Digger wasps exhibit remarkable memory skills when managing their nests. These wasps create separate burrows for each egg, storing food inside and returning after a few days to provide more. 



They can remember the locations of up to nine nests simultaneously, despite the chaotic surroundings filled with hundreds of other females' nests. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-find-inside-the-eye-of-a-tiny-wasp-megaphragma-viggianii/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> rarely make mistakes, ensuring that each offspring receives adequate nourishment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digger-wasps-manage-multiple-nests">Digger wasps manage multiple nests</h2>



Mother <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-wasp-had-a-flytrap-for-snatching-its-victims/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> feed their young in age order, adjusting the sequence if one larva dies. 



They can also delay feeding larvae that received more food during the first visit. This intricate scheduling prevents starvation and ensures all larvae get sufficient food. 



“Our findings suggest that the miniature brain of an insect is capable of remarkably sophisticated scheduling decisions,” said Professor Jeremy Field, from the&nbsp;<a href="https://ecologyconservation.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a>&nbsp;on Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“We tend to think that something so small couldn’t do something so complex. In fact, they can remember where and when they have fed their young, and what they fed them, in a way that would be taxing even to human brains.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-episodic-memory-in-wasps">Episodic memory in wasps</h2>



Humans use episodic memory to recall past actions and adjust future plans. Professor Field suggests that wasps may use a similar mechanism to remember where and when they last fed each larva. 



Although the exact process remains unknown, the study indicates that these wasps can track multiple nests, the food given, and the timing of each feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-hunting-and-feeding-strategy">Caterpillar hunting and feeding strategy</h2>



Digger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-wasp-species-named-after-famous-thieves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> hunt caterpillars on heather plants, paralyzing them before placing them in burrows with eggs. The larva consumes the caterpillar as its first meal. 



Mothers then seal the burrow entrance and leave to either start a new burrow or continue feeding existing offspring. They return after two to seven days to check on the larvae. 



If a larva is dead, the mother lays a new egg and reorders the feeding schedule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-hundreds-of-nests">Navigating hundreds of nests</h2>



Despite nesting in nearly featureless sand with hundreds of other nests, mother wasps maintain exceptional spatial awareness. 



They use visual landmarks like stones to locate their nests with impressive accuracy. The study recorded just 1.5% of 1,293 food deliveries going to the wrong nest, emphasizing the precision of their navigation skills.



The researchers also tested the wasps by swapping caterpillars as mothers prepared burrows.



Wasps given larger caterpillars waited longer before providing more food, indicating a flexible feeding strategy based on larval needs. This adaptability helps manage resources effectively and supports the survival of the young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wasp-memory-nests-and-scheduling">Wasp memory, nests, and scheduling</h2>



Professor Field noted that memory is energetically expensive, requiring neural machinery to store and process information.



While many lab-based studies explore memory in controlled settings, this study demonstrates the ecological relevance of memory in the wild, showing why natural selection may have favored these capabilities.



The researchers used various experiments to explore wasp memory and scheduling. One experiment involved replacing food items in nests, testing whether wasps adjusted feeding schedules based on food size. 



Mothers given larger prey items delayed further feeding, initiating new nests sooner. This behavior allowed them to increase reproductive output without compromising larval survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-wasps-adjust-after-losing-a-nest">How wasps adjust after losing a nest</h2>



Mothers could remember up to nine active nests and adjust feeding schedules without revisiting nests. 



However, when larvae died, mothers replaced them with new eggs, moving these nests to the back of the feeding order. This strategy minimized energy loss and prevented resource wastage.



Fieldwork at Witley Common, UK, revealed that digger wasps evolved cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/an-8-year-olds-backyard-discovery-of-ants-wasps-changed-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> to counter parasitism and food scarcity. 



Parasitic flies pose a significant threat, laying eggs on wasp larvae. To minimize exposure, mother wasps avoid revisiting nests unless parasitism risk is low. This reduces the chances of parasites accessing vulnerable offspring. 



