Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Sea-level rise is one of the most serious consequences of climate change. Since precise satellite measures emerged in the 1990s, the global average sea-level has risen by over three centimeters per decade. A new study led by the <a href="https://tu-dresden.de/?set_language=en">Dresden University of Technology</a> (TU Dresden) has recently provided one of the most comprehensive and coherent descriptions of this phenomenon, by analyzing how various factors, including thermal expansion, glacier melting, or changes in land water storage, contribute to sea-level rise.&nbsp;



“Assembling this coherent picture of sea-level and ocean-mass budgets not only required advanced datasets from satellite Earth observation and modelling. It also required the experts from various disciplines to arrive at a common framework,” said study lead author Martin Horwath, a professor of Physical Geodesy at TU Dresden.



“This is the fruit from the continuity in research and development on Earth observation data analysis enabled by the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://climate.esa.int/">Climate Change Initiative</a> [CCI]. The beauty of the results lies in the coherence of all the CCI Essential Climate Variables, which, when well-prepared and assembled, give a precise picture of our climate and its trend. The work doesn’t stop at this impressive milestone, there are still questions to be answered regarding the climate variability and its evolution,” explained Dr. Jérôme Benveniste, a researcher at the European Space Agency.



According to the scientists, about a third of the rise in sea level is caused by thermal expansion: as seawater warms due to climate change, it gradually expands. The other two thirds of the rise are caused by freshwater being added to the ocean, mainly from the melting of the Antarctic and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-has-lost-4700-gigatons-of-ice-since-2002/">Greenland Ice Sheets</a>, as well as of various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-glaciers-contain-less-ice-than-previously-thought/">glaciers</a> all over the world, but also from water added to the oceans from the land as a result of groundwater storage depletion.



While these results are in line with previous estimations, they gain additional confidence through the extensive data that was gathered and analyzed. However, further improvements in understanding the satellite measurements and the physical processes investigated are necessary. For instance, slow deformations of the solid Earth beneath the ocean can affect satellite measurements. Such effects need to be separated from changes in the ocean itself.



“It is important to be transparent about how results depend on some choices of methodology. For example, our satellite-based numbers on ocean-mass change changed somewhat when we improved the way to account for mass displacements in the solid Earth. More research is needed for the distinction between different processes of mass transports in the Earth system,” concluded study co-author Benjamin Gutknecht from TU Dresden.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/14/411/2022/">Earth System Science Data</a>.



Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New study pinpoints the causes of sea-level rise

Sea-level rise is one of the most serious consequences of...

A recent U.S. study indicates that one in 12 people experiences loneliness to the extent where it may cause serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-may-negatively-impact-brain-health/">health</a> problems. Still yet, the true extent of loneliness on a global scale remains unclear.



In an effort to help decision makers understand the severity of the loneliness epidemic, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> analyzed evidence from more than 100 countries and territories. The results have confirmed that the issue is widespread throughout many countries.



"Humans thrive on meaningful social connections. Feelings of loneliness set in when a discrepancy exists between one’s desired and one’s actual level of social relationships," wrote the study authors. "Loneliness is a negative, subjective experience closely linked to the quality of social connections.&nbsp;



"Loneliness is similar to, but distinct from, social isolation, which is defined as a lack of social contacts, and being alone, characterized as being physically removed from social connections. Transient loneliness is a common experience, but chronic or severe loneliness pose threats to health and well-being."



The experts noted that a growing collection of research has linked loneliness to various adverse health outcomes, such as high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol levels, coronary heart disease, sleep disturbance, and increased risk of cognitive impairment and dementia.



The researchers said that feeling lonely may also be detrimental to behavioral, mental, and social health throughout the lifespan, with potential outcomes like depression and substance abuse.&nbsp;



"According to a 2015 meta-analysis, people with chronic loneliness had a 26 percent increased risk of mortality," wrote the study authors. "This increased risk is comparable to established risk factors such as physical inactivity and grade 1 obesity."



Based on studies from 106 countries, the prevalence of lonely feelings among adolescents ranged from 9.2 percent in Southeast Asia to 14.4 percent in the Eastern Mediterranean region. 



"Based on our meta-analysis, the prevalence of loneliness is highly heterogenous across countries, even within the same region. While insufficient data prevented us from identifying geographical patterns of loneliness outside of Europe, within Europe the pattern is clear and consistent," said the researchers.



