View,Of,The,Device,Of,An,Oil,Drilling,Rig

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-the-evolution-of-the-earths-surface/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's surface</a> into Earth's deep subsurface. 



This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's <a href="https://has.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences</a>, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. 



"We looked at how the rates of fluid production with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a> compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface," McIntosh explained.



In a paper published in the journal Earth's Future, they shed light on the significant impact of human activities on the circulation of fluids in this subterranean zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Deciphering the hidden world in motion beneath our feet</h2>



The study, led by Grant Ferguson, also from the UArizona, compared the rates of fluid production from oil and gas extraction to the natural background circulation of water. 



The findings reveal that human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-internal-jet-stream-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid fluxes</a> surpass the natural flow, and they are projected to increase further with proposed strategies for combating climate change.



These strategies include geologic carbon sequestration, geothermal energy production, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fools-gold-may-be-a-valuable-source-of-lithium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithium extraction</a> from underground mineral-rich brine. 



"Responsible management of the subsurface is central to any hope for a green transition, sustainable future and keeping warming below a few degrees," emphasizes Peter Reiners, a professor in the <a href="https://www.geo.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UArizona Department of Geosciences</a> and a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-subsurface-fluid-fluxes">Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



These fluxes transport water, gases, and other substances through the subsurface, influencing everything from groundwater resources to geothermal energy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Types of subsurface fluid fluxes</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Groundwater flow</h4>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groundwater flow</a> represents the movement of water through porous and fractured rock formations. This flow occurs due to pressure gradients and the force of gravity, allowing water to move from areas of high hydraulic head to areas of low hydraulic head. Groundwater flow plays a vital role in the hydrologic cycle, recharging aquifers and sustaining surface water bodies.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Hydrocarbon migration</h4>



Subsurface fluid fluxes also include the migration of hydrocarbons, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-orphaned-oil-and-gas-wells-litter-the-world-and-must-be-cleaned-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a>. These fluids originate from organic-rich source rocks and migrate through permeable rock layers until they encounter traps or seals. Understanding hydrocarbon migration is essential for oil and gas exploration and production.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Geothermal fluid circulation</h4>



In regions with high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-water-could-be-a-great-source-of-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geothermal gradients</a>, subsurface fluids can circulate through fractures and permeable rock formations, absorbing heat from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's interior</a>. This heated fluid can then rise to the surface, creating hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles. Geothermal fluid circulation is a key factor in the development of geothermal energy resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Importance of Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



Subsurface fluid fluxes have far-reaching impacts on various aspects of our planet. They influence the availability and quality of groundwater resources, which are essential for human consumption, agriculture, and industrial activities. 



Additionally, these fluxes play a crucial role in the formation and distribution of mineral resources, such as ore deposits and petroleum accumulations.



Moreover, subsurface fluid fluxes contribute to the transport and cycling of chemical elements and compounds within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's crust</a>. 



This process has implications for geochemical cycles, rock-water interactions, and the evolution of subsurface environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Human intervention in Earth's fluid dynamics</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-chief-fossil-fuel-era-must-end-for-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a> production, saline water from the deep subsurface is extracted alongside the targeted resources. This ancient water, often millions of years old, acquires its salinity from the evaporation of ancient seawater or reactions with rocks and minerals. 



To maintain reservoir pressures and enhance oil recovery, near-surface water is added to the extracted saline water, and the blended mixture is reinjected into the subsurface, creating a continuous cycle of fluid production and reinjection.



Similar processes occur in lithium extraction, geothermal energy production, and geologic carbon sequestration, where leftover saline water is reinjected into the underground. 



"We show that the fluid injection rates or recharge rates from those oil and gas activities is greater than what naturally occurs," states McIntosh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Rewriting Earth's history through subsurface geology</h2>



Using existing data from various sources, the research team found that current fluid movement rates induced by human activities surpass those that occurred before human intervention. 



As carbon capture, sequestration, and lithium extraction intensify, the researchers also predicted how these activities might be recorded in Earth's geological record.



Moreover, human activities have the potential to alter not only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-geysers-the-worlds-largest-geothermal-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep subsurface fluids</a> but also the microbes that inhabit those depths. 



Fluid movements can modify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-the-extreme-microbial-activity-discovered-in-old-faithful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial environments</a> through changes in water chemistry or by introducing new microbial communities from Earth's surface to the underground. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-fracking-surged/">Hydraulic fracturing</a>, for example, can trigger sudden blooms of microbial activity in previously dormant deep rock formations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Earth's subsurface is still mostly a mystery</h2>



Despite the significance of these findings, many unknowns remain about Earth's deep subsurface and the extent of human impact on this hidden realm. 