Additionally, food scarcity prompted wasps to develop efficient nest management. By remembering up to nine nests, mothers allocate food based on larval age without resampling, conserving time and resources. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-cognitive-traits">Evolution of cognitive traits </h2>



Researchers suggest that these memory and scheduling abilities may have laid the foundation for social behaviors seen in more advanced insect lineages. 



Managing multiple offspring, tracking nest locations, and adjusting feeding schedules align with the caregiving patterns observed in social insects like ants and bees. 



The study highlights how ecological pressures can drive the evolution of complex cognitive traits even in insects with tiny brains.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00509-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Wasp moms manage multiple nests with remarkable memory

Digger wasps exhibit remarkable memory skills when managing their nests. These wasps create separate burrows for each egg, storing food inside and returning after a few days to provide more. They can remember the locations of up to nine nests simultaneously, despite the chaotic surroundings filled with hundreds of other females' nests. The wasps rarely make mistakes, ensuring that each offspring receives adequate nourishment. Digger wasps manage multiple nests Mother wasps feed their young in age order, adjusting the sequence if one larva dies. They can also...

Saguaros are big… very big for cacti.  That’s one of the first impressions one is likely to get about the plants of the Sonoran Desert, the only place the iconic cactus lives naturally.  

Looking closely at a Saguaro, one gets the impression that the cactus has a hard life.  It’s clear that needles and a generally unappealing (at least for food) nature doesn’t make the plant’s life problem-free.  Of course there are the physical limitations to living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-largest-deserts-world/">Sonoran Desert</a>, things such as lack of water and high summer temperatures but there are also scars on saguaros.  Scars on saguaros sometimes come from cold temperatures that leave a pinched look on some of the cactus.  There are also cactus that I am convinced were shot, possible by inebriated college kids looking for senseless fun.  There are holes clearly made by insects, small but still probably somewhat damaging and then there are bigger holes.

Other cacti have a lot of holes as well.  Some holes are caused by insects but javelina (often thought a pig, javelina are actually peccaries) and desert tortoise take bites from various species of prickly pear.  Spines don’t mean that no one will eat you.  Cactus fruit are also a big source of food and some Native American groups improvised many culinary uses for saguaro (and other cacti) fruit as well as fruit gathering ceremonies.  Saguaro fruit can even be made into wine.         

Woodpeckers leave holes in saguaros for their homes but not all woodpecker holes are the same.  Gilded Flickers, (Colaptes chrysoides) a beautiful woodpecker eats insects but unlike non-desert species also eats cactus fruit.  The gilded flicker also uses saguaros for a home.  The flicker hammers through to the center of saguaro cactus and above their holes you sometimes see the rest of the plant leaning over sharply, drooping due to a loss of its structural integrity.

Gila Woodpeckers (Melanerpes uropygialis) also make their homes inside of saguaros but with a different method.  Gila Woodpeckers break through only the outside layer of a cactus.  The cactus is allowed to heal, creating a pocket of scar tissue.  Sometimes these pockets of scar tissue (called boots) were collected by Native Americans to use for carrying water.  Since the Gila Woodpecker doesn’t damage the saguaro’s hard wooden interior, the cactus stands strong still, with just superficial damage when compared to that done by Gilded Flickers.      

The advantages of nesting in cacti are obvious if you consider them for a bit.  A bird can reach a cactus rather easily by flying to it but imagine being a hungry cat trying to climb the plant to catch a bird.  Cactus Wrens nest in Cholla cactus, building tubes of needles and sticks to raise eggs in.  Sometimes Cactus Wrens also build dummy nests to lure would be predators to the wrong nest.

Life in the desert seems exceedingly hard, and there is less biodiversity than in some places, but all it really requires is a bit of innovation and natural selection is an amazing innovator.  

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Cacti, birds, and life in the Sonoran Desert

Saguaros are big… very big for cacti.  That’s one of...

The earliest known evidence of canine domestication was discovered in 1914 when workers happened upon the buried remains of ancient humans and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/game-dogs-cognitive-decline/">dog</a>. 