"Across different adult age groups, northern European countries consistently reported the lowest prevalence of loneliness, whereas eastern European countries reported the highest."&nbsp;



"One study attributed country level differences to demographic characteristics, health status, social participation, and social support. Others have cited welfare systems and social security schemes as contributing factors, as welfare generosity has been positively linked to social participation and inversely associated with social exclusion."



Most of the data examined for the study was from high income countries, particularly Europe. This makes the data insufficient to make conclusions about trends on a global scale.



Regardless, the researchers pointed out that even if the problem of loneliness had not worsened during their search period, from 2000 to 2019, the subsequent Covid-19 pandemic had a profound impact on loneliness. With this in mind, the experts said that their review provides an important pre-pandemic baseline for future surveillance.



The study authors also noted that while the data gaps in low and middle income countries raise an important issue of equity, the findings still reinforce the urgency of approaching loneliness as an important public health issue.



“Public health efforts to prevent and reduce loneliness require well coordinated ongoing surveillance across different life stages and broad geographical areas,” wrote the researchers.



“Sizeable differences in prevalence of loneliness across countries and regions call for in-depth investigation to unpack the drivers of loneliness at systemic levels and to develop interventions to deal with them."



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Loneliness is a global health issue that must be addressed

A recent U.S. study indicates that one in 12 people...

Caribou (known as reindeer in Europe) are large, herbivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-are-vanishing-in-the-uk/">mammals</a> that are famous for making extensive migrations in order to avoid severe weather and gain access to forage. They make the longest seasonal migrations of any mammal, moving up to 2,500 miles each year. But not all caribous have the same propensity to migrate.



A recent study, led by Maria Cavedon from the University of Calgary, investigated the genes that influence migratory behavior in caribou and found that an individual’s genetic background is what makes it more or less likely to undertake extreme migrations.&nbsp;



The researchers followed 139 caribou (Rangifer tarandus) females using GPS tracking. Some of the animals lived in tundra habitats, while others inhabited woodlands distributed across western North America.&nbsp;



In addition, DNA sequencing of the caribou was carried out to investigate the genetic factors that influence migratory behavior.&nbsp;Over 50 genetic mutations associated with migratory behavior were identified. The experts noted that 27 of these mutations were located on genes involved in brain activity, fat and energy metabolism, body development, or hormone production.&nbsp;



Furthermore,&nbsp;the researchers found that the genetic sequences clustered into two distinct geographical groups – one northerly and the other southerly. These genetic subpopulations are descended from ancestral caribou that were separated from one another during the last ice age.&nbsp;



Having evolved in Beringia more than two million years ago, caribou became adapted to living in the cold conditions of north eastern Russia and Alaska. But around 300,000 years ago, during a relatively warm interglacial period, caribou populations spread throughout the northern half of North America.



However, when conditions began to cool again at the start of the last ice age, glaciers formed across Canada and the caribou range was cut in two. Those to the north of the continental ice sheets, in Beringia, continued to live in cold conditions while those trapped south of the glaciers became adapted to living in woodland habitats and warmer conditions.&nbsp;



These two groups of caribou remained isolated from each other, on opposite sides of the Rocky Mountains, throughout the duration of the ice age, which ended around 11,700 years ago.



The genetic and GPS analyses of the 139 caribou in the current study showed that individuals with a greater proportion of genes from northern ancestors were more likely to migrate longer distances. During the research, the more migratory individuals travelled nearly 250 kilometers on average, which was ten times further than the sedentary caribou.&nbsp;



These findings, published today in the open-access journal&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/">PLOS Genetics</a>, indicate an evolutionary legacy from the last glaciation, when northerly caribou populations continued to migrate in order to survive in harsh tundra environments, while southerly populations living in forests were more sedentary. The study is the first to investigate the genes influencing migration in an endangered terrestrial mammal.&nbsp;



Seasonal migrations enable animals to follow vital food resources that change from summer to winter. But they also make these animals particularly vulnerable to habitat fragmentation. Conserving key habitats along their seasonal migration routes could help to preserve the genes underpinning the world’s longest terrestrial migration, the authors say.



