Before there were dinosaurs, before trees covered the land, fish were already hard at work shaping Earth’s future. They did this with a single powerful innovation: jaws.



Jaws weren’t just for biting. Fish used them for all sorts of tasks - cracking shells, digging into the seafloor, defending themselves, and even carrying their young.



This one tool gave early vertebrates - including our distant ancestors - a huge advantage. But not all fish jaws evolved the same way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-twist-in-fish-jaw-evolution">Surprising twist in fish jaw evolution</h2>



Roughly 400 million years ago, fish ruled the seas. Two big groups stood out: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/">lobe-finned fishes</a> and ray-finned fishes. 



Lobe-finned fishes had fleshy, muscular fins that helped them move in different ways. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">Ray-finned fishes</a> had lighter, more flexible fins supported by thin spines.



Today, ray-finned fishes dominate the oceans, rivers, and lakes. They include about 33,000 species - from goldfish to tuna. 



Lobe-finned fishes, on the other hand, are nearly extinct. Only eight species are known to exist today, including the coelacanth and the lungfish. But a new study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> flips the story.



The research shows that between 359 and 423 million years ago, lobe-finned fishes were the ones leading the evolutionary race. 



Their jaws were changing fast, adapting in all sorts of new ways. Meanwhile, the ray-finned fishes were evolving far more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-answers-in-ancient-jaw-bones">Finding answers in ancient jaw bones</h2>



The researchers used CT scans to create 3D models of 86 fossilized fish jaws from the Silurian and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-least-two-of-earths-mass-extinctions-caused-by-massive-supernova-explosions/">Devonian Periods</a> - dating back to around 443 million years ago. That’s older than the first forests.



The team digitally mapped these jaws to study both their shape and how they worked. To measure the strength of a fish's bite, they calculated something called mechanical advantage.



Emily Troyer is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Michigan and lead author of the study. She explained that essentially, the higher the mechanical advantage of the jaw, the stronger the bite force.



The results showed something no one expected. "This is a really striking result, primarily because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lungfish-genome-discovery-explains-how-fish-first-walked-onto-land/">lungfish</a> and coelacanths today are represented by only eight living species, with not much jaw diversity going on," Troyer said. 



"However, if we look back in time 400 or so million years, we see this striking inversion. During the Devonian, we have a lot more species and a lot more innovation within their jaws." 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Dipterus-fish_whole-skeleton_credit-Troyer-UMichigan_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Dipterus-fish_whole-skeleton_credit-Troyer-UMichigan_1s.webp" alt="Whole skeleton of Dipterus, an extinct lungfish from the middle Devonian period. Specimen (UMMP 16140) from the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology. Credit: E.M. Troyer/UMichigan" class="wp-image-1984595"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Whole skeleton of Dipterus, an extinct lungfish from the middle Devonian period. Specimen (UMMP 16140) from the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology. Click image to enlarge. Credit: E.M. Troyer/UMichigan</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lungfish-jaws-lead-the-way">Lungfish jaws lead the way</h2>



Lungfish jaws, in particular, went through a major shift during the Devonian Period. Their jaws became larger, thicker, and packed with powerful muscles. This likely helped them crush hard-shelled prey, like early clams and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-crustaceans-have-what-it-takes-to-survive-climate-change/">crustaceans</a>.



"With their really hefty jaws, they were able to eat really hard food," Troyer said. "We think these new feeding strategies might be causing jaws to need to be shaped like this, and that some of these major innovations are associated with their ecosystems during this time."



Rafael Rivero-Vega, co-first author of the study and a recent doctoral graduate, scanned nearly every complete lobe-finned fish jaw fossil available. 



He mapped out their key features to study something called adaptive radiation. That’s when animals quickly evolve into many different forms because their environment pushes them to adapt.



Rivero-Vega saw clear patterns. "Some fishes were diversifying their jaws rapidly in shape and size, only later to stay essentially unchanged once they filled a specialized niche," he said. 



"Others had similar characteristics but a wider variety of shapes and sizes, and yet others had similar form but wouldn't change until after they had already transitioned onto land."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-jaw-innovation-changed-the-future">Fish jaw innovation changed the future</h2>



This research shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">evolution</a> doesn’t follow a straight line. Just because a group is successful now doesn’t mean it always was. 



Lobe-finned fishes once led the way in jaw innovation, helping set the stage for major changes in vertebrate life - including the eventual rise of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.



"When you're looking at evolution, you can learn so much from looking at the past," Troyer said. "Without the fossil record, we would have no idea of this inverted role reversal."



The study also highlights the importance of old bones. Even though only a few lobe-finned fishes are still around, their ancient fossils tell a story that would otherwise have been be lost.