Now, a new study estimates the remains to be 14,000 years old and has provided clues about the relationship between dogs and humans that date back as far back as the Paleolithic period.  

The domestication of dogs likely happened 20,000 to 40,000 years ago, when humans and dogs entered a symbiotic relationship. This led to a gradual evolution in which dogs became companions and protectors living with humans rather than in wild packs. 

Luc Janssens, a veterinarian and archaeologist from <a href="https://www.ugent.be/en">Ghent University</a>, examined the 1914 remains and realized that the dog was sick before it died and that the animal could not have survived as long as it did without the care of humans.

Janssens’ research, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, shows that in the early years of domesticated dogs, they were cared for, fed, and kept safe by people.  

For the study, Janssens closely examined the dog’s remains, specifically the teeth, and found that the dog was 27 to 28 weeks old when it died of distemper. Distemper is a viral illness that still affects animals today, and it’s often fatal. 

“Without adequate care, a dog with a serious case of distemper will die in less than three weeks,” said Janssens. “That would mean keeping it warm and clean and giving it food and water, even though, while it was sick, the dog would not have been of any practical use as a working animal.”

Janssens cannot conclusively prove what killed the dog, but the damage to the teeth points to distemper.  

The fact that the animal was buried with people and lived so long is convincing evidence that domesticated dogs were an important part of people’s lives even as far back as the Paleolithic period. 

The study sheds light on the bond between early humans and canines and the gradual domestication of dogs through the years.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The bond between humans and dogs dates back 20,000 years

The earliest known evidence of canine domestication was discovered in...

The specific pecking patterns of great spotted woodpeckers may be used to identify one woodpecker from another, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0191716">PLOS ONE. </a>

Researchers from the <a href="https://international.amu.edu.pl/">Adam Mickiewicz University</a> in Poland were curious if the drum rolls of great spotted woodpeckers were unique to each bird, and how both male and females use pecking to attract mates. 

In the animal kingdom, birds often have specific calls or songs that are unique to each bird in the species. King penguin chicks, for example, know their parents’ call from the thousands of others birds in the colony. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodpeckers-get-brain-damage/">Woodpeckers</a> use their rapid pecking, which sounds similar to a series of drum rolls like many other birds, to attract mates. 

The researchers examined these pecking patterns, or drum rolls, to see how they differed from females and males and from bird to bird. 

Forty-one great spotted woodpeckers were recorded while making their drum rolls, 26 of which were male, 9 female, and 6 were uncategorized by sex. 

These recordings were then analyzed and compared to one another to determine the differences in lengths of intervals between pecking as well the number of pecks or strokes in a drum roll. 

The researchers found that the intervals between strokes were shorter in males compared to females, but the differences between drum rolls based on gender were not varied enough for the researchers to conclude that pecking distinguishes sexes unambiguously. 

The drum rolls were unique from bird to bird and could be used to distinguish one woodpecker from another. This is due to the well-developed neck muscles that are needed to create rapid and long-lasting drum rolls. 

The study shows how the drum rolls of great spotted woodpeckers enable the birds to identify each other and the results could help future studies that monitor and track woodpecker populations. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Image Credit: Budka et al (2018)

Woodpeckers recognize each other by their unique pecking patterns

The specific pecking patterns of great spotted woodpeckers may be...

Roughly 307 million years ago, the Earth’s climate underwent a drastic transformation that wiped out many species, but some tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates) thrived. 

Now, a new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/">University of Birmingham</a> discovered how this ancient climate change reshaped the future and shows how the conditions were favorable to the evolution of tetrapods. 

The Carboniferous period, which started around 359 million years ago, was a time when North America and Europe were connected and covered with dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-largest-rainforests/">tropical rainforests</a>. The humid climate provided the perfect environment for tetrapods to thrive and diversify. 

However towards the end of the Carboniferous period the climate changed, and became much drier, the rainforests began to disappear, and the many species, including dominant plant groups, went extinct. 

