Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Ocean life can suffer from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-banana-disease-has-arrived-in-southeast-asia/">epidemics</a> too. From 2013 to 2016, the "wasting syndrome epidemic" is believed to have been largest marine wildlife disease event in history. This event largely affected sea stars, specifically 20 species ranging from Baja California to the Gulf of Alaska. 



A species that is generally known as the purple sea star or purple ochre, Pisaster ochraceus, is of particular interest to scientists. Purple ochre is considered a keystone species, which means that other species in an ecosystem heavily depend on the group for survival. During the epidemic, populations of the purple sea star were hit extremely hard, with estimated declines of 50 to 94 percent.



To understand the long term effects of such an impactful epidemic, researchers at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> assessed genomic differences between healthy and infected ochre. The experts found that healthy-looking ochre sea stars have minimal genetic difference from those with symptoms of sea star wasting syndrome. 



"Our reasoning was that a sick sea star and healthy sea star nearby were likely exposed to similar conditions, so maybe the ones that looked healthy had some type of genetic predisposition toward resistance or tolerance to sea star wasting syndrome," said Andrea Burton, who led the study. "It was a unique chance to compare apparently normal and wasting individuals from the same time and place during the sea star wasting syndrome epidemic."



The researchers looked at visual symptoms of wasting syndrome, such as twisting or missing arms, loss of grip on rocks, and even "melting." For the purposes of the study, animals with none of those symptoms were considered healthy.



Despite these observable symptoms, the experts found that genomic variation between normal-looking and wasting sea stars was very low. This is a concerning outcome when trying to understand what makes some sea stars immune, and others susceptible to disease. 



Without these clear identifiable distinctions, the researchers said they have even more concerns regarding how this species of sea star will fare in future outbreaks.



Sadly, we can expect more frequent ocean epidemics. "A changing climate is causing the ocean to warm and those rising sea water temperatures are putting more and more stress on marine ecosystems," said Burton. "As a result of that stress, marine diseases have become more prevalent over the last few decades.”



On the bright side, the experts successfully identified a list of genomic regions with signs of disease resistance. This could be key in determining how a sea star will respond to a future wasting syndrome outbreak, and may present promising opportunities to enhance species resilience.



"Assessing the potential for natural population resilience is a huge piece of predicting the long-term prospects for affected species and all of the species and communities they influence," said Burton.&nbsp;



"Some marine species are suitable for selective breeding but many others are not, so examining genomic variation in natural populations can help answer the question of whether a species has the genetic makeup to withstand diseases on its own."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why are some sea stars more susceptible to disease?

Ocean life can suffer from epidemics too. From 2013 to...

Light is our body’s primary time cue, strongly influencing our circadian rhythms, and thus regulating our sleeping patterns and other metabolic reactions. When light hits the retina, a signal is transmitted to a part of the brain called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which coordinates bodily rhythms, including the nightly production of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melatonin-works-help-sleep/">melatonin</a>, a hormone that helps us sleep. If exposure to light happens in the evening as melatonin is naturally increasing, it can slow or even halt it, interfering with our sleep patterns.



While previous studies have documented how exposure to bright lights before bedtime can disrupt adults’ sleep, new research led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado at Boulder</a> (CU Boulder) has found that, in the case of children, even exposures to very low intensities of light at night can sharply reduce the production of melatonin.



“Our previous work showed that fairly high intensity of bright light before bedtime dampens melatonin levels by about 90 percent in young children,” said study first author Lauren Hartstein, a postdoctoral fellow in the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/iphy/research/sleep-and-development-laboratory">Sleep and Development Laboratory</a> at CU Boulder. “With this study, we were very surprised to find high melatonin suppression across all intensities of light, even dim ones.”



Dr. Hartstein and her colleagues enlisted 36 children with ages between three to five years, for a nine-day protocol tracking their sleep and light exposure. While for the first seven days, parents kept the children on a stable sleep schedule to normalize their circadian rhythms and ensure that melatonin levels rise at approximately the same time each evening, on the last two days the children were exposed to dim lights in the hour before bedtime.



