into three parts. In the first part, referred to as “tercio de varas”, a picador who is riding a horse stabs the bull multiple times in the neck. These strikes can cause significant damage to the bull who can lose <a href="http://colvetcadiz.org/index.php?option=com_docman&amp;task=doc_view&amp;gid=40&amp;Itemid=209">up to 18%</a> of his blood and lose mobility in his head. 

In the second part, “tercio de banderillas,” the bull is stabbed in the shoulders with six harpoons. Finally, in “tercio de muerte” the bull is killed. The matador stabs the bull in the chest with a sword, causing profuse bleeding and suffocation while the bull chokes on his own blood. The matador may even cut the ears and tails off the still conscious animal as a trophy.

The cruelty involved in bullfighting is even worse than what is on full display in the arena. According to <a href="http://www.stopbullfighting.org.uk/facts.htm">Stop Bullfighting</a>, “The bull has wet newspapers stuffed into his ears; vaseline is rubbed into his eyes to blur his vision; cotton is stuffed up his nostrils to cut off his respiration and a needle is stuck into his genitals… In addition to this, drugs are administered to pep him up or slow him down, and strong laxatives are added to his feed to further incapacitate him. He is kept in a dark box for a couple of days before he faces the ring.”

When the bull enters the arena, he is not the violent, aggressive creature spectators expect, but rather a disoriented and scared animal trying to escape.

As animal advocacy organizations have worked to expose the realities of bullfighting, local Spaniards have become increasingly disillusioned with the practice.

A<a href="https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/bullfighting-spain"> 2015 Ipsos MORI poll</a> found that only 19% of Spaniards stated they supported bullfighting while two-thirds of respondents said they were not proud to be living in a country where bullfighting is a cultural tradition. In a 2016<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-017-9700-9"> study</a> of over 2,500 Spanish citizens, researchers found that the majority of citizens did not like bullfights and the great majority did not attend or watch the events. The results illustrate shifting cultural perceptions of the practice in Spain. Women and young people were concerned with animal welfare while rural people were more likely to support bullfighting than urban people.

It’s not just the locals who are distancing themselves from bullfighting. Tourist attendance at bullfights is seeing declines as animal advocacy campaigns gain more traction. In 2008, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269285581_Bullfighting_and_Tourism?enrichId=rgreq-330239a664553fc7b32118f9d9bf97ac-XXX&amp;enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTI4NTU4MTtBUzozNjAyMjA4MjUwMTQyNzJAMTQ2Mjg5NDc0NTM3MA%3D%3D&amp;el=1_x_3&amp;_esc=publicationCoverPdf">89% of British citizens</a> stated they would not visit a bullfight during their holidays.Bullfighting continues in Spain despite growing opposition

A<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286800286_A_quantitative_investigation_of_tourists'_ethical_attitudes_toward_animal-based_attractions"> study</a> on tourists’ ethical attitudes towards animal-based attractions found that tourists rated bullfighting as the least acceptable attraction, placing it above animal racing, rodeos and circuses.

Declines in attendance is having an effect on the bullfighting industry. The number of bullfights in Spain <a href="https://qz.com/112234/an-internal-crisis-is-causing-spains-beloved-bullfighting-industry-to-bleed/">declined</a> by 40% in five years. With tourists becoming more aware and young people shifting away from bullfighting, the future is likely to be bleak for the blood sport. Yet, the practice still continues. Regional bans have been passed but to the dismay of many, a ban on bullfighting in Catalonia was overturned in 2016. The judges cited the importance of preserving cultural heritage in their decision.

This refrain is commonly used by proponents of bullfighting who see the practice not only as part of their culture but also as an art form. Bullfighting is a difficult political issue in Spain with many politicians still standing strong in supporting the practice. 

It may be a long time before bullfighting is banned in Spain but changes in tourists’ attitudes towards bullfighting could create significant positive change. Once people learn about the cruelty and violence, the decision to forgo on a bullfight should be easy.

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By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Bullfighting continues in Spain despite growing opposition

Bullfighting continues in Spain despite growing opposition. For many people,...

Mountain Gorilla (Humba family)

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> (UniSA) and Zoos Victoria are urging people to recycle their old <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/blue-light-smartphones-damages-eyes/">cell phones</a>. The experts are warning that a link exists between hoarding unused mobile phones and the dramatic decline of gorilla populations in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

In the past year, 400 million people around the world have stored away old cell phones in their homes. Most people are unaware that this contributes to the destruction of Grauer gorilla habitats.


As part of a national campaign operating in Australian zoos, the researchers analyzed the progress of the “They're Calling On You” mobile phone recycling project run by Zoos Victoria, which has been ongoing for six years. 

The program is focused on educating zoo visitors about the value of recycling discarded phones to extract special metals from them. In the DRC, mining for these same metals is not only destroying gorilla habitats but is also funding wars and human rights abuses.