“Wide-ranging animals, including migratory species, are significantly threatened by the effects of habitat fragmentation and habitat loss,” said Cavedon. “We examined migratory behavior of GPS-collared endangered caribou in western North America and carried out genomic scans for the same individuals. We detected genes associated with migratory behavior, and we determined that propensity to migrate depended upon the evolutionary history of caribou."&nbsp;



"If, as we report, migratory behavior is influenced by genes, caribou could be further impacted by the loss of the migratory trait in some isolated populations already at low numbers.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Caribou migratory behavior is reflected in their genes

Caribou (known as reindeer in Europe) are large, herbivorous mammals...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a> has found that older adults commonly develop a new medical condition after recovering from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicrons-sister-has-arrived-and-covid-may-be-here-to-stay/">COVID-19</a> infection. The experts report that 32 out of 100 older adults who were infected with COVID-19 in 2020 developed at least one condition requiring medical care shortly after infection.



The conditions varied across major organ systems, ranging from the heart and kidneys to lungs and liver. Mental health complications also developed. Few studies have investigated the risk of new medical conditions emerging in older adults after COVID infection.&nbsp;



To address this gap in data, scientists used health insurance records to find 133,366 adults 65 and older who were diagnosed with COVID-19 before April 1, 2020. These patients were then compared to three groups that had not been infected with COVID, including one group which suffered from lower respiratory tract illness.&nbsp;



The researchers recorded any new or persistent conditions occurring 21 days after a COVID-19 diagnosis. The scientists calculated the excess risk of conditions triggered by COVID-19, over a period of months based on age, sex, race and whether patients were admitted to the hospital for COVID.&nbsp;



The study showed that 32 percent of those diagnosed with COVID-19 in 2020 sought medical care after COVID-19 infection for one or more new conditions. This was 11 percent higher than the comparison group. Those who were infected with COVID-19 were more likely to develop several conditions including: respiratory failure, dementia and fatigue.&nbsp;



Individuals who had the greatest risk of developing a new medical condition were African Americans, men, patients who had been admitted to a hospital, and people over 75 years of age.&nbsp;



The scientists acknowledge that this is an observational study, and it cannot establish a cause. However, the researchers have issued the following warning:



“The number of survivors with sequelae after the acute infection will continue to grow. These findings further highlight the wide range of important sequelae after acute infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus."&nbsp;



“Understanding the magnitude of risk for the most important clinical sequelae might enhance their diagnosis and the management of individuals with sequelae after acute SARS-CoV-2 infection.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many older adults develop medical conditions after COVID-19

A new study published in the journal The BMJ has...

African cultural and natural heritage sites in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/less-than-16-percent-of-the-worlds-coastal-regions-remain-intact/">coastal regions</a> are at risk of being damaged or destroyed as sea levels rise. At least 20 percent of the sites that are home to Heritage of Outstanding and Universal Value along the African coast are already at risk from a one-in-100-year extreme sea level event. These include the iconic ruins of Tipasa in Algeria, and the North Sinai archaeological Sites Zone in Egypt.&nbsp;



In a study, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>, a global team of climate risk and heritage experts identified and mapped out the physical boundaries of 284 African coastal heritage sites. They then modeled the exposure of each site under different future global warming scenarios. Dr. Nicholas Simpson from the <a href="https://www.uct.ac.za/">University of Cape Town</a>’s (UCT) African Climate and Development Initiative (ACDI) was one of the leading contributors to this, the first comprehensive assessment of the risks posed by rising sea levels to these heritage sites.&nbsp;



The researchers found that 56 sites (20 percent) are already at risk from a one-in-100-year extreme sea level event but that, "by 2050, the number of exposed sites is projected to more than triple, reaching almost 200 for high emissions.”



From 2050, at least 151 natural and 40 cultural sites will be exposed to the potential damages of a 100-year extreme sea level event. The model even predicts that, by the end of the 21st century, the coastal heritage sites in some African countries will all be exposed to damage from such extreme sea level events, regardless of the level of greenhouse gas emissions.



“There are several countries which are projected to have all their coastal heritage sites exposed to the 100-year coastal extreme event by the end of the century, regardless of the scenario: Cameroon, Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Western Sahara, Libya, Mozambique, Mauritania, and Namibia," wrote the study authors.



And, in the case of the most extreme level of harmful emissions, the model identifies that all coastal heritage sites will also be exposed in Côte d'Ivoire, Cabo Verde, Sudan and Tanzania.