"It's a great example of how innovations in shape, form, and function can be explored by different fish groups at their own pace, as long as they experience the appropriate evolutionary pressures," said Rivero-Vega. 



"All of this happened hundreds of millions of years before the dinosaurs. Fishes are awesome."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225010395" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How ancient fish jaws built the path to modern land animals

Before there were dinosaurs, before trees covered the land, fish were already hard at work shaping Earth’s future. They did this with a single powerful innovation: jaws. Jaws weren’t just for biting. Fish used them for all sorts of tasks - cracking shells, digging into the seafloor, defending themselves, and even carrying their young. This one tool gave early vertebrates - including our distant ancestors - a huge advantage. But not all fish jaws evolved the same way. Surprising twist in fish jaw evolution Roughly 400 million...

Since they escaped captivity in Devon, a group of eager beavers have “transformed” a valley  with a network of sturdy dams.

The beavers are thought to have been released, either by accident or in an unlicensed release, in 2005 near Percy’s Country Hotel in Devon. The <a href="https://www.devonwildlifetrust.org/">Devon Wildlife Trust</a> applied to turn the accidental escape into a licensed trial reintroduction.

It’s been a reintroduced-to-the-wild success, and researchers are learning valuable lessons about water management from the network of the 100-foot dams the population of beavers have built in the years since.

“Beaver engineering at Combeshead, particularly the building of dams has transformed the environment, increasing water storage and creating diverse wetlands,” Dr. Alan Puttock of the <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> told the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/">Daily Mail</a>. “Our research has shown that beaver activity can slow the flow of water following rain storms potentially providing a valuable component to future flood and land management strategies.”

The study found that the beaver dams prevent nutrients and soil from being carried downstream during by trapping sediment, benefiting soils both upstream and downstream.

A study released in May found that 70 percent of the sediment trapped by the dams had eroded from grassland fields farther upstream. 

“We are heartened to discover that beaver dams can go a long way to mitigate this soil loss and also trap pollutants which lead to the degradation of our water bodies,” Dr. Richard Brazier, who led the study, said in a press release. 

The Eurasian beaver was native to the British Isles, but was hunted to extinction there – and in many areas of Europe – when beaver fur became a hot commodity. The last recorded beaver seen in the UK was shot in Scotland in 1526. 

The Devon study shows that reintroducing eager beavers and their engineering to other parts of the UK could help the islands’ ecology.

“Were beaver dams to be commonplace in the landscape we would no doubt see these effects delivering multiple benefits across whole ecosystems, as they do elsewhere around the world,” Brazier said.

Research funding came from <a href="http://www.westlandcs.co.uk/">Westland Countryside Stewards</a> and the <a href="https://nerc.ukri.org/">Natural Environment Research Council</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Eager beavers could benefit British agriculture

Since they escaped captivity in Devon, a group of eager...

People often  blush when they're embarrassed, nervous, and sometimes it's even a sign of attraction. For some, turning a deep shade of red or pink is even more embarrassing than whatever triggered the nervous system to cause a flushed face in the first place.

Whatever causes us to blush, it’s just one of the many reflexive non-verbal cues that we as humans have even if we can’t control when it happens. 

It turns out that humans are not the only species to blush as a way to signal internal feelings, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-colorful-feathers/">parrots</a> may also blush and ruffle their feathers to communicate non-verbally with their caretakers and other birds.

Researchers from the French public institute <a href="http://www.val-de-loire.inra.fr/">INRA Centre Val de Loire</a> conducted a study examining captive blue-and-yellow macaws that had been hand reared.

“Blushing may not be a characteristic unique to humans: the featherless cheek of the blue-and-yellow macaw parrot reveals rapid skin color changes in situations associated with emotion,” said Aline Bertin, the lead author of the study. “The macaw's particularly complex face may enable communication of emotion via color and feather displays.”

The study was published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0201762">PLOS ONE. </a>

Five macaws were observed and monitored while interacting both with each other and with their human caretakers.

The researchers focused on the birds’ feathers, when they were ruffled, and blushing of the bare skin of the birds’ cheeks. 

Feather ruffling and blushing increased when their owner was talking to them, maintaining eye contact, and interacting with the bird. The researchers also found that feather rustling was more common when the parrot wasn’t moving around. 

The researchers theorize that rustling feathers and blushing is a kind of nonverbal communication that indicates how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-colorful-feathers/">bird</a> is feeling. 

“How birds use facial displays and whether they communicate their inner subjective feelings is a question that is crucial to deepening our understanding of bird sentience,” the researchers said in their study. “Although caution must be exercised when interpreting these data due to the small sample size, we argue that crown ruffling and skin color variation may provide facial indicators of birds' inner subjective feelings.”

The study provides some potential insight into the communication cues of parrots and other birds which is important given how popular parrots are as pets. 