Study lead author Dr. Carla Litchfield is an expert on great apes and a conservation psychologist at UniSA. She explained that there is less incentive to mine gorilla habitats if these “conflict” elements can be obtained from old mobile phones. 

“For every 30-40 mobile phones that are recycled, on average, one gram of gold can be recovered,” said Dr. Litchfield. “Just as mobile phone sales are soaring, and gold content is increasing in some smartphones, natural sources of gold are expected to run out by 2030."

By the year 2035, it is estimated that 8,000 tons of precious metals will be wasting away in unused cell phones across Germany alone.

“Hoarding is problematic since precious metals are not extracted and returned to the circular economy, creating the need to mine these metals in wilderness areas,” said Dr. Litchfield.

“The other issue is that if people do discard their old phones, most dispose of them in their household waste, ending up in landfill, where they leach toxic metals.”


The population of Grauer gorillas in the DRC has declined by as much as 93 percent, according to recent estimates. The species is now listed as Critically Endangered, with less than 4,000 individuals remaining in the wild.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Creative Commons

Recycling old mobile phones can help save endangered gorillas

Researchers at the University of South Australia (UniSA) and Zoos...

The Stenopterygius ichthyosaur, an ancient marine reptile that inhabited the oceans during the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tiny-fossil-jurassic-crocodiles/">Jurassic Period</a>, had many traits in common with dolphins and whales. However, given that species are not close relatives, these shared traits have puzzled scientists.

But now, a new study is helping to shed light on the biological traits of the Stenopterygius ichthyosaur. 

An international team of researchers, led by Johan Lindgren from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> in Sweden, conducted a thorough molecular and microstructural analysis of a Stenopterygius fossil that dates back nearly 180 million years. The research was published in the journal Nature.

“Ichthyosaurs are interesting because they have many traits in common with dolphins, but are not at all closely related to those sea-dwelling mammals,” said Mary Schweitzer, a co-author of the study. “We aren't exactly sure of their biology either. They have many features in common with living marine reptiles like sea turtles, but we know from the fossil record that they gave live birth, which is associated with warm-bloodedness. This study reveals some of those biological mysteries.”

[caption id="attachment_1863527" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/This-ancient-marine-reptile-had-more-in-common-with-whales.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1863527" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/This-ancient-marine-reptile-had-more-in-common-with-whales-1024x821.jpg" alt="An ancient marine reptile that inhabited the oceans during the Jurassic period had many traits in common with dolphins and whales." width="700" height="561" /></a> Image Credit: Johan Lindgren[/caption]

The fossil is exceptional and researchers were even able to extract soft tissue samples and study the cells of the marine reptile.

“Both the body outline and remnants of internal organs are clearly visible,” said Johan Lindgren. “Remarkably, the fossil is so well-preserved that it is possible to observe individual cellular layers within its skin.” 

Researchers identified microstructures that held pigments within the reptile's skin and even traces of the liver. The study is the first of its kind to find evidence that ichthyosaurs had insulating layers of blubber like whales. 

“This is the first direct, chemical evidence for warm-bloodedness in an ichthyosaur, because blubber is a feature of warm-blooded animals,” said Schweitzer. 

The results suggest that even though Stenopterygius ichthyosaur was a reptile, it had much more in common with whales and dolphins including dark coloring on top to help camouflage from predators, warm-bloodedness, and blubber. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

This ancient marine reptile had more in common with whales

The Stenopterygius ichthyosaur, an ancient marine reptile that inhabited the...

Even in an era when the highest reaches of the atmosphere and the lowest depths of the ocean are accessible to industrious scientists, some relatively large animals escape notice. Whether because of their remote habitats or cryptic habits, they haven’t worked their way into the public imagination as other charismatic megafauna have. 

It’s sort of astounding, really. The internet is saturated with cute animal photos geared at feeding a culture addicted to the dopamine hits they elicit. You’d think that every remotely charming creature known to man would have gotten its viral moment in the sun at this point. Everything from the dumbo octopus to the Japanese dwarf flying squirrel has ridden the so-called “cute response” to greater levels of renown.

Ethologist Konrad Lorenz called this the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/in_visible_culture/Issue_9/issue9_genosko.pdf">Kindchenschema</a>—the set of proportions that lead humans to believe an infant or another animal is cute. Among these factors are a large head, stubby limbs, and chubby cheeks. A few critters still wait in the wings, prime-time ready but still relatively obscure. The Tibetan sand fox (Vulpes ferrilata), a small canid native to the Tibetan Plateau of China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India, is one of them. A more charming ambassador for the region hasn’t emerged since the Dalai Lama. And this one doesn’t spout irritating platitudes. 