Small island heritage sites are also at high risk of being exposed to the hazards of sea level rise. For example, Aldabra Atoll, the world's second-largest coral atoll, and Kunta Kinteh Island (The Gambia) could both be exposed to extreme sea level events by 2100 that threaten their very existence.&nbsp;



“This is very concerning because none of these countries currently demonstrate adequate management or adaptive capacity to anticipate or establish heritage protections commensurate with the severity of these hazards," said the researchers.



The results highlight the importance of climate change adaptation and mitigation responses to protect and reduce the exposure of these iconic heritage sites.&nbsp;



“If climate change mitigation successfully reduces greenhouse gas emissions from a high-emissions pathway to a moderate emissions pathway, by 2050 the number of highly exposed sites can be reduced by 25%. This would be a significant saving in terms of loss and damage from climate change,” wrote the study authors.



“These findings help with prioritizing sites at risk and highlight the need for immediate protective action for African Heritage Sites; the design of which requires in-depth local-scale assessments of vulnerability and adaptation options. Urgent climate change adaptation for heritage sites in Africa includes improving governance and management approaches; site-specific vulnerability assessments; exposure monitoring; and protection strategies including ecosystem-based adaptation.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rising sea levels threaten coastal African Heritage Sites

African cultural and natural heritage sites in coastal regions are...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-and-extreme-heat-waves-increase-air-pollution/">Wildfires</a> can be highly destructive events which burn through various ecosystems, threaten people and infrastructure, and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>, many wildfires are part of a natural regime of disturbance and post-fire recovery with a neutral impact on carbon storage over long timescales. The findings suggest that, in the long term, more carbon could end up being stored rather than released in savannahs and grasslands, which are the areas most affected by wildfires.



The researchers aimed to construct the most complete budget to date of the impact of wildfires on the carbon cycle, accounting for both short-term and long-term effects of wildfires on land carbon storage. By using a land surface model, they assessed the global impact of fires on the amount of carbon stored in soils and vegetation between 1901 and 2010.



“This study is about improving how we understand the process of fire on a range of timescales,” said study co-author Dr. Matthew Jones, an expert in the relationship between climate and wildfires at the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a>. “In essence, fires are unquestionably a source of carbon in the short-term, but these short-term effects&nbsp;could&nbsp;be counteracted by sinks of carbon in the long-term.”



According to Dr. Jones and his colleagues, these wildfire-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a> account to approximately 90 million tons of carbon dioxide being sequestered by soils and vegetation annually. However, the scientists could not yet reliably model the rate at which carbon is released back to the atmosphere as charcoal breaks down in soils.



“The missing piece in the puzzle is a conclusive understanding of how quickly charcoal breaks down in soils. We couldn’t model the timescale of this process due the poor availability of measurements, and hence the process is not included in our latest budget,” said Dr. Jones.



Regardless of this shortcoming, the findings strongly suggest that wildfires have a milder impact on the climate as previously estimated. “What is clear is that fires are very likely to be close to neutral, meaning that the average lifespan of charcoal in soils is around 5,000 years – well over a hundred times that of your average soil carbon,” explained study lead author Dr. Simon Bowring, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Zurich.



“We urgently need increased efforts towards understanding the mechanisms underlying its movement to the atmosphere. As important, and independent of the previous consideration, the positioning of wild grasslands in the climate perspective likely requires substantial reassessment,” he concluded.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-021-00892-0">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What are the carbon costs of wildfires?

Wildfires can be highly destructive events which burn through various...

Plants are subject to many attacks and injuries, from rabbits or caterpillars munching on their leaves to fungi or grubs attacking their roots. While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-molecule-makes-animals-switch-from-eating-to-mating/">animals</a> can employ “fight or flight” responses when attacked, plants cannot run. Instead, according to a new study led by New York University’s <a href="https://as.nyu.edu/content/nyu-as/as/departments/biology/research/gsb/cgsb.html">Center for Genomics and System Biology</a>, injury triggers a “fight or fix” response in plants, prompting them to either regenerate their damaged or missing parts, or to defend themselves by rapidly producing chemicals designed to stop animals or pathogens from further attacks.&nbsp;



Better understanding how plants regulate the trade-off between repairing damaged tissue and ramping up their defenses enabled scientists to nudge wounded plants towards repair rather than defense, a strategy which can be useful in improving crop regeneration.