The scientists found that, compared to the previous nights with no light exposure, melatonin was suppressed by 70 to 99 percent after light exposure. Surprisingly, light intensity did not seem to influence how much the sleep hormone fell, and even 50 minutes after the light was extinguished, melatonin did not rebound in over half of the children.&nbsp;



“Together, our findings indicate that in preschool-aged children, exposure to light before bedtime, even at low intensities, results in robust and sustained melatonin suppression,” said Dr. Hartstein.



“Kids are not just little adults,” added senior author Monique LeBourgeois, an associate professor of Integrative Physiology at CU Boulder. “This heightened sensitivity to light may make them even more susceptible to dysregulation of sleep and the circadian system.”



Thus, in order to improve their children’s sleep quality, parents should control their activities before bedtime, particularly those involving the use of electronic gadgets such as tablets or smartphones.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpi.12780">Journal of Pineal Research</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Children’s sleep can be disrupted by even dim light at bedtime

Light is our body’s primary time cue, strongly influencing our...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a> has investigated the implications of increased use of household air conditioning due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caribou-help-rare-plants-survive-climate-change/">climate change</a>. According to the researchers, if states do not expand capacity or improve efficiency of the air conditioning industry, this climate-driven increase is likely to cause prolonged blackouts during peak summer heat.



Human-induced greenhouse gas emissions will likely increase global average temperatures by over 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels in less than a decade. Without urgent mitigation strategies, temperatures will most probably exceed the 2.0 degrees Celsius threshold by the end of the century.&nbsp;&nbsp;



While previous research has examined the estimated impacts of global warming on annual electricity consumption or daily peak load for specific states or cities, this is the first study to analyze residential air conditioning demand on a household basis at a large scale. By incorporating observed and predicted air temperatures, humidity, and discomfort indices with air conditioning use by statistically representative households across the United States, the scientists have found that, without enough capacity to meet demand, energy utilities may have to stage rolling blackouts during heat waves to avoid grid failure.



According to the researchers, technological improvements of home air conditioning appliances will be necessary to supply the additional cooling needed to achieve comfort levels in an increasingly warm world and to avoid prolonged blackouts.&nbsp;



“It's a pretty clear warning to all of us that we can't keep doing what we are doing or our energy system will break down in the next few decades, simply because of the summertime air conditioning,” said Susanne Benz, a geographer and climate scientist at <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a> in Nova Scotia, Canada.



In order to avoid frequent summer blackouts, an increased efficiency of one to eight percent of residential air conditioning appliances is needed, depending on existing state standards and the expected demand increase. For instance, the already hot southern and southwestern parts of the United States will most likely experience the largest increases in electricity demand.&nbsp;



Thus, besides taking into consideration global climate changes, an efficient strategy to avoid electricity blackouts caused by increased use of air conditioning should also pay attention to local conditions, and take urgent measures to properly balance peoples’ comfort, electrical infrastructures, and climate patterns.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021EF002434">Earth’s Future</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global warming could cause more electrical blackouts

A new study led by the American Geophysical Union has...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abj0329">Science Advances</a> has found that even extremely small pollution particles resulting from human activities such as the burning of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-fuels-must-be-reduced-immediately-and-drastically/">fossil fuels</a> can significantly change cloud formation and rainfall patterns in the Amazon.&nbsp;



According to an international team of scientists, oxidation leads small aerosols expelled by factories or automobiles to grow rapidly in the atmosphere, reaching up to 400 times their original size, and thus affecting raindrop formation.



“Understanding cloud and rain formation mechanisms in the Amazon is a major challenge because of the complexity of the non-linear physical and chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere,” said study co-author Paulo Artaxo, a professor of Environmental Physics at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) in Brazil.