"We need to use the deep subsurface as part of the solution for the climate crisis," emphasizes McIntosh. "Yet, we know more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface of Mars</a> than we do about water, rocks and life deep beneath our feet."



Continued research and exploration of this enigmatic zone are crucial for understanding the full scope of human influence on our planet and developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable strategies</a> for addressing the climate crisis. 



While we strive to mitigate the visible effects of human activities on Earth's surface, we must not overlook the hidden impact that extends deep into the subsurface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-what-lies-beneath">Protecting what lies beneath</h2>



As we continue to explore and utilize Earth's deep subsurface in our efforts to combat climate change, we must remain mindful of the hidden impact our actions have on this enigmatic realm. 



By studying the fluid dynamics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a>, and geological record beneath our feet, we can develop a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between human activities and the subterranean world. 



This knowledge will be crucial in guiding our strategies for a sustainable future, ensuring that our solutions do not create unforeseen consequences in the depths below. 



As we navigate the challenges of the climate crisis, we must approach the subsurface with a spirit of curiosity, responsibility, and respect, recognizing that the key to our success may lie in the mysteries that await us in Earth's hidden depths.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF004496" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Human activities also greatly harm Earth’s subsurface, not just the landmass

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the planet's surface into Earth's deep subsurface. This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. "We...

The world’s forests and the soil from which they grow play a major role in the carbon cycle, the health and growth of vegetation, and biodiversity. If the soil is in bad shape, everything that grows out of it and lives in it suffers. 

Trees get moisture from the soil through their roots, and organic matter decomposes and breaks down thanks to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-greenhouse-gas/">microorganisms in the soil</a>. 

Forests and soils have a huge influence on climate change, which is why Thomas Crowther and <a href="http://crowtherlab.com/">Crowther Lab</a> are working to make one of the most comprehensive models of the global forest system to help better project future climate change. 

Crowther, an assistant professor of Environmental Systems Science at <a href="https://www.ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a> in Switzerland presented the Crowther Lab dataset and model in a presentation at the 2019 annual meeting for the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>. 

To understand the impacts of climate change, the Crowther Lab argues that you must understand the processes that underlie the Earth’s biogeochemical cycles.

A Crowther Lab research team used the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a>, the largest global dataset of forest inventory data, and satellite data to examine the mechanisms of the global forest system. 

Tens of thousands of soil samples from the <a href="https://www.globalsoilbiodiversity.org/">Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative</a> dataset also revealed patterns in biomass and diversity within the global soil microbiome. 

Soil and satellite data helped create the first glimpse of the thriving world that inhabits the soils which the researchers used to determine soil fertility and predict future climate. 

Now, Crowther Lab can identify regions in need of conservation management and investigate how soil carbon sinks impact atmospheric CO2 levels. 

Like the ocean, as temperatures rise, the soil will release more carbon stores creating a dangerous feedback loop. 

The Crowther Lab model calculated that under a business-as-usual scenario, warming would cause the soil to release approximately 55 gigatons of carbon.

The research shows how forests and soil play a crucial role in both the carbon cycle and the rate of future climate change on Earth.

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Andrew Coelho, Unsplash Photography

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

The global forest system can help predict future climate change

The world’s forests and the soil from which they grow...

Biosynthetic fibers could be key to battling microplastic pollution. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch, spanning an area <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-great-pacific-garbage-patch-is-now-twice-as-big-as-texas/">larger than the size of Texas</a>, is often cited in articles and studies that highlight the severity and scope of the world’s plastic pollution crisis. 

However, a large majority of the plastic polluting our oceans has been broken down to millimeter size particles that fish mistake for food and isn’t easily noticeable to the naked eye. Biosynthetic fibers could be key to battling microplastic pollution 

Millions of tons of microfibers and microplastics are added to the world’s oceans, lakes, and rivers each year. Microfibers and microplastics have turned the ocean into what scientists are calling a <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/08/ocean-life-eats-plastic-larvaceans-anchovy-environment/">plastic soup</a>, and the problem is only getting worse. 

A major contributor is synthetic fibers like polyester and nylon. Clothes and textiles using these materials shed small microfibers when washed. 

These synthetic fibers are not-biodegradable, and they pose a major environmental and health risk. As fish can easily ingest the fibers, humans also risk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-ingest-microplastics/">consuming microplastics </a>when they eat harvested fish. 

In a presentation at the 2019 annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> (AAAS), Melik Demirel, a <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> materials scientist, suggested four different approaches to tackling the microfiber problem. 

“These materials, during production, processing and after use, break down into and release microfibers that can now be found in everything and everyone,” said Demirel. 

One solution is to reduce synthetic fibers and produce more textiles and fabrics made from natural materials like cotton and wool, but these put stress on water and land resources and are more expensive compared synthetic fibers. 