While scientists were aware of how the change in climate affected different species and caused a mass extinction event, there is not much known about tetrapods, which prompted the new study.

The research was published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B and fills in important gaps in the fossil record that shows the diversity of tetrapods both before and after the change in climate. 

For the study, the researchers compiled a new dataset from the Paleobiology Database and used advanced statistical methods to estimate tetrapods’ diversity. 

Not surprisingly, the results show that tetrapod diversity decreased after the shift to a drier climate. The rainforests began to disappear, and this led to habitat degradation for many tetrapods that had thrived in the humid and wet environments.

The researchers found that even though diversity decreased, the drier climate gave rise to some tetrapod migrations whose larger size made it easier for them navigate further away from the equator to find more hospitable habitats. 

“We now know that the rainforest collapse was crucial in paving the way for amniotes, the group which ultimately gave rise to modern mammals, reptiles and birds, to become the dominant group of land vertebrates during the Permian period and beyond,” said Emma Dunne, the lead author of the study in an interview with <a href="https://phys.org/news/2018-02-rainforest-collapse-million-years-impacted.html">Phys.org</a>. 

The study explains how some species were able to thrive even in the midst of a mass extinction that decreased tetrapod diversity. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Ancient climate change reshaped Earth’s climate and species

Roughly 307 million years ago, the Earth’s climate underwent a...

As our pets age, we usually don’t expect nearly as much from them when it comes to training and discipline. But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hiking-dogs/">dogs </a>are actually capable of learning even in their old age, and new research has found that training can provide vital mental stimulation and help with cognitive decline. 

Now, researchers have developed a special computer game specifically catered to training older dogs. 

Due to physical limitations, older dogs are not able to be trained with the same techniques we use for younger, agile dogs. Instead, researchers from the <a href="http://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/">University of Veterinary Medicine</a> in Vienna developed a touch screen computer game that exercises older dog’s mental faculties. 

The new study examined the positive benefits that brain teasers in the form of touch screen games would have on older dogs, and found that the game which was paired with a reward system was a viable alternative for demanding physical training. 

The researchers compare their computer game to a new hobby or sudoku puzzles that elderly people often do to ward off mental decline. 

“As is the case with people, dopamine production in dogs also falls in old age, leading to a decline in memory and motivational drive,” said Lisa Wallis, an author of the study. “But this natural mental deterioration can be countered with the specific training of cognitive skills.”

Experiments with older dogs were conducted in a lab setting, and the dog had to learn how to solve the touchscreen game to get a reward. 

In one video demonstrating the game, a dog is given a treat every time he presses his nose to a yellow dot on the screen. Every time the dog completes the task, the dot moves to another place on the screen. 

According to the researchers, touch screen use and training are usually reserved for younger dogs, but once the older dogs were able to master the trick, they became “avid computer gamers.” 

The researchers did note the importance of the reward based system with the game. 

“Above all, the prospect of a reward is an important factor to motivate the animals to do something new or challenging,” said Ludwig Huber, a co-author of the study.. 

The study could help create home-friendly computer games for dog owners to use with their senior pets that exercise mental agility and provides an entertaining and mentally stimulating form of training that is not physically demanding.

[caption id="attachment_1007310" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/dog-computer-training.png"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1007310" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/dog-computer-training-300x187.png" alt="" width="300" height="187" /></a> Image Credit: Messerli Research Institute/Vetmeduni Vienna[/caption]

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New computer game helps older dogs fight cognitive decline

As our pets age, we usually don’t expect nearly as...

A team of biologists at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> has found that greater-sized hummingbirds are more proficient than smaller hummingbirds despite their extra weight. 

“Studies of bats, birds and other animals show that increases in body mass can have a detrimental effect on many aspects of flight,” said co-lead author Roslyn Dakin.

“But with hummingbirds, the correlated evolution of increased wing size and muscle mass helps larger species compensate for their greater body masses.”