By examining data collected by instruments on board of a special aircraft surveying the city of Manaus, in Brazil’s Amazon region, Professor Artaxo and his colleagues have found that aerosols of less than 10 nanometers emitted by factories, power plants, or vehicle exhaust form a pollution plume over Manaus that is blown by winds in a southwesterly direction.



“Little was known about the role played by these nanoparticles in the rainfall regime,” said study co-author Luiz Augusto Machado, an expert in Meteorology at USP.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It so happens that the Manaus area is unique in the world in the sense that it’s an open-air laboratory, a mega-city surrounded by forest at a great distance from other cities where we can investigate how a metropolitan area changes an environment similar to that of the pre-industrial era.”



“It’s very hard to estimate the effect of particulate matter on rainfall because of the large number of atmospheric variables that influence this interaction."



“We therefore compared the pollution line with nearby areas that lie outside the plume. We found that the particles rapidly grow in size. By the time they’re 10 km out of Manaus, they’re larger, and at 30 km they can reach a large enough size to become condensation nuclei, affecting the formation of raindrops.”



The researchers discovered that, as the pollution nanoparticles grow and become condensation nuclei, they can influence rainfall according to what types of clouds they interact with. If the particles meet small, warm clouds, scant rainfall will result. However, if they pass through dense, vertical clouds such as cumulonimbi, the aerosols could increase precipitation, and occasionally even fuel fierce storms.&nbsp;



“In other words, even these small particles of pollution influence the rainfall regime,” concluded Professor Machado.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Smallest pollution particles affect rainfall in the Amazon

A new study published in the journal Science Advances has...

According to data collected between April 2002 and August 2021 by the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (<a href="https://sealevel.nasa.gov/missions/grace">GRACE</a>) satellites, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-has-a-delayed-response-to-climate-change/">Greenland</a> Ice Sheet has lost 4,700 gigatons of ice over the last two decades - a quantity which would be large enough to submerge the entire United States under 1.5 feet of water. This massive ice loss has contributed to a global sea level rise of 0.47 inches (1.2 centimeters).



“Data shows that most of the loss of ice occurs along the edge of the ice sheet, where independent observations also indicate that the ice is thinning, that the glacier fronts are retreating in fjords and on land, and that there is a greater degree of melting from the surface of the ice,” wrote the authors of the most recent <a href="http://polarportal.dk/en/greenland/mass-and-height-change/#c8450">report</a> regarding the status of the Greenland Ice Sheet.



Ice loss appears to be particularly severe along the West Greenland coast, where the increasing warming of subsurface waters is accelerating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-highest-peak-in-the-world-is-rapidly-melting/">glacier</a> melt. 



“High on the central region of the ice sheet, however, the GRACE satellites show that there is a small increase in the mass of the ice. Other measurements suggest that this is due to a small increase in precipitation/snowfall,” said the researchers.



Overall, the data show that during the period between 2002 and 2011, the Greenland Ice Sheet has lost an average of 234 km3&nbsp;of water per year. If the entire ice sheet would vanish, it would release enough water to increase global sea levels by 24 feet, or 7.4 meters.



According to an earlier study published in 2019 in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1855-2">Nature</a>, at the current rate of global warming, Greenland’s ice loss will likely cause the sea levels to rise between three to five inches (7-13 centimeters) by the end of the 21st century. This rise will negatively impact hundreds of millions of people all over the globe.



“As a rule of thumb, for every centimeter rise in global sea level, another six million people are exposed to coastal flooding around the planet,” said the 2019 study lead author Andrew Shepherd, a climate scientist at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a>. 