A second possibility would go a long way in trapping the fibers at the source to keep them out of waterways, and Demirel suggested that washing machines be fitted with microfiber filters that can be placed in outflow hoses. 

Advancements have been made in the development of plastic-eating bacteria, but it will be a long time before this third possibility becomes a viable, large-scale, alternative. 

Demirel’s last suggestion is one of the most promising because it could help make fibers and fabrics easily manufacturable and accessible but also produce recyclable and biodegradable clothing. According to Demirel, biosynthetic fibers, are recyclable, could be used as a substitute for synthetic fibers and blend with natural fibers. 

One example of a biosynthetic fiber developed by Demirel is Squitex, which is comparable to the silk found in squid ring teeth. Squitex, made from squid teeth proteins, is self-healing and completely biodegradable.

Soon the tags on your clothes may no longer list rayon or polyester blends, but rather, biosynthetic fibers that have the same durability and price point as the synthetic fabrics that flood the market today. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Patrick Mansell

Biosynthetic fibers could be key to battling microplastic pollution

Biosynthetic fibers could be key to battling microplastic pollution. The...

A team of experts at <a href="https://www.iastate.edu/">Iowa State University</a> has identified ways that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-2080-new-york-arkansas/">climate change</a> will increase the likelihood of violence, based on established models of aggression and violence. The most obvious is the effect of higher temperatures, which can cause irritability and hostility. The other effects are less direct, resulting from conditions such as failing crops and economic instability.

The study authors noted that these risk factors will become more prevalent as a result of climate change-induced disasters, including hurricanes, droughts, floods, and water shortages.

According to study co-author Professor Craig Anderson, some natural disasters are so extensive and long term that large groups of people are forced to migrate from their homeland. He explained that this “eco-migration” creates intergroup conflicts over resources, which can escalate into political violence, civil wars, or wars between nations.

“This is a global issue with very serious consequences. We need to plan for ways to reduce the negative impacts,” said Professor Anderson. “An inadequate food supply and economic disparity make it difficult to raise healthy and productive citizens, which is one way to reduce long-term violence. We also need to plan for and devote resources to aid eco-migrants in their relocation to new lands and countries.”

Professor Anderson fears the effects of eco-migration and conflict will be the most destructive. He pointed out that we are already seeing the migration of large groups in response to this type of instability, such as the ongoing conflict in Syria.

“Although the most extreme events, such as all-out war, are relatively unlikely, the consequences are so severe that we cannot afford to ignore them,” said Professor Anderson. “That is why the U.S. and other countries must make sure these regional conflicts and eco-migration problems don't get out of hand. One way to do that is to provide appropriate aid to refugees and make it easier for them to migrate to regions where they can be productive, healthy and happy.”

Professor Anderson and study lead author Andreas Miles-Novelo explained that the purpose of their research is to raise awareness among the scientific community to help prevent harmful consequences. They also want to educate the public on the potential for increased violence with climate change.

“From past experience with natural disasters, we should be able to prepare for future problems by setting aside emergency resources and funds,” said Miles-Novelo. “We should tear down negative stereotypes and prejudices about those who will need help and humanely assist refugees and others who are displaced. By doing all these things we can reduce conflict and hostility.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/40641">Current Climate Change Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Christopher Gannon, Iowa State University News Service

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com
</a>

Climate change will increase potential for violence and aggression

A team of experts at Iowa State University has identified...

Global tiger populations have been on a steep decline as poaching, habitat loss and human-wildlife conflict continue to decimate the species. 

While poaching is seen as the most severe threat, habitat loss exacerbates the other threats by pushing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tigers-captive-us-nature/">tigers</a> closer to humans where they can be killed by poachers or during human-wildlife conflicts. But agroforestry has been used as a solution to benefit both humans and tigers by creating new habitats.

Today, there are fewer than 4,000 tigers left in the wild who <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15955/50659951#population">inhabit less than 6% of their historic range</a>. In the past century, we have lost over 95% of the world’s wild tiger population, according to <a href="https://www.wwf.org.uk/what-we-do/projects/doubling-wild-tiger-numbers">World Wildlife Fund</a>.

These numbers paint a grim picture for the future of tiger conservation. But in recent years, the tiger has seen some conservation wins.  In 2010, the thirteen tiger range countries made an unprecedented pledge to double the world’s tiger population by 2022. India has already seen their tiger population increase from 1,411 in 2006 to 2,226. The uptick is due, in part, to agroforestry, reports<a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/in-india-agroforestry-is-a-win-for-both-tigers-and-villagers/"> Scientific American</a>.

Agroforestry is also prominent in Sumatra, Indonesia which is home to the critically endangered Sumatran tiger.