If we have a better understanding of what a parrot is trying to say, owners will be better equipped for caring properly for their bird. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Parrots blush as a way to communicate with their owner

People often  blush when they're embarrassed, nervous, and sometimes it's...

Although not yet listed as endangered, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffe-dies-after-it-falls-trying-to-get-food-from-zoo-visitor/">giraffe</a> populations have been declining at alarming rates, mostly due to habitat loss and poaching threats. 

Now, a new report conducted by the <a href="http://www.hsi.org/assets/pdfs/giraffe-report-HSI-HSUS-082318.pdf">Humane Society of the United States</a> shows that even though giraffe populations are in trouble, giraffe parts are being imported into the United States and used to make everything from book covers to knife handles. 

According to the report, between 2006 and 2015 more than 40,000 giraffe parts were imported to the US. 

What is perhaps even more startling is that it’s all perfectly legal. 

According to the<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/23/science/giraffe-sales-humane-society.html"> New York Times</a>, the Humane Society along with other animal advocacy groups want the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">United States Fish and Wildlife Service</a> to list giraffes as engendered so that there are more restrictions for importing giraffe parts. 

Two years ago it was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-declining-predators/">reported that giraffes had declined 40 percent</a> since the 1980s, and populations dropped from around 150,000 to under 100,000, according to the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation on Nature</a> (IUCN).

The drop in giraffe numbers has gone relatively under the radar leading experts to call it the “silent extinction.” 

“Whilst giraffes are commonly seen on safari, in the media, and in zoos, people – including conservationists – are unaware that these majestic animals are undergoing a silent extinction,” Julian Fennessy, an IUCN giraffe specialist, said in a statement.

The trade of any giraffe parts means fewer giraffes in the wild, and while trophy hunting and poaching aren’t driving giraffes to immediate extinction, the Humane Society report says that it still puts pressure on the species.  

“These are products that most people wouldn’t be interested in, but I think it’s important to raise awareness among the public to the fact that these things are sold across the country,” Adam Peyman, manager of wildlife programs and operations for the Humane Society International told the New York Times.

Some of the products Peyman is referring to include bible covers, boots, and even the taxidermied body a young giraffe. 

Poaching and big game hunting present some of the biggest threats to the world’s most critically threatened and endangered species, and with the legal sale of products made from animal parts in the US it only increases the odds of a species’ extinction or endangerment. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giraffe parts sold legally in the US despite declining numbers

Although not yet listed as endangered, giraffe populations have been...

When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-comfort-owners-upset/">dogs</a> are in shelters, they are typically assigned breed labels based on their appearance. These labels can greatly influence how long it takes for shelter dogs to be adopted, primarily because of the various behaviors that are associated with different breeds.


Using genetic testing, a team at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> (ASU) set out to investigate the accuracy of breed labels and how they may affect shelter dogs. The researchers obtained DNA from more than 900 dogs located in two shelters in California and Arizona.

The experts used commercially available canine DNA tests from the <a href="https://www.wisdompanel.com/">Wisdom Panel</a> for genetic testing. These kits include a small brush for collecting cells from the dog's cheeks and gums, which are sent to a lab to be processed.

The DNA tests revealed that the three most common breeds in both shelters were the same, including the American Staffordshire Terrier, Chihuahua, and Poodle.

“The level of genetic diversity in the shelter dogs exceeded our expectations: we found 125 distinct breeds,” said study co-author Lisa Gunter. “We also found that just 5% of the shelter dogs were purebred, even though it is commonly assumed that up to a quarter of dogs in shelters are purebred.”

The DNA tests provided information about three generations of ancestors for each dog. Most of the dogs had signatures of three different breeds, while some dogs had genetic characteristics of up to five breeds.

“Breed identification has quite an outsize role in people's perceptions of dogs,” said study co-author Clive Wynne. “'What breed is he?' is often the first question people ask about a dog, but the answer is often terribly inaccurate.”

With such a high level of genetic diversity among shelter dogs, it can be difficult for shelter staff to assess their breeds. Staff at the San Diego Humane Society (SDHS) used the physical appearance of dogs, as well as descriptions from American Kennel Club breed identification guides, to assign dogs a primary and a secondary breed.

By comparing the genetic information that they obtained from the dogs, the researchers found that the SDHS staff identified either the primary or the secondary breeds with 67-percent accuracy. However, when both breeds were taken into consideration, the staff’s level of accuracy fell to just 10 percent.

Breed labels can have negative consequences for shelter dogs. For example, a study published previously in PLOS ONE found that dogs who were labeled as pit bulls stayed in shelters over three times as long waiting to be adopted. The current study found that this was also the case at the SDHS, where dogs labeled as pit bulls remained for an average of three times longer compared to other breeds.