The experts used a complex recording system and a new experimental approach called geometrical framework to examine the connection between the maneuvering skills and physiology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-appear/">hummingbirds</a>.

The study revealed that the muscle capacity of a bird is the primary force behind acceleration, while movements involving rotation are mainly driven by wing size. Skill was found to play a role in maneuverability as well.

“The hummingbirds tend to play to their strengths, especially with complex moves,” said senior author Douglas Altshuler. 

“For example, species that have the ability to power through turns tend to use more arcing trajectories, and they shy away from performing turns in which they decelerate to turn on a dime.”

The study was focused on over 200 hummingbirds that represented 25 Central and South American species. Computer vision technology enabled the researchers to capture inflight maneuvers with great accuracy.

“We recorded over 330,000 maneuvers, including many repeated maneuvers for each bird,” said co-lead author Paolo Segre.

“Capturing that much data was a challenge. Our first field site was at a biological reserve deep in the Peruvian Amazon, an area with many species of hummingbirds, but only accessible by boat. We ran our computers and cameras using solar panels and generators in a thatched hut with strategically placed rain buckets!”


Body mass and wing shape differ greatly among hummingbirds, and some species have even adapted to fly in higher elevations where the air density is low. Dakin explained that these particular birds provide a great opportunity for researchers to analyze the association between physiological traits and agility in flight.

“There are a lot of questions we can look into now. How do these differences impact their ability to survive and find mates? If maneuverability is an advantage to some species, how do others get by with less agility? What is it about their lifestyle that differs?”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Paolo Segre, University of British Columbia

Heavier hummingbirds can outmaneuver their smaller relatives

A team of biologists at the University of British Columbia...

A study from <a href="http://www.gsu.edu/">Georgia State University</a> has revealed a new connection between humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-learn-tools/">chimpanzees</a>. The researchers found that a chimpanzee’s ability to control urges and delay gratification corresponds with the individual’s level of general intelligence, a correlation that has previously been identified in humans.

The “marshmallow test” was an experiment that originated in the 1960s at Stanford University. Children were given the choice of taking an immediate reward of one marshmallow or waiting to receive a larger reward of two marshmallows. In past studies, children who performed well on this and other delayed gratification tests were found to have higher general intelligence.

For the current study, researchers Michael J. Beran and William D. Hopkins presented chimpanzees with the Hybrid Delay Task. This test is similar to the marshmallow test, monitoring which chimpanzees hold out and wait for a better reward rather than settling for instant gratification.

The evaluation also measures how well the chimpanzees are able to wait out the delay period while they still have the option of accepting the smaller reward instead.

In addition, the chimpanzees completed the Primate Cognitive Test Battery. This trial examines a variety of social and cognitive skills to measure general intelligence.

The experts found that the chimpanzees who showed the most restraint and self-control in both aspects of the delayed gratification test also displayed the highest levels of general intelligence.

“The fact that this link between self-control and intelligence exists in species other than humans may demonstrate an evolutionary basis for the role that willpower plays in general intelligence,” said Beran. “Future research could clarify whether the relationship also exists in other primates and even non-primate species.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Self-control is tied to general intelligence

A study from Georgia State University has revealed a new...

A species of mutant crayfish is multiplying out of control across Europe and into parts of Africa. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.dkfz.de/">German Cancer Research Center</a> in Heidelberg are now reporting that the all-female crayfish have the ability to clone themselves.

While a new species typically takes thousands of years to evolve, millions of marbled crayfish have emerged in less than 25 years. Experts believe that the first marbled crayfish individual was created by accident, and that the entire species has descended from one single female.

In 1995, a man in Germany purchased a crayfish that was referred to as a “Texas crayfish.” The creature eventually grew very large and produced hundreds of eggs at once, which were ultimately sold in pet stores.

Marbled crayfish owners were surprised to find that the individuals were reproducing without mating. Many of the crayfish were dumped in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-streams-polluted-salt/">rivers </a>and lakes, where they began their invasion of freshwater bodies across Europe and into Africa.