Agroforestry is a land-use system that integrates agriculture and forestry by planting trees and shrubs around crops. This system diversifies the farmers’ agricultural outputs, provides an alternative to cutting down trees in the forest and enriches the local ecosystem by increasing soil, air and water quality. Agroforestry is hardly new; it has been used in the United States and abroad for centuries. But the system is gaining traction for its contribution to biodiversity conservation.

Many species, such as tigers, are seeing their habitats rapidly decline and degrade throughout their ranges. This habitat loss can reduce animals’ access to resources and isolate them into small, fragmented habitats. Compounding this issue further is the ever-growing human population that needs more space for homes, farms and roads.

Agroforestry works to counteract habitat loss by creating a buffer zone between humans and tigers. The tigers can roam the buffer zone and connect to previously fragmented habitats. Additionally, conservationists argue that agroforestry will decrease deforestation by allowing farmers to harvest their own wood instead of relying on forests.

One <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20967444">study</a> found that agroforestry built around protected habitats could reduce the chances of tiger extinction in Sumatra. In contrast, researchers found that surrounding protected areas with single-use land resulted in the extinction of tigers in their model.

Agroforestry does not come without its risks, as creating habitat near agricultural plots could increase conflicts between tigers and farmers. These human-tiger conflicts can quickly become fatal for both the tigers and farmers. 

A<a href="https://digitalcommons.colby.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1048&amp;context=faculty_scholarship"> study</a> found that 47% of victims of human-tiger conflicts during a 20-year period in Sumatra, Indonesia were at the forest edge, 26% were in agricultural fields and 21% were in a forested area. Only 6% of victims were attacked in a village. The authors see the conservation value in agroforestry but stress the importance of addressing human-wildlife conflict in these systems.

By addressing human-wildlife conflict, conservationists will not only protect community members but also foster support towards tiger conservation. After all, tigers need all the help they can get.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How agroforestry can help plummeting tiger populations

Global tiger populations have been on a steep decline as...

In 2016, Turkey experienced a magnitude 5.8 earthquake that lasted over two months, but it didn’t make headlines, and no one felt any shaking.

This is because the earthquake was a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-slips-major-earthquakes/">slow slip event</a>, where movement along a fault line is so gradual and consistent that it doesn’t release the waves of seismic energy that your average earthquake does. 

A study led by the <a href="https://www.gfz-potsdam.de/en/home/">GFZ German Researcher Centre for Geoscience</a> monitored Turkey’s slow-slip event and helped shed insight into the phenomenon.

The research was published in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 

Sometimes referred to as “phantom quakes,” the lack of notable seismic activity means that seismometers are not able to detect them which makes studying slow-slip events challenging. 

Slow-slip events like Turkey’s marathon quake are common and depending on where you live, there could be an earthquake happening right under your feet, and you wouldn’t even realize it. 

The first slow-slip events were discovered along the Cascadia Subduction Zone in the 2000s, and soon after reports of slow-slip earthquakes were recorded in New Zealand, according to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/02/earthquake-lasted-50-days-no-one-felt-it-heres-why/">National Geographic</a>. 

Geologists used to organize fault breaks into two categories, a stick-slip fault or aseismic creep. 

Stick-slip refers to a fault that gets stuck before the build-up of energy becomes too great, and the fault ruptures causing a major quake. 

Aseismic creep describes the slow and steady creep of a fault that produces no seismic activity. When slow-slip events were added to the mix, geologists realized that fault slips were far more complex than previously thought. 

“Slow slip events made us realize that there’s a whole spectrum of fault slip between the two,” Rebecca Bell, a senior lecturer studying tectonic evolution at Imperial College London who was not part of the study, told National Geographic. 

While they can be difficult to monitor, the researchers placed seismic monitoring equipment in boreholes in the Sea of Marmara off the coast of Turkey that specifically measured the slow deformation of the rocks around the holes.

This allowed the researchers to monitor the earthquake in its entirety providing a unique glimpse at the processes that underlie a slow-slip event. 

Still, the quakes remain a bit of a mystery, as researchers are unsure of the origin of slow-slip events and future studies are needed to better understand aseismic creep and slow-slip events according to the researchers. 

There is also a possibility that slow-slip events may precede larger catastrophic earthquakes and so by studying slow-slip earthquakes, it may soon be possible to forecast major destructive earthquakes. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Beneath Turkey, a 50-day earthquake came and went and nobody noticed

In 2016, Turkey experienced a magnitude 5.8 earthquake that lasted...

After lying dormant for 50 years, the Agung volcano in Bali erupted in 2017, and a new study has provided valuable insight into why.

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> monitored the volcano and seismic activity in and around the area to understand what caused the caldera to spring to life after such a long period of dormancy.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-predict-volcanic-eruptions/">Satellite imagery</a> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency’s</a> (ESA) Sentinel-1 satellite was a key part of the study, which was published in the journal Nature Communications.

The