“The genetics of behavior is so complex that a dog who is a cross of two breeds might not behave much like the typical members of either of its parents' families,” said Wynne. “Then you have a situation where breed-typing is worse than stereotyping members of our own species. Breed labels would be better dropped altogether.”

“Shelter dogs are interesting and complex genetically,” added Gunter. “They really are individuals, and labeling them with a single breed can minimize their uniqueness.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Inaccurate identification of shelter dogs hurts adoption changes

When dogs are in shelters, they are typically assigned breed...

In Shakespeare’s Henry IV Part I, a character proposes a unique torment for his enemy: he will train a starling to repeat his name and “gift” it to him as a means of inflaming his anger.

Starlings, like their close relatives the mynas, are indeed skillful mimics. But their aptitude for torment lies more in their adaptable nature and ferocious reproductive capabilities than in their parrot-like tendencies. Native to Eurasia and northern Africa, they are now nearly global in distribution. And outside their native range, they have proven to be nothing short of a plague.

Like many invasive species, common starlings (Sturnis vulgaris) were ushered into their non-native range intentionally—with generally beneficent motives. 

In Australia, where they were introduced in 1857, and New Zealand, where they were introduced in 1862, they were intended to control agricultural insect pests. Starlings are indeed voracious insect predators. They possess a uniquely strong jaw that allows them to penetrate the ground while foraging and open their beak, pushing aside the soil and allowing easier access to subterranean creatures. 

This digging functionality is a formidable adaptation in a predator of terrestrial invertebrates. They will eat anything from caterpillars to beetle larvae to millipedes, in addition to vegetable matter. While their presence may have had some small effect on the insect pests of Australia and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/winter-rain-southwest-new-zealand/">New Zealand</a>, it was outweighed by their competitive advantage over native species, which they continue to threaten and displace to this day. 

In North America, the motivations were, let’s face it, dumber. Or at least less pragmatic. People thought that starlings were pretty They reminded them of their European homeland. Entire societies dedicated to the notion of introducing common European and foreign species sprung up in the late 1800s and early 1900s. 

These so-called “acclimatization societies” released numerous species of animal into North America simply because of their perceived aesthetic value. This trend in some cases resulted in the decimation of entire ecosystems, as in the case of Hawaii, where native birdlife was outcompeted and likely diseased by an enormous suite of introduced birds from around the world. The results of these misguided exercises are still visible today to visitors of the Hawaiian islands, where one can see Brazilian cardinals and Asian zebra doves in the span of a minute. 

The starling introductions, though, created a disaster on a much larger scale. First introduced in Cincinnati in 1872, and later in New York City in 1877, and in Portland in 1889, the species did not really take off until the 1890 introduction in New York City. Eugene Schieffelin, the founder of the American Acclimatization Society (1871), had shipped to the city from England 60 starlings. Heedless of the bitter March weather, he loosed the birds in Manhattan. The next year, he released another 40. 

Unlike previous efforts, this one stuck, perhaps due to New York’s unique brand of hospitality: easy shelter in the eaves of buildings, relatively abundant green space, and plenty of trash, which starlings are not hesitant to eat. Though legend has it that Schieffelin was motivated by a love of Shakespeare, and intended to introduce all bird species mentioned in his plays to the Americas, <a href="https://timeline.com/sparrows-invasive-species-america-9546e6a9e57e">as writer Matt Reimann points out</a>, there is no explicit mention of this agenda in the recorded literature. 

Schieffelin was a Shakespeare aficionado, and he loved birds, but there is no evidence that the two were connected. He did, notably, play a part in the introduction another of the worst avian pests in the Americas: the house sparrow (Passer domesticus), which was supposed to control the linden moth and ultimately took over the continent. So did starlings. They had spread to the Mississippi River by 1928 and by 1942 had reached California. (There is some uncertainty as to whether the population that was released in Portland in 1889 migrated down the west coast or the eastern population migrated west.) 

Their depredations are multitude. Starlings are known to disrupt the breeding habits of other birds that nest in cavities. While <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.02262.x">a 2003 study</a> showed that only sapsuckers, a type of woodpecker, were noticeably influenced by the presence of starlings, anecdotal evidence has indicated that they disrupt nesting in birds ranging from wood ducks to bluebirds. 

They have also been implicated in the spread of disease, both to native birds and to livestock and humans. They are known to be carriers of West Nile virus, which wreaked havoc on native bird populations, and have also been implicated in the transmission of Histoplasmosis to immunocompromised humans, and in the infection of pigs with gastroenteritis virus, which in one case was thought to have wiped out 10,000 pigs in a month (1978–79). 