“On current trends, Greenland ice melting will cause 100 million people to be flooded each year by the end of the century, so 400 million in total,” he warned. Urgent measures are needed to mitigate climate change and protect human societies and ecosystems.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Greenland has lost 4,700 gigatons of ice since 2002

According to data collected between April 2002 and August 2021...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/financial-toll-caused-by-flooding-will-soar-by-mid-century/">Floods</a> and droughts are the main environmental disasters that are driving crop failures worldwide, and they have become increasingly frequent due to climate change. A new study led by <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a> has found that wetland plants have a high tolerance against flooding due to their capacity to form “lysigenous aerenchyma” – air channels that transfer gases to the roots. These channels appear to help plants withstand droughts and nutrient deficiency too.&nbsp;



Understanding how lysigenous aerenchyma form could pave the way towards the development of crops that are more resilient to extreme weather events. According to the researchers, lysigenous aerenchyma could be imagined as similar to snorkels used to breath under water.&nbsp;



During flooding, plants roots are cut off from oxygen and other gases crucial for their survival. In response to this, the plants create air pathways connecting the submerged parts of the plant to the regions above water, which, similar to a snorkel, help the plants “breathe” by transporting vital gases to the submerged roots. In addition, by reducing the energy requirements for the breathing process, these channels can also help plants conserve energy during extreme conditions related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-memory-of-drought/">droughts</a> or nutrient deficits.



The scientists discovered that a phytohormone called “auxin” is needed for the formation of aerenchyma during normal root growth, and identified two factors causing the formation of these channels in response to flooding. When the roots are submerged underwater in aerobic conditions, restrictions to gas exchanges cause ethylene to accumulate in the roots, which leads to the production of respiratory burst oxidase homolog (RBOH), an enzyme responsible for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In its turn, released ROS triggers cell death in the plant tissues, forming cavities for the passage of gases.



Although aerenchyma are mostly associated to plants that have adapted to soils rich in water, they can also develop in plants exposed to droughts or suffering from nutrient deficiencies. Low concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous (nutrients that are crucial for plant growth) can increase ethylene sensitivity, stimulating the formation of aerenchyma.&nbsp;



Understanding the formation of these vital pathways could open up the possibility of improving crop resilience and paving the way for increased food security in the wake of climate change. &nbsp;



“If we can genetically control the timing and amount of lysigenous aerenchyma formation in roots of all agronomically important crops, such as maize, wheat and soybean, the global crop production loss could be dramatically reduced,” explained study co-author Dr. Mikio Nakazono, an expert in Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance at Nagoya University.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2021.10.012">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants that “breathe” underwater could improve crop resilience

Floods and droughts are the main environmental disasters that are...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/">RMIT University</a>, researchers used infrared signals that bounce off plastic particles to identify debris along the shore. The goal is to find ways to remotely track down waste on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-surge-events-are-a-growing-threat-on-the-east-coast/">coast</a> to clean it up. The new method would allow plastics to be identified in a satellite image in which the plastic is smaller than a single pixel.&nbsp;



"Marine plastic debris (MPD) is a globally relevant environmental challenge, with an estimated 8 million tons of synthetic debris entering the marine environment each year," wrote the study authors.



"Plastic has been found in all parts of the marine environment, including the surface layers of the ocean, within the water column, in coastal waters, on the benthic layer and on beaches."&nbsp;



"While research on detecting MPD using remote sensing is increasing, most of it focuses on detecting floating debris in open waters, rather than detecting MPD on beaches."



Study lead author of the study and PhD candidate Jenna Guffogg explained that looking for trash on beaches makes more sense than searching in the ocean, simply because it’s easier to clean up.&nbsp;



“Stopping plastic from entering the ocean is a global challenge. But if we can find and remove them quickly, it's the next best thing," said Guffogg.



"At the moment, plastic debris are tracked by passing vessels notifying authorities. Using satellites will allow more frequent and reliable observations."



"Our work could let organizations who do remote coastal and marine waste clean-up management know where to focus their efforts.”