Highly adapted to the harsh climate of its home, the fox is swathed in luxurious grey-gold fur. (It’s Latin name means “iron-grey side.”) It’s so furry, in fact, that it appears almost cartoonish. With its slitted eyes and slyly smirking expression, it looks like a CGI fox that ought to be voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch or Cate Blanchett. 

And those cheeks—if those fluffy jowls don’t fit into the Kindchenschema, I don’t know what does. Known to Western science since the mid 19th century (1842), <a href="https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.com/&amp;httpsredir=1&amp;article=2455&amp;context=himalaya">when British diplomat Brian Hodgson described it</a>, along with many other animals of Kathmandu, where he was stationed, the Tibetan sand fox is still relatively poorly studied. That is perhaps true of most of the animals that share its remote highland habitat. 

Sometime called the “roof of the world,” the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/denisovans-harsh-tibetan-plateau/">Tibetan Plateau</a> is surrounded by mountains, including the Himalayas, and supports a relatively small population of pastoralist nomads. It is significant to humans in that it hosts the headwaters of many of Asia’s major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, Yangtze, and Mekong. Among the few to have studied the wildlife of the area is biologist George B. Schaller, who <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=AFGG7CKX7qQC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PR7&amp;dq=tibetan+sand+fox&amp;ots=rnz2ppoW0C&amp;sig=Zrc9Wg_Ah2C6CeyQwk0-3tpKeRE#v=onepage&amp;q=tibetan%20sand%20fox&amp;f=false">recalls running over a Tibetan sand fox</a> when it bolted in front of his truck. The unfortunate fox was found to have swallowed a whole pika.

It is the fox’s relationship to the pika, specifically the plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae), that is best studied. In fact, most Tibetan sand foxes have been found in the vicinity of pika colonies. These lagomorphs—relatives of rabbits—appear to be its preferred prey species, with studies of fox feces finding pika remains in nearly all of them. When pikas are scarce, they will also eat plateau zokors (Eospalax fontanierii) and other small rodents, birds, insects, plants, including Ephedra berries, and even carrion left by wolves and bears. 

Just as their <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/281/1787/20140893.short">close relative</a> the Arctic fox follows polar bears, hoping to scavenge from their kills, Tibetan sand foxes are known to follow brown bears (Ursus arctos). However, they’re not usually after carrion, which is a last resort for them. Instead, they’re hoping to prey upon pikas fleeing from the bears, who dig up their burrows. This relationship sits on the border between kleptoparasitism and mutualism—while the bear doesn’t necessarily gain anything from the relationship, neither does it lose anything. It would be unlikely to catch the pikas fleeing from their other exits anyway.

Interestingly, the Tibetan sand fox shares much of its range with the similarly sized red fox (Vulpes vulpes). However, because the red fox is a more generalist predator and prefers to hunt at night, as opposed to the crepuscular and occasionally diurnal habits of the Tibetan sand fox, there appears to be little competition between the two species.

While the IUCN lists the species as being of “<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/23061/46179412">least concern</a>,” suggesting relatively stable populations, and CITES doesn’t bother with a mention, the Tibetan sand fox is actually at some risk due to its reliance on the pika. Since 1958, extensive government campaigns have sought to poison the pika due to the notion that its burrowing habits degrade rangeland used for pasturing livestock. Luckily, because most of these poisoning efforts are conducted on foot by inexperienced workers, they have been only sporadically effective. 

Though they may occasionally be preyed upon by wolves and birds of prey, one of their other main threats appears to be human-related as well. Stray and feral dogs are known to take foxes, which are substantially smaller and thus easy prey. As if this weren’t bad enough, these dogs may then transmit a fatal tapeworm infestation back to human settlements. 

Tibetan sand foxes are the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aleksei_Chmura/publication/228643387_Den_Habitat_Characteristics_of_Tibetan_FoxesVulpes_ferrilata_in_Shiqu_County_Sichuan_Province_China/links/554793980cf2b0cf7acd50dc.pdf">primary hosts of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis</a>; pikas may also serve as intermediate hosts. This cestode <a href="https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/rg.327125708">causes alveolar echinococcosis (AE)</a>, a disease in which tapeworms infect the liver and other organs, damaging them beyond repair if not detected early enough. It can be fatal. Though no programs aimed specifically at controlling foxes due to the risk they pose to humans as a zoonotic vector, it is a situation worth monitoring. 

With its unusual lack of territoriality and tendency to mate for life, this adorable canid is Pixar fodder just waiting to be harvested. Let’s not let what happened to the recently extinct Spix’s macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii), star of the animated Rio, happen to the Tibetan sand fox. It would be a shame to lose this species before its habits—and its importance to its ecosystem—are fully known. 

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://www.ourbreathingplanet.com/tibetan-sand-fox/">Our Breathing Planet</a>

Reynard of the steppes: The Tibetan sand fox

Even in an era when the highest reaches of the...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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