The birds are thought to be the second most populous species in North America, just behind red-winged blackbirds, with which they sometimes flock. Estimates of their population on this continent alone exceed 200 million. And despite the idea that they are useful controllers of agricultural pests, they are more than willing to avail themselves of the fruits of agriculture themselves. One study suggested that they are responsible for <a href="http://www.rexano.org/Federal_Canada/PimentelEtal00CostExotics.pdf">over $800 million in crop damage</a> each year in the United States. 

Even in light of their rapacity, one has to admire these birds. In breeding plumage, the males are subtly lovely, boasting a mane of shimmering, oil-slick feathers that iridesce in shades of green and purple. The white tips on their feathers developed in the summer slowly wear away and leave them mostly black by winter. 

These feathers are perhaps even more beautiful to the birds themselves; <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/94/16/8618.full.pdf">a 1998 study</a> demonstrated that the feathers appear different in the presence of ultraviolet light, suggesting that the birds may be able to see patterns that we cannot. And their murmurations, coordinated flocking efforts executed largely in winter, when they aggregate in enormous numbers, are among the most mesmerizing of natural spectacles. Their ability to move in rolling waves, seemingly effortlessly coordinated, is a testament to the wonders of social evolution. 

In the face of their Hitchcockian ubiquity, eradication efforts have proven largely fruitless. So perhaps we ought to learn to enjoy them.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Starlings, darling: The making of an American pest

In Shakespeare’s Henry IV Part I, a character proposes a...

Researchers in Florida observed something never-before-witnessed between wasps and an orange plant called a love vine. 

There are some species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-wasp-alien/">parasitic wasp</a> known as gall-forming wasps because they lay their eggs in newly formed oak trees. 

A brown sphere called a gall develops around the egg and becomes part of the tree, attacking the host even though its components are similar to the oak tree. 

Eventually, the larva will emerge from the gall and host tree. But Scott Egan, an evolutionary biologist from <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a> discovered something strange while examining galls. 

“Galls are like tumors in many ways,” said Egan. “The wasps induce them to grow at the site where they lay their eggs, but the galls are part of the tree. The cells there have the same DNA as any other cell in the tree. They’ve just been reprogrammed to grow and behave in a way that is ultimately harmful to the tree.”

Egan and his team gathered gall and oak tree samples in South Florida’s oak scrub habitat and examined them in a lab setting. The research team noticed that there were unusual formations of love vines growing between the gall samples that had been collected. 

After cutting the love vines in half, the researchers found fully mummified wasp remains leading to the realization that the love vine is able to feed off the gall, much the way the wasp larva does the tree, mummifying the wasp as it matures inside the gall. 

“Basically, you have a parasitic plant attacking a parasitic insect inside of another host, a host they share.” Egan said. 

The researchers found 23 galls with mummified wasps and 51 galls that had been attacked by love vines. 

Egan and his team are the first people to record this parasitic battle between wasps and love vines, and the research could help with pest control studies and even cancer treatments. 

 “If we can find out how the vines identify the galls,” said Egan. “How they zero in on them, it could potentially provide new clues for targeting and fighting cancer.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Mattheau Comerford/Rice University

Love vines outsmart wasps and turn them into mummies

Researchers in Florida observed something never-before-witnessed between wasps and an...

The discovery of a new sea creature in southeastern Japan is probably a lot cuter than its name would lead you to believe. The newly discovered “Japan pig” is a pygmy seahorse that measures just about 15 millimeters in length, and lives inside soft coral, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-new-sustainable-superconductor/">seaweed</a>, and algae reefs. It’s aptly described by researchers as a normal seahorse dressed up in paisley.

This new species (Hippocampus japapigue) is one of only seven known species of pygmy seahorse – the first of which was discovered in 1970. The Japan pig was discovered almost 180 miles south of Tokyo around the Hachijo-jima Island by researchers at the <a href="https://www.calacademy.org/">California Academy of Sciences</a>. 

Although the species is not especially rare, it can be very hard to spot due to its size. In fact, it wasn’t until scientists began studying the Japan pig that they realized it had never been described before. 

Most pygmy seahorse species have two wing-like structure on their back, but the Japan pig has only one. They live off a diet of plankton, and are described by researchers to be active and playful.

Pygmy seahorses are still largely unstudied as a whole. Most species have very few specimens available, and only three species have been analyzed genetically. But luckily for pygmy seahorses, their lives in obscurity also mean that they have not been a victim of trade in traditional Chinese medicine or aquariums like larger seahorse species. Despite their cute and colorful appearance, let’s hope it stays that way.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Hiroyuki Motomura/ZooKeys

New “paisley” pygmy seahorse discovered in Japan

The discovery of a new sea creature in southeastern Japan...