A research team led by Dr. Frank Lyko sequenced the genomes of 11 marbled crayfish to get a closer look at how they are spreading so quickly. The study revealed that the crayfish had nearly identical genomes, indicating that they were clones.

“We could detect only a few hundred variants in a genome that is larger than the human genome,” said Dr. Frank Lyko. “That is an incredibly small number. The minute variations can be ascribed to natural mutations.”

Epigenetic mechanisms, which regulate gene expression, allow the crayfish to adapt to a range of environments despite having the same genetic makeup. This type of clonal evolution is also found in tumors, and cancer researchers hope to gain insight into epigenetic regulation by analyzing marbled crayfish.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Ranja Andriantsoa/Nature

Invasive new species of crayfish are cloning themselves

A species of mutant crayfish is multiplying out of control...

After <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-dinosaurs/">dinosaurs</a> emerged in South America 230 million years ago, they rapidly expanded across the planet. Researchers at the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a> are reporting that this population boom put dinosaurs at risk of extinction before the Chicxulub Meteor struck because they were running out of space. 

“Early dinosaurs had a blank canvas and spread quickly across the devastated Earth, taking up every opportunity in their path,” said study co-author Dr. Chris Venditti.

“Virtually every door was open to them as there was no competition from other species. The inability of the dinosaurs to adapt rapidly enough as the Earth became full may explain why they were in decline prior to the asteroid strike, and why they were so susceptible to almost total extinction when it hit."

The study is the first to describe the migratory patterns taken by dinosaurs out of South America. Ciara O’Donovan is an evolutionary biologist and lead author of the research. 

“Fossil evidence has shown us where the dinosaurs started out and where they died, but there is an important middle period that little was known about,” said O’Donovan. “Our research fills this gap in prehistory by revealing how the dinosaurs spread, how fast they moved and what directions they moved in through time.”

The scientists developed a three dimensional model of where every dinosaur species’ ancestors existed to examine their movement. The investigation revealed that dinosaurs expanded at a rate of 621 miles every million years. After 170 million years, dinosaurs inhabited every terrestrial habitat on Earth.

According to O’Donovan, “the dinosaurs exploded out of South America in a frenzy of movement to cover the planet.” During this time, dinosaurs started becoming more diverse, evolving into species such as Tyrannosaurus rex and Diplodocus.

“There was nowhere new for species to move to, which may have prevented new species from arising, contributing to the dinosaurs’ pre-asteroid decline,” said O’Donovan. “In essence, they were perhaps too successful for their own good.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The extinction of the dinosaurs may have been inevitable

After dinosaurs emerged in South America 230 million years ago,...

Although the lion population of Zimbabwe's Savé Valley Conservancy has recovered over the last decade, there is new concern about low genetic diversity among the group.

Low genetic diversity puts lion populations at a higher risk for fertility issues and increased mortality rates compared to more genetically diverse populations. Without genetic variation, a group of animals may face extinction because they are not evolving to survive in changing environments.

The African lion population in the Savé Valley Conservancy of the Lowveld region of Zimbabwe had dropped to less than ten known individuals by 2005. In this year, ten new lions were introduced and the population was boosted to around 200 individuals by 2016. 

Due to the fact that this population was produced by just a few lions, however, inbreeding may have led to low genetic diversity across the group. Laura Tensen from the <a href="https://www.uj.ac.za/">University of Johannesburg</a> collaborated with experts based in the Savé Valley Conservancy to investigate.

The team sequenced the genotypes of 42 Savé Valley lions. They used mitochondrial and nuclear markers to examine how the genetic diversity of this group compared to that of other lion populations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-modern-human-fossil/">Africa</a>.

The study revealed that the Savé Valley lion population is the least genetically diverse of those in Zimbabwe's Lowveld region and showed notable signs of inbreeding. In addition, these lions were found to be genetically distinguishable from other African lions, which is likely due to stressors such as human development that prevented the populations from mixing.