Guffogg and her colleagues completed field trials on isolated beaches in Australia’s Cocos (Keeling) Island using sensing equipment to see how infrared reflected off different types of plastic debris washed up on shore.&nbsp;



The team compared the results with the same tests on new, undamaged plastics and found little difference. This means that many different types of plastic - regardless of color, shape, texture and weathering - can be detected. The next step is to improve the ability of the imaging system even more.&nbsp;



“In the next few years, we're going to launch satellites with even better remote sensing capabilities," said Professor Simon Jones. "We're developing ways to use these new satellites in the fight against marine waste."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing">Remote Sensing</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Remote sensing can be used to find plastic debris on the beach

In a new study from RMIT University, researchers used infrared...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> (UW) has found that, after using olfactory cues to detect potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-can-recognize-the-plants-that-host-toxic-insects/">hosts</a> to bite, mosquitoes tend to fly towards specific colors, including red, orange, black, and cyan, while ignoring other colors such as green, purple, blue, or white. These findings help explain how mosquitoes find hosts, since human skin, regardless of its particular pigmentation, always emits a strong, red-orange “signal” to their eyes.



“Mosquitoes appear to use odors to help them distinguish what is nearby, like a host to bite,” said study senior author&nbsp;Jeffrey Riffell, a professor of Biology at the UW. “When they smell specific compounds, like CO2 from our breath, that scent stimulates the eyes to scan for specific colors and other visual patterns, which are associated with a potential host, and head to them.”



Professor Riffell and his colleagues tracked the behavior of female yellow fever mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) when presented with various olfactory and visual cues. As in the case of all mosquito species, only A. aegypti females drink blood, and can transmit various diseases such as dengue and yellow fever, or those caused by the Chikungunya or Zika viruses. Finding what attracts and repels these mosquitoes is thus highly important for protecting ourselves from these diseases.



The researchers discovered that smelling carbon dioxide (CO2) – the gas that we and other animals exhale with each breath – boosts female mosquitoes’ activity levels, making them scan the environment in search for hosts. Without prior exposure to CO2, mosquitoes largely ignored a colored dot the scientists presented to them in the test chamber. After being exposed to this gas, mosquitoes continued to ignore the dot if it was green, blue, or purple, but immediately flew towards it if it was red, orange, black, or cyan.



These findings suggest that mosquitoes’ olfaction and vision are strongly related and that their eyes prefer certain wavelengths in the visual spectrum. Understanding these insects’ visual preferences can help us avoiding their disease-transmitting bites.



“One of the most common questions I'm asked is ‘What can I do to stop mosquitoes from biting me?’” said Professor Riffell. “I used to say there are three major cues that attract mosquitoes: your breath, your sweat, and the temperature of your skin. In this study, we found a fourth cue: the color red, which can not only be found on your clothes, but is also found in everyone’s skin. The shade of your skin doesn’t matter, we are all giving off a strong red signature. Filtering out those attractive colors in our skin, or wearing clothes that avoid those colors, could be another way to prevent a mosquito biting.”



Further research is needed to determine how other visual and olfactory cues – such as skin secretions - help mosquitoes target potential hosts, and to clarify what are the colors and smells preferred by other species of mosquitoes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28195-x">Nature Communications</a>. &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mosquitoes are attracted to specific scents and colors

A new study led by the University of Washington (UW)...

According to recent research led by the <a href="https://www.unh.edu/">University of New Hampshire</a>, winters are warming faster than summers in North America, impacting ecosystems as well as human societies and economy. While global climate models indicate that this trend will likely continue in the following decades, the study authors estimate that a significant reduction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-cause-a-major-delay-in-rainfall/">greenhouse gas emissions</a> could preserve almost three weeks of snow cover and below freezing temperatures.



“The local ski hills of New England raised me to love winter and snow,” said study lead author Elizabeth Burakowski, a research assistant professor of Earth Sciences at the University of New Hampshire.&nbsp;



“But winters are vital to all of us and taking serious action now to limit, or slow, the warming of winter could mean preserving many core purposes of cold weather including providing more winter protection for woodland animals, preventing the spread of invasive forest pests, and increasing the ability of ski resorts to make snow - protecting the economy by maintaining the area’s multimillion-dollar recreation industry.”