“In the land of the pale blue snow

Where it’s ninety-nine below,

And the polar bears are dancing on the plain,

In the shadow of the pole

Oh, my Heart, my Life, my Soul,

I will meet thee when the ice-worms nest again.”

-Robert Service, 1910

Glaciers initially seem barren of any sort of life.  I remember taking a bush plane off the glacial fields of Mount Denali, and the first small patches of green forest attack the senses with elation after weeks of icy monotones.  White, grey, blue and hues of the same are the dominant colors on glaciers. There is beauty in glacial scenery, no question about it, but it is a stark beauty stripped down to a limited pallet.  

Looking closer at ice though, changes perspective.  As hard as it is to believe, some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pine-island-glacier-shrink/">glaciers</a> actually contain worms living inside chunks of ice, relatives of the more common earthworm.  When exposed to any sort of heat, the glacial ice worms (Mesenchytraeus solifugus) will die and melt around 40° F.  The worms are tiny, only about ¼ of an inch in length but common on glaciers of the North Cascade range of Washington.  The <a href="https://glaciers.nichols.edu/iceworm/">North Cascade Glacier Climate Project</a> estimated as many as 7 billion ice worms on one glacier on Glacier Peak in Washington.  The ice worms are in the same family as earthworms but obviously have some extremely unique adaptations.  

Ice worms were first discovered in Alaska, where <a href="http://www.robertwservice.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=306">Robert Service</a> enlarged their legend with exaggerations in his poetry.  So far ice worms have been found in Alaska, Washington, Oregon and parts of Canada but nowhere else in the world.  It’s easy to understand that an animal which melts at 40°F would have a hard time crawling down from the mountains and spreading across the planet, even if there are glaciers elsewhere. 

Ice worms hide in glaciers during the heat of the day, coming to the surface of ice and snow during mornings and evenings.  Scientists aren’t sure whether the ice worms release a chemical antifreeze to create tunnels in ice or if they simply use cracks already there.  Interestingly the chemistry of ice worm proteins is different allowing (even obligating) them to live in cold environments. 

The diet of ice worms changes the common view of snow as pure and free from blemish.  Snowflakes are often formed when ice crystals bind to bacteria or other microbes living or dead.  <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/do-microbes-make-snow/">Scientific American</a> reports that microbiologist have found microbes at the center of snowflakes from places as far ranging as Canada, Montana, France and Antarctica.  Purified water without microbes has a harder time forming snowflakes. 

There’s also a lot more algae in snow than the casual observer is likely to guess.  Far from being pure or lifeless glacial ice and snow is full of microscopic or macroscopic but tiny life.  Some snow known as ‘watermelon snow’ can have a large density of a cold loving alga (Chlamydomonas nivalis) which colors it pink or reddish.  Even normal looking snow under closer examination reveals a thriving if simplified ecosystem which is sufficient to supply food for ice worms.  Ice worms have been observed with their tail end anchored in ice while their front (mouth) end moves through glacial melt-water, apparently searching for food.  Dissections of the worms have also revealed that their digestive content consists of single celled organisms, mainly algae but also bacteria and other microscopic creatures.

Given the number of ice worms found in some glaciers, their impact on local environments may be underestimated so far.  <a href="https://glaciers.nichols.edu/iceworm/">North Cascades Glacier Climate Project</a> estimated that with ice worms and other organisms living in glaciers, meltwater from glaciers could contribute over 500 million organisms to streams.

Sadly, the melting of glaciers may cause the end for the ice worm or at least some populations.  It’s impossible for ice worms to move from a melting glacier to a more stable one and although there are billions of the worms, they’re limited to a small part of the Earth.  

It isn’t just odd tiny worms making their lives out on the ice.  When I went to climb Mt. Denali I was a little bit surprised to learn that there were ravens willing to dig through feet of snow for buried food caches.  I was only a little surprised though; I’ve also seen corvids on Mt. Rainier’s glaciated slopes and in Rocky Mountain National Park in the winter. A few types of birds actually use glaciers as places to find food.  Smaller birds often eat worms and other invertebrates, while larger raptors sometimes eat other birds and small mammals on glaciers. 

Of course many penguins nest on ice sheets.  However, there is a less famous bird that nests on glaciers. The white-winged diuca-finch (Diuca speculifera) nests on glaciers through the Andes of Bolivia, Peru, northern Argentina and Chile.  A quick Google search yields images of typical round twig and grass type nests settled into the ghastly blue beauty of crevasses.  According to Wikipedia, the ‘glacier bird’ as the finch is sometimes called, lays two eggs in April or May, the young fledgling their nests in June or July.