The study authors believe that the introduction of unrelated lions into Savé Valley may be needed to expand the genetic diversity of this population and improve its potential for survival.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: Regina Hart, Flickr

Lions in Africa still threatened despite improved numbers

Although the lion population of Zimbabwe's Savé Valley Conservancy has...

New research has revealed that the skull shape of carnivores is influenced by surprising external factors like precipitation levels. It had been previously believed that skull shape is primarily determined by an animal’s diet.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/puppies-talk-older-dog/">Dogs</a>, seals, and cats are all vastly different from one another, but they all have skulls that follow similar patterns.

Skulls from the mammalian order Carnivora are usually a variation of several basic shapes, and it was thought that this was because of similar diets. However, the new study found that there were several factors that determined skull shapes.

The research was conducted by researchers from the <a href="http://www.buffalo.edu/">University of Buffalo </a>and the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> and published in the journal Science Advances. 

“For years, conventional thought surrounding carnivoran skull shape followed the 'you are what you eat' paradigm, where distantly related species evolve similar skulls because of shared dietary needs,” said Z. Jack Tseng, the study’s lead author. “We found that to be a dramatic oversimplification.” 

The researchers collected data from over 50 living species and created accurate digital biomechanical models of the species’ skulls. The species included herbivores, carnivores and omnivores so that there would be a wide range of diets represented. 

The researchers were able to use the models to examine how skull shape is impacted by habitat, daily sleep and wake patterns, place on the food chain, environmental conditions, and life expectancy. 

The digital models showed precisely how much of an effect certain external factors had on skull shape. 

Two factors that had the biggest influence on skull shape include age of sexual maturity and how much precipitation there is in a species’ environment. 

The researchers did note that the fact that precipitation influenced skull shape was probably linked to something else, like availability of prey in rainier habitats versus dry. 

The study shows that skull shape in carnivores is also influenced by other factors besides diet, something that had never before been considered. 

“These new findings overturn long-standing assumptions that diet controls most aspects of skull anatomy, providing new leads that we still need to explore in more depth,” said Tseng. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image © Bailee Desrocher

Carnivore skull shape influenced by more than just diet

New research has revealed that the skull shape of carnivores...

Australian magpies are one of the more intelligent species of birds on our planet, and have a complex range of vocalizations that makes them one of Australia’s most distinct songbirds. Along with the natural path of evolution that has led to their development as a species, scientists have become interested in the behavioral interactions of these birds and how it affects overall intelligence.

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature/">Nature</a> has found that growing up in a large social group leads to Australian magpies being more intelligent. Along with this finding, the researchers also discovered that more intelligent females produce more offspring. 

Scientists from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and the <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/">University of Western Australia</a> examined 14 wild groups of Australian magpies in Perth, ranging in size from three to 12 birds. “Australian magpies – from Western Australia, where we conducted our research – live in stable social groups,” says Dr. Alex Thornton of the Centre for Ecology and Conservation on the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>'s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.

They tested the cognitive ability of each magpie using four tasks. In a memory task, the magpie had to learn to associate a specific color with the presence of food. A task that tested self-control involved magpies learning to go around the sides of a food-containing transparent tube in order to get to the food – rather than pecking at the transparent front of the tube.

“Repeated testing of juveniles at different ages showed that the link between group size and intelligence emerged in early life,” explains Thornton. “We showed that individuals living in larger groups in the wild show elevated cognitive performance, which in turn is linked to increased reproductive success.” Their findings regarding reproductive success suggests that natural selection may ultimately have an affect on cognition.

“The challenges of living in complex social groups have long been thought to drive cognitive evolution,” says lead researcher Dr. Ben Ashton, of the <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/">University of Western Australia</a>. “However, evidence to support this is contentious, and has recently been called into question.” 

The results of this study suggest that social environment may actually play a key part in the development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-recognition-technology/">cognition</a>. In other words, the demands of living in a complex social environment – in this case, one with a larger population – may play a role in the evolution of intelligence.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Does growing up in a large group make you smarter?

Australian magpies are one of the more intelligent species of...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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