In their study, Professor Burakowski and her colleagues have analyzed 29 different climate models to determine the effect of reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. At the current rate of emissions, ski areas in North America will face up to 50 percent decline in snowmaking days.&nbsp;



If between 1980 and 2005, the number of snow-covered days was 95, under a low emissions scenario they would be reduced to 72, and under a high emissions model to 56. If no urgent measures to curb emissions are undertaken, states such as New Jersey, Rhode Island, or Connecticut will likely have snow-free winters by the end of the century.



“Emissions scenarios play a critical role in the loss of winter conditions, indicating a potential doubling of the loss of cold days and snow cover under higher emissions,” said study co-author Alexandra Contosta, an expert in winter ecology at the University of New Hampshire.&nbsp;



“These changes could disrupt and forever change some very significant social and ecological systems that have historically relied on cold, snowy winters for habitat, water resources, forest health, local economies, cultural practices, and human wellbeing,” she concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.eaglehill.us/NENAonline/articles/NENA-sp-11/19-Burakowski.shtml">Northeastern Naturalist</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lower emissions needed to save the winter season

According to recent research led by the University of New...

A new study led by the <a href="https://umaine.edu/">University of Maine</a> has found that melting and sublimation caused by anthropogenic climate change is increasingly affecting even the world’s highest peaks, such as Mount Everest’s South Col Glacier, located 8, 020 meters above sea level. According to data from the world’s highest ice core and highest automatic weather stations, the estimated contemporary thinning rates of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-are-melting-extremely-fast/">glacier</a> are approaching approximately two meters of water per year, now that its peak has turned from snowpack to ice and lost its ability to reflect solar radiation.



This study “answers one of the big questions posed by our 2019 NGS/Rolex Mount Everest Expedition - whether the highest glaciers on the planet are impacted by human-source climate change,” said study co-author Paul Andrew Mayewski, a glaciologist at the University of Maine. “The answer is a resounding yes, and very significantly since the late 1990s.”&nbsp;



The researchers found that, once South Col Glacier’s ice was regularly exposed, about 55 meters of glacier thinning has occurred in a quarter century. Thus, over the past decades, the glacier lost ice 80 times faster than the nearly 2,000 years it took to form it at the surface. Most likely, the increasing overall surface ice mass loss in the region - marking the transition from permanent snowpack to majority ice cover - was triggered by climate change in the 1950s, and has intensified since the late 1990s.



Model simulations have shown that the glacier’s extreme insolation means that ablation (the loss of surface mass through melting or vaporization) can accelerate by a factor of over 20 once snow cover gives way to ice. While rising temperatures caused most of the sublimation, stronger winds and declining relative humidity have also played important roles in these developments.



“Climate predictions for the Himalaya suggest continued warming and continued glacier mass loss, and even the top of the Everest is impacted by anthropogenic source warming,” said study lead author Mariusz Potocki, a doctoral student in Glaciochemistry at the University of Maine.



These findings highlight the critical balance snow-covered surfaces provide and the “potential for loss throughout high mountain glacier systems as snow cover is depleted by changes in sublimation — passing from a solid to vapor state — and surface melt driven by climate trends.”



“Everest’s highest glacier has served as a sentinel for this delicate balance and has demonstrated that even the roof of the Earth is impacted by anthropogenic source warming,” concluded the authors.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-022-00230-0">Nature Portfolio Journal: Climate and Atmospheric Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The highest peak in the world is rapidly melting

A new study led by the University of Maine has...

As dogs get older, they experience many of the same symptoms as aging humans do, including such conditions as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-improves-eases-arthritis-symptoms-in-dogs/" data-type="news" data-id="1881230">arthritis</a>, diabetes and dementia. But while large research projects exist that investigate factors correlated with healthy aging in humans, similar studies on dog aging have not yet been undertaken. In fact, we do not even know what defines “normal aging” for our canine companions.