According to <a href="https://www.audubon.org/">Audubon.org</a>, the white-winged diuca-finch is part of the Emberizidae family.  Distant relatives of the diuca-finch include Lapland longspur, American tree sparrow, and snow bunting.  All of these relatives breed in the Arctic but none of them actually nest on glaciers. Despite the dangers of nesting in a place as forbidding as an icy glacier, it certainly reduces the number of predators the white-winged diuca-finch must face.  At the moment, little is known about the glacier bird’s population but given its broad range, the <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22723169/0">IUCN</a> considers it a species of least concern in terms of conservation.  

<a href="http://earthsky.org/earth/how-many-different-animals-live-on-glaciers">Earthsky.org</a> reported on the many mammals visit glaciers.  It’s possible that large mammals with a good deal of fur visit glaciers simply to cool off, like a large shaggy dog I once saw rolling in alpine snow on a Colorado summer day.  Caribou, musk ox, bison, elk, pica, big horn sheep and other herbivores have all been found on glaciers. 

Wolverines have been observed catching prey in glaciers.  Undoubtedly, meat left in the virtual icebox of a glacier would last longer and smell less, thus attracting fewer other animals to steal the kill.  

Glaciers are difficult places to do research and organisms like ice worms are hard to study.  There is still a lack of data and observations on glaciers, even as they continue to melt. 

Other organisms like the overly fluffy Woolly Bear Caterpillar live in the remote Arctic but not on glaciers and have incredible adaptations to the harsh cold.  A handful of animals like musk ox, penguins and polar bears are commonly known from the coldest parts of our planet but many more like ice worms are largely ignored by the public.  Most people don’t know about the <a href="https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Amphibians/Wood-Frog">Wood Frog</a> (Lithobates sylvaticus), a species that freezes in the northern winter, it’s heart ceasing to beat, seemingly dead until being thawed and revived in warmer weather.  Few people would suspect that jellyfish live in boreal waters or that strange fish live below ice shelves in Antarctica. 

The greatest tragedy of loss would be not fully understanding the depth of it.  As glaciers melt and the planet warms, what strange creatures do we stand to lose?             

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

What exactly is living in those icy cold glaciers?

“In the land of the pale blue snow Where it’s...

Bird populations in the Mojave Desert region of California and Nevada have been declining and climate change is most likely the culprit. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> surveyed 61 locations in the Mojave Desert region on both sides of the Nevada border as well sites in Death Valley and Joshua Tree National Park.

The team examined the areas for three years and the results of the study were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The researchers monitored areas that had been surveyed in the early 1900s through 1947 by Berkeley biologists and this helped show the major changes in bird species biodiversity in the area. 

Over the past century, the researchers discovered stark reductions in bird species diversity, as the number of species dropped by 43 percent. 

Recent research has shown that in some ecosystems, species decline can lead to<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-drought-winners-losers/"> a pattern of winners and losers</a>, where some species’ numbers drop but that leads to other species thriving. 

This was evidenced in the global hotspot of the Carrizo Plain National Monument in California, but in Mojave Desert, the Berkeley researchers have found very little evidence of any winners. 

“The Mojave Desert is now nearly half empty of birds,' said Steven Beissinger, an author of the study.

What’s driving these declines in populations and biodiversity? The researchers say that decreases in precipitation and increases in aridity and temperature are the main drivers of species decline in the Mojave Desert. 

The region is becoming less and less suitable for many species of birds as a result of climate change, which is why bird populations are collapsing. 

“California deserts have already experienced quite a bit of drying and warming because of climate change, and this might be enough to push birds over the edge,” said Kelly Iknayan, a fellow author of the study. “It seems like we are losing part of the desert ecosystem.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.tom">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Image Credit: Chelsea Hofmeier photos

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Mojave bird populations see big declines due to climate change

Bird populations in the Mojave Desert region of California and...

Why are ants, bees, and other insects that depend on a well-defined hierarchical society so good at working together? 

Previous research has shown that even when given the option to act in a way that would better serve the needs of an individual, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/queen-bee-dies-successor/">bees always put the colony first.</a>

Now a new study conducted by researchers from<a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/"> Rockefeller University</a> shows that even when resources are scarce, ants prefer to work together rather than compete for food or status. 

“You would think, if you pair similar individuals from a single species, their function would be redundant, If anything, there should be competition between individuals,” said Daniel Kronauer, the leader of the research. 

But the researchers found that even genetically identical individuals are better working together. 

The results were published in the journal Nature and help shed insight on the development of civil societies. 

For the study, the researchers observed groups of clonal raider ants. Some of the groups were made up of as many as 16 ants whereas a few groups only had one ant. 

The researchers discovered that the larger groups were better at splitting up tasks despite genetic similarity among the group. 

The larger groups also had more ants performing specialized tasks which led to a more stable society. 

Although the larger groups did seem to fare better, the overall results show that more ants are better than one regardless of how many individuals there are in a single group. 