In order to investigate how plants regulate these responses, the researchers cut off parts of several specimens of Arabidopsis, a small plant widely used as a model organism in Plant Biology, and corn, America’s largest crop and a very important source of nutrition for both people and animals. They found that, after an injury, plants produced some regeneration and some defense response, but did not ramp up both to maximum capacity. In fact, lowering one response appeared to increase the other.



“The ‘fight or fix’ responses seem to be connected, like a seesaw or scales - if one goes up, the other goes down. Plants are essentially hedging their bets after an attack,” said study lead author Marcela Hernández Coronado, an expert in Plant Molecular Biology at the <a href="https://www.cinvestav.mx/">Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute</a> in Mexico.



The scientists discovered that the balance in regeneration and defense responses was regulated by plant glutamate receptor-like (GLRs) proteins, which are distant relatives to glutamate receptors found in animal and human brains. Understanding the essential role these proteins play in the plants’ responses to injury presents a unique opportunity to improve plant growth, especially in cereal crops such as corn, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetics-and-the-environment-interact-in-plant-development/">sorghum</a>, or wheat, which are particularly resistant to regeneration.



“These glutamate receptors provide a ‘druggable target’ that we can use to enhance plant regeneration and propagation,” explained study senior author Kenneth Birnbaum, a professor of Biology at NYU.



By using both genetic interventions and three types of neuronal antagonist drugs to inhibit GLR activity, Professor Birnbaum and his team managed to alter the plants’ decision-making process in favor of regeneration.&nbsp;



“Retuning the balance between plant defense and regeneration could be used to improve regeneration for biotechnology, conservation, and propagation of staple food crops. Breeding crops that more readily regenerate and can adapt to new environments is critical in the face of climate change and food insecurity,” Professor Birnbaum concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2022.01.013">Developmental Cell</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants have a “fight or fix” response to injury

Plants are subject to many attacks and injuries, from rabbits...

Archerfish live in streams, rivers and estuaries where they inhabit mostly the surface shallows. They are renowned for their ability to "shoot down" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-tend-to-each-others-wounds/">insect</a> prey by spitting beads of water out of the mouth with incredible accuracy. In this way, they target insects sitting on vegetation on the bank, as well as airborne insects that fly overhead.



There is no parental care in archerfish and so the juveniles have to learn how to aim and shoot their jet-propelled water bullets without adult guidance. They also have to learn to distinguish between what is a potentially juicy insect meal from a worthless piece of vegetation.&nbsp;



“Object recognition is critical for animal survival," said Ronen Segev from <a href="https://in.bgu.ac.il/en/pages/default.aspx">Ben-Gurion University of the Negev</a>, referring to the skill that these fish exhibit in respect of distinguishing dinner. But exactly how do these remarkable fish differentiate a tasty treat from an unpalatable plant? “It’s a complex task,” said Segev, who recently published a research paper on this topic. He and his colleagues were interested in establishing which visual features archerfish depend on when identifying an insect for dinner.&nbsp;



Initially, the researchers wished to find out whether archerfish could recognize individual objects. Fortunately, the fish can be trained to squirt their water jets at images on a computer screen, in return for a food pellet. Segev and Svetlana Volotsky first trained the sniper fish to aim at images of one specific spider while at the same time trying to distract them with an image of a piece of vegetation.&nbsp;



Volotsky then presented the fish with images of the same spider, but taken from unfamiliar angles. If the fish had really learned to recognize the spider, they should be able to identify it from a completely new and unexpected view, even when presented simultaneously with an image of a different spider or a piece of vegetation. Indeed, the fish selected the initial spider for a target, irrespective of the novel view they were presented with. They could clearly recognize individual objects. But would they recognize that an insect they had never before set eyes on was also a potential prey item?&nbsp;



In the next set of experiments, Volotsky trained the fish to spit at images of a variety of insects, ranging from ants and beetles to flies and spiders, while still trying to distract them with images of plants. Once the fish had learned to aim their water jets at the insects, she tried presenting them with images of unfamiliar insects, to see whether the fish could recognize that any old insect is an animal, and not a plant. Astoundingly, the fish still targeted the insect images, even though they had never seen those creatures before.&nbsp;



“Archerfish can generalize from examples to make object recognition of natural object classes,” explained Segev.