How old is your dog in terms of human years, and is it healthy for its age? These questions are currently not easy to answer. The accepted wisdom is that a “dog year” is roughly equivalent to seven human years, making a one-year-old puppy comparable in age to a seven-year-old child. This would mean that an 11-year-old elderly dog is comparable to a 77-year-old senior citizen. But it’s actually much more complicated than this, say experts.



Dogs do not all age at the same rate. Big dogs tend to age faster – maybe 10 times faster than humans – while small breeds may live to 20 years old and experience aging about five times faster than humans.&nbsp;



A team of international scientists is now building an unprecedented research platform to help answer these questions. Known as the&nbsp;<a href="https://dogagingproject.org/">Dog Aging Project</a> (DAP), this involves collecting data from tens of thousands of dogs of all sizes, breeds and backgrounds in order to assess the roles of genetics, environment and lifestyle on the aging process. The specific details of this ambitious research were published in a recent scientific article in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



Dog owners are invited to enrol their dogs in the project and to contribute data relating to the health, lifestyle and environment of their dogs. A dog will remain enrolled for at least 10 years, during which time regular and extensive surveys will take place.&nbsp;The researchers will also collect environmental information, electronic veterinary medical records, genome-wide sequence information, clinicopathology and molecular phenotypes derived from blood cells, plasma and faecal samples.&nbsp;



There are already 32,000 dogs enrolled in the DAP, ranging in age from young puppies to unusually old individuals. These canine citizen scientists are collectively known as the “DAP Pack.” It is hoped that, since dogs share the same environment as humans but have much shorter lifespans, the insights gained into the aging process in dogs may have benefits for understanding aging in humans as well.



“This is a very large, ambitious, wildly interdisciplinary project that has the potential to be a powerful resource for the broader scientific community,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://lsi.princeton.edu/joshua-akey">Joshua Akey</a>, a professor in Princeton’s&nbsp;<a href="http://lsi.princeton.edu/">Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics</a>&nbsp;and a member of the Dog Aging Project’s research team. “Personally, I find this project exciting because I think it will improve dog, and ultimately, human health.”



“We are sequencing the genomes of 10,000 dogs,” Akey said. “This will be one of the largest genetics data sets ever produced for dogs, and it will be a powerful resource not only to understand the role of genetics in aging, but also to answer more fundamental questions about the evolutionary history and domestication of dogs.”



Once a dog is enrolled in the program, the owner is required to complete annual surveys and take measurements of the dog’s weight and height for the duration of the project. In addition, swabs of the dog’s cheek cells must be submitted for DNA analysis. The dog will visit a veterinarian regularly and vets across the country will submit fur, fecal, urine and blood samples of the dogs involved in the research.&nbsp;



The data and analyses will all be made available in an open-source dataset that will be available to the public and to veterinarians and scientists who wish to develop tools for assessing how well a specific dog is aging.&nbsp;



“We are still recruiting dogs of all ages, all breeds — purebred or mixed breeds, all sizes, all across the United States,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://lsi.princeton.edu/william-thistlethwaite">William Thistlethwaite</a>, a graduate student who works with Akey in the Lewis-Sigler Institute. “Especially puppies and young dogs up to 3 years old.”



The researchers hope that the data will help them to identify specific biomarkers of canine aging. Ideally, these would be useful in understanding the processes involved in human aging as well.&nbsp;



Dr. Daniel Promislow is the principal investigator for the National Institute on Aging grant that funds the project, and a professor of biology at the University of Washington College of Arts and Sciences and of laboratory medicine and pathology at the UW School of Medicine.



“Given that dogs share the human environment and have a sophisticated health care system but are much shorter-lived than people, they offer a unique opportunity to identify the genetic, environmental and lifestyle factors associated with healthy lifespan,” said Dr. Promislow.



One particular aspect of the research outlined in the recently published paper is the super-centenarian study that involves only the 300 oldest dogs in the DAP pack and aims to identify the keys to their longevity.&nbsp;



“One part of the project that I am super excited about is a ‘super-centenarian’ study, comparing the DNA of exceptionally long-lived dogs to dogs that live to the average age for their breed,” said Akey. “This is the first study of its kind in dogs (to my knowledge), and I think it’s a clever way of trying to find genetic differences that contribute to exceptional longevity.”