"It's easy to see how individuals work together in more complex societies, such as those with queens and workers, because they have distinct roles,” said Kronauer. “But that's not how insect societies started out. This research shows that very simple societies can have an evolutionary advantage over individuals living by themselves--which provides a stepping stone to understanding how complex societies evolved from solitary animals.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ants and bees prove how putting the community first pays off

Why are ants, bees, and other insects that depend on...

These images were acquired using the Scannx, Inc. Book ScanCenter.

Turtles are rather unique creatures, with their reptilian characteristics and their protective shell. Yet another distinguishing feature of the turtle is its toothless beak – and a newly-discovered fossil from 228 million years ago shines light on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-tide-kills-sea-life/">turtles</a> developed their signature traits. 

The results were included in a report published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

“This creature was over six feet long, it had a strange disc-like body and a long tail, and the anterior part of its jaws developed into this strange beak,” says Olivier Rieppel, a paleontologist at Chicago's <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and one of the report’s authors. “It probably lived in shallow water and dug in the mud for food.”

The paleontologists who discovered the fossil have named the new species Eorhynchochelys sinensis, which means “dawn beak turtle” – referring to it being the oldest turtle fossil to be found with a beak. Sinensis means “from China,” and is in reference to the place where the fossil was found by Li Chun, the lead author of the study and a researcher at China’s <a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/">Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology</a>.

One of the more interesting aspects of this new species is that – while it’s body was wide and rib cage expansive – the species did not yet have a shell like the turtles we see today. But its discovery fits nicely into a missing piece in turtle lineage, as another early turtle species was discovered previously that had a partial shell, but no beak. “The origin of turtles has been an unsolved problem in paleontology for many decades,” says Rieppel. “Now with Eorhynchochelys, how turtles evolved has become a lot clearer.”

Mosaic evolution refers to the fact that traits can evolve independently of each other and at a different rate, and that not all ancestral species had the same combination of these traits. Eorhynchochelys developing a beak before other early turtles – while not having a shell – is evidence of mosaic evolution in this lineage. Some turtle relatives got partial shells, while others developed beaks, and over a long period of time, the genetic mutations that resulted in these traits occurred in the same animal.

Eorhynchochelys has even more to offer in the clarification of turtle ancestry. The skull of Eorhynchochelys helped solve the decades old debate as to whether turtle ancestors were part of the same reptile group as modern lizards and snakes – diapsids, which are known to have had two holes on the sides of their skulls early in their evolution – or if they were anapsids, which did not have these holes. The skull of the fossil Eorhynchochelys showed signs that it was a diapsid. “With Eorhynchochelys’s diapsid skull, we know that turtles are not related to the early anapsid reptiles, but are instead related to evolutionarily more advanced diapsid reptiles. This is cemented, the debate is over,” says Rieppel.

With all these observations, it’s clear that Eorhynchochelys was an important missing piece in the turtle family tree, and this discovery has changed the way that we think about the origin of the turtles we have today.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Adrienne Stroup, Field Museum

Fossil reveals how turtles developed a shell and toothless beak

Turtles are rather unique creatures, with their reptilian characteristics and...

Murre egg in Prof. Mark Hauber's laboratory.

A study from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> has found that natural selection is responsible for the shape of the pointy murre egg. The ledges where these eggs are laid by common and thick-billed murres are often high up on seaside cliffs and can be very narrow. The researchers determined that the shape of the eggs evolved to help keep them safe.

Study co-author Mark Hauber is a professor of Animal Biology at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a>. He explained that many experts have theorized that the unique shape of murre eggs makes them less likely to roll off the ledges of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-levels-cliff-erosion/">cliffs</a>.

“Very little is known about how the murre egg shape affects its stability and viability in this setting,” said Professor Hauber. “But earlier studies failed to isolate specific features of the eggs - such as elongation, asymmetry and conicality - to robustly test this hypothesis.”


In order to investigate, the team used a 3D printer to create eggs of different shapes and sizes. By singling out certain shape variables and using an egg-roll test, the researchers were able to determine which factors were most capable of keeping the eggs from moving too far.

“We found that conicality - the degree to which the pointed end of the egg mimicked a cone - suppressed egg displacement on surfaces inclined more than 2 degrees,” said Professor Hauber. 

At lower inclines, conicality only mildly increased egg displacement. In addition, the team found that increasing the length of the egg relative to its girth increased its tendency to roll further from its original position.

“In general, an egg's conicality was the most reliable predictor of its likelihood of staying put on inclined surfaces,” said Professor Hauber. “This finding provides experimental support for natural selection shaping the unique form of murre eggs amongst all bird eggs.”

The study is published in the <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: L. Brian Stauffer

Pointy bird eggs evolved to keep them from rolling off cliffs

A study from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign has...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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