The researchers, along with colleagues Ohad Ben-Shahar and Opher Donchin, then tested what visual cues the fish were actually using to enable them to distinguish plants from animals. They broke down images of insects, flowers and leaves into 18 different component features and built a computer program (known as a support-vector machine), that can learn to classify different types of information. Using this program, they mimicked the decision-making process of the fish to find out which features are necessary for archerfish to distinguish between animals and plants.&nbsp;



Amazingly, the fish only needed six essential features to distinguish animals from plants. These included the loose perimeter encircling the object, how jagged or smooth the shape was, and the texture of its surface. The first two factors were the most important in identifying the object correctly as an animal.&nbsp;



These findings, published today in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>, are even more remarkable because humans use a similar, although more elaborate, strategy to recognize each other’s faces.&nbsp;



The research team hopes to apply the lessons they have learned from archerfish to understanding visual recognition in other animals and to design man-made object recognition systems.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Archerfish can recognize unfamiliar insects that are potential prey

Archerfish live in streams, rivers and estuaries where they inhabit...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04408-7">Nature</a> is the first to identify a direct physiological link connecting food consumption and mating behavior in the animal kingdom. A research team led by the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> has found that protein-rich food triggers the release of diuretic hormone 31, or “Dh31” - a signaling molecule produced in fruit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-respond-to-danger-like-humans/">flies</a>’ gastrointestinal tracts which makes them switch from a feeding-focused behavior to a mating behavior.&nbsp;



“We found the transition from feeding to mating and were very surprised that&nbsp;a single molecule&nbsp;would have such a profound influence on behavior decisions,” said study senior author Jing Wang, a professor of Neurobiology at the UC San Diego. “Our study provides a mechanistic explanation of how the Dh31 neuropeptide acts on the brain to change the motivational drive of two evolutionarily critical behaviors.”



Professor Wang and his colleagues discovered this amazing molecule by using genomic analyses, three-photon microscopy, and&nbsp;fluorescence imaging. To confirm their findings, the scientists performed a series of genetic experiments. In a first type of experiment, Dh31 was knocked out of fruit flies. When this happened, the flies kept feeding and held off any type of mating behavior. In a different kind of experiment, when this molecule was activated by the researchers, the flies rapidly flipped to courtship.



“These results indicate that Dh31 is a signaling molecule that reorders the priority of these two contending behaviors: feeding over courtship in the absence of Dh31 and courtship over feeding when Dh31 is released from the gut,” explained Professor Wang.



This study offers new insights into decision-making processes in cases when animals switch from a behavior promoting survival, such as feeding, to a fundamentally different behavior such as mating. Further research is needed to clarify how gut hormones function beyond feeding, and how they factor into gut-to-brain communication.



“This work embodies a multidisciplinary approach to understand behavioral prioritization at multiple levels, from molecules to neurons and circuit function. This line of work provides us with an empirical paradigm to study the hierarchical organization of different need-based behaviors, a framework established by Abraham Maslow 80 years ago to explain the orderly transition of human behaviors,” concluded Professor Wang.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gut molecule makes animals switch from eating to mating

A new study published in the journal Nature is the...

Millions of migratory birds collide with buildings in the city of Chicago each migration season. They are affected by the bright lights and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-extreme-weather-impact-marine-ecosystems/">weather</a>, and inadvertently crash into the buildings in the dark and fall to the ground. The corpses of birds killed in this way were collected between 1978 and 2016, and this dataset has been used in a new study and has revealed some interesting trends.&nbsp;



Many species of migratory birds have shrunk in size as the temperatures have increased during the past 40 years. The sizes of sparrows, songbirds and thrushes from the Chicago dataset have decreased significantly in that time, even though the absolute changes have been small. And the reduction in body size is so pervasive a phenomenon that scientists have suggested it may be a universal response to warming conditions.



However, the new research study, published today in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>, indicates that not all birds are equally affected when it comes to reductions in body size. Birds with bigger brains relative to body size have not shrunk as much as their lesser brained counterparts.



Study lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://biology.wustl.edu/people/justin-baldwin">Justin Baldwin</a> is a PhD candidate in the lab of&nbsp;<a href="https://biology.wustl.edu/people/carlos-botero">Carlos Botero</a>, assistant professor of Biology at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a>. “As temperatures warm, body sizes are decreasing,” said Baldwin. “But larger-brained species are declining less strongly than small-brained species.”