Within a few months, the team plans to open their enormous dataset – fully anonymized – to share with scientists around the world. Researchers from many different fields will have the opportunity to contribute to the study in countless different ways, based on their interests.



“It is an honor to share our work with the scientific community,” said Kate Creevy, lead author on the paper and DAP’s chief veterinary officer. “The Dog Aging Project is creating a resource with the power to transform veterinary medicine, aging research, and many scientific and non-scientific fields of inquiry.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ambitious project will shed light on the aging process in dogs

As dogs get older, they experience many of the same...

People experience odors in a unique way. Some individuals are unable to detect certain smells, while others report perceptions of varying smell intensity, pleasantness and quality. Variation in odor perception is related to genetic differences since olfactory receptors are proteins that are coded for by particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-will-affect-the-dungeness-crab/">genes</a>. Currently, only a very few genes have been identified that are directly responsible for the way people detect specific odorous compounds.



Olfactory receptors, the proteins responsible for detecting odor compounds, are present in the cell membranes of nerve cells in the nasal membranes. They show a high level of genetic variation, when compared to other proteins. There are about 800 genes that code for olfactory receptor proteins in humans, but only 400 of them are functional, the rest being mutated to varying extents. In addition, there is a lot of genetic variation between people, with around 30 percent of olfactory receptor genes being functionally different between any two individuals.



Previous research has attempted to correlate sense of smell with genetic variation but only a small number of cases have succeeded in relating variation in the perception of an odor to an actual genetic variation in a receptor gene between people.



Now, a new study has identified the genetic basis of two new odor receptors in humans, one that detects a synthetic musk odor commonly used in fragrances, and the other that detects a compound in human body odor. The results of the study are published today in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/">PLoS Genetics</a>.



Researchers from China, the US and Netherlands, analyzed the genomes of 1,000 Han Chinese people to identify genetic variations correlated with the way in which each individual perceived 10 different scents. &nbsp;Then they repeated the experiment for six odors in an ethnically diverse population of 364 people, to confirm their results.&nbsp;



In both groups of participants, the researchers identified three associations between an individual’s perception of a particular odor and the genes for that specific odor receptor that had been reported in previous studies. In the past, participants in this sort of research had largely been of western (Caucasian) origin, so this current study added information from East Asian participants and other diverse populations as well, and confirmed that the genetics underlying the ability to detect odors remains constant across people from different backgrounds.



In addition, the researchers identified the genes associated with two new odor receptors in humans, one that detects a musky odor, and the other that detects a compound in human body odor. The results showed that there were different versions of the musk and underarm odor receptor genes, and that these genetic variations affected how the person perceived the scents.&nbsp;



The scientists also examined the 29 different mutations in olfactory receptor genes that have been reported in the published scientific literature to date. These mutations have all been associated with differences in odor perception. They calculated when each mutation occurred and found that in 24 of the 29 instances, the mutation occurred more than 100,000 years ago, predating the time when Europeans and East Asians diverged.



Interestingly, in 21 of the 29 instances, the mutated form of the gene is associated with a decreased sensitivity to the specific odor. This indicates that, during human evolution, mutations in the olfactory receptor genes have led to a reduction in sensitivity to odorous compounds. People who have the unmutated ancestral versions of the scent receptors (the versions found in other, non-human primates) tend to experience the corresponding odor as more intense.&nbsp;



These findings support the hypothesis that the sensitivity of humans' and other primates' sense of smell has degraded over time due to changes in the set of genes that code for our smell receptors.



“Genome-wide scans identified novel genetic variants associated with odor perception, providing support for the hypothesis that the primate olfactory receptor repertoire has degenerated over time," wrote the study authors.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sense of smell has diminished in humans and other primates

People experience odors in a unique way. Some individuals are...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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