The researchers analyzed information on some 70,000 birds that died when they collided with buildings in Chicago between 1978 and 2016. They also supplemented this vast dataset with brain volume measurements and lifespan data that they collected for 49 of the 52 species.&nbsp;



They found that birds with very big brains relative to body size have shown only about one-third of the decrease in body size that other bird species have undergone in that time period. In birds, relative brain size is often considered an indicator of behavioral flexibility, and having a larger relative brain capacity has advantages for birds.



“Relative brain size correlates with increased learning ability, increased memory, longer lifespans and more stable population dynamics,” said Baldwin. “In this case, a bigger-brained species of bird might be able to reduce its exposure to warming temperatures by seeking out microhabitats with cooler temperatures, for example."



This is the first time that scientists have been able to show a direct link between cognition and phenotypic responses to climate change.



“One of the first things that jumps out to me from these findings is that we can already see that climate change is having a disproportionate effect on species that have less capacity to deal with environmental change through their behavior,” said Professor Botero.&nbsp;



“This doesn’t mean that climate change is not affecting brainy birds, or that brainy birds are going to do just fine. What our findings suggest is that climate change can have a much stronger effect on the less-brainy birds.”



North America has lost nearly one-third of its birdlife in the last half-century, with migratory species experiencing particularly acute declines. The findings of this recent study, therefore, have important practical implications for management and conservation strategies.&nbsp;



“Rapid changes in the environment often produce a few winners and a whole lot of losers, which is really unfortunate,” said Professor Botero. “Many wildlife populations have moved toward colder places as the planet has warmed. Selection forces those that don’t move to adapt, for example, by changing their body size.”



Baldwin’s analysis reveals that smaller-brained species might be experiencing particularly strong natural selection pressure currently, a fact that planners may need to take into account for conservation management.



“When it comes to climate change mitigation and planning, a major goal is to maintain population-level connectivity,” said Baldwin. “We want to allow species to move toward the poles or upslope in elevation, to keep up with warming climates. Our findings suggest that this type of intervention could be especially important for smaller-brained species.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Big brains may help birds cope with climate change

Millions of migratory birds collide with buildings in the city...

Coastal regions are relied upon by millions of people for ecosystem services such as food and storm protection. They contain some of the most unique and biodiverse ecosystems such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-flooding/">wetlands</a>, coral reefs and mangroves. Coastal areas also provide carbon sequestration and support climate change mitigation.&nbsp;



New research led by the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> shows that only 15 percent of the world’s coastal areas remain intact, exposing the need for rehabilitation and conservation on a global scale.&nbsp;



The study assessed anthropogenic pressures affecting coastal regions at a global scale and found that only 15.5 percent of coastal regions have "low human pressure." Canada’s coastal regions were identified as the most intact at 53 percent, largely due to effective governance. 



Overall, nearly 48 percent of coastal regions are heavily affected by human impacts. In most countries, more than 50 percent of coastal regions were found to be degraded.



Furthermore, 26 nations were recognized as being highly exposed to human impact, or under "extreme human pressure." The coastlines of these countries are considered to be zero percent intact, and many of them are island nations such as Aruba and Singapore.&nbsp;



Around the world, there is no coastal region free from human influence. This is largely due to the fact that 74 percent of the global population lives within 50 kilometers of the coast.&nbsp;



“Our results show that we need to act quickly and decisively if we hope to conserve those coastal regions that remain intact, and restore those that are heavily degraded, especially if we’re going to mitigate the effects of climate change," said Brooke Williams, from UQ’s <a href="https://sees.uq.edu.au/">School of Earth and Environmental Sciences</a>.



"The rate at which these regions are degrading poses massive threats to not only coastal species and habitats, but also to the health, safety and economic security of countless people who live or rely on coastal regions around the world.”



Human impacts on coastal regions involve complex socio-demographic factors and land-based activities like agriculture and wastewater management. These activities lead to nutrient runoff and chemical pollution, which can lead to hypoxia or even dead zones.&nbsp;



“While we already knew how important it is to protect biodiversity and ecosystem services in these coastal regions, being able to clearly see how rapidly and how far this degradation has spread, is truly eye-opening,” said Dr. Amelia Wenger.



“Understanding why coastal ecosystems are under pressure can help us design and implement more targeted management strategies, and hopefully slow this degradation down and even turn it around."



To meet global sustainability objectives, countries must take more aggressive action to preserve coastal areas. Researchers are urging decision makers to conserve the valuable remaining intact coastal regions, while restoring those that are degraded.



“We think our dataset will be a vital tool in achieving that ambition, which is why we’re making it publicly available and free to use," said Dr. Wenger.



The findings of the assessment have been compiled into a free and usable dataset that can be accessed <a href="https://doi.org/10.48610/fd85061">online</a>. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15231739">Conservation Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Less than 16 percent of the world’s coastal regions remain intact

Coastal regions are relied upon by millions of people for...

In the past, heart attacks and brain decline have been addressed as two separate medical issues. More recently, however, scientists have begun to understand that there is a close relationship between the two organs, and a recent research study even links the occurrence of a heart attack with more rapid subsequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colorful-foods-can-prevent-cognitive-decline/">cognitive decline</a> in survivors.&nbsp;



“For too long, we have thought about and addressed heart disease and brain disease as two separate conditions,” explained Dr. Michelle Johansen from the <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> School of Medicine. “Based on our study's findings and other research, I don't think we're going to be able to keep doing that as we learn more,” she said.



The research, conducted in conjunction with the American Heart Association, analyzes data from six long-term studies on cardiovascular health that were carried out between 1971 and 2017. These previously published investigations involved a total of 31,377 people, with a median age of 60, who had no evidence of heart disease or dementia when the research studies commenced. The participants were monitored for between five and 20 years (median of 6 years), and during this time 1,047 of them suffered a heart attack.



The researchers explain that, in order to use the published data to track what happens to cognitive function in the years following a heart attack, they first had to “harmonize” the data. Because the studies had tested participants at different time intervals and using different tests of cognitive function, a team of neuroscientists and statisticians had to work out ways of ensuring the data collected in all the studies were comparable.&nbsp;



For the pooled data, cognitive performance was assessed in three ways – in terms of memory, executive functioning and global cognition. Executive function refers to a person’s ability to pay attention, plan, organize, and make complex decisions, while global cognition was assessed using tests of memory and executive function combined. The researchers were interested in whether any of these measures of cognitive performance declined immediately after, or in the years following the occurrence of a heart attack.



The results of the analysis showed that, while cognitive function did not change significantly immediately after a heart attack, it did in subsequent years. Heart attack survivors suffered a more rapid decline in memory skills, executive function and global cognition than people who had not had a heart attack. The most significant differences were found several years after the heart attack had taken place.&nbsp;



“We have shown that having a heart attack can be&nbsp;<a href="https://www.studyfinds.org/dementia-family-risk-genetics-healthy-heart/">detrimental to your brain health</a>&nbsp;over time,” said Dr. Johansen. “Dementia is a slow, step-wise process. One doesn’t wake up out of the blue with dementia.”



The reasons that dementia is accelerated in heart attack survivors are not yet clear. Both organs are metabolically active and rely on a steady supply of oxygen to the tissues. It is possible that shared risk factors, such as poor diet, smoking and high blood pressure, are present for both conditions and would therefore have impacts on the functioning of both organs. Alternatively, the researchers suggest that ongoing damage to the brain from silent&nbsp;<a href="https://www.medicinenet.com/stroke_symptoms_and_treatment/article.htm">strokes</a>, which are not large enough to cause noticeable symptoms but still reduce the supply of blood to the brain, could accelerate mental decline.



The findings, which will be presented at the American Stroke Association’s International Stroke Conference, (Feb 8–11, 2022), have important implications for the way in which physicians manage heart attack survivors. They also indicate that lifestyle choices that support good heart health will be just as important when it comes to limiting mental decline.



“It's important to know that cognitive decline is a possibility after a heart attack, so physicians are both managing patients’ heart disease and looking for signs of dementia following a heart attack,” said Dr. Johansen. “It can even be a great conversation starter about why it's important for patients to follow medical advice to prevent a heart attack.”



“We need to realize that what's going on in the heart and brain are related. Managing risk factors to prevent a heart attack is actually good for your brain as well."



The research will be presented at the American Stroke Association’s International Stroke Conference 2022.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heart attacks could accelerate onset of dementia

In the past, heart attacks and brain decline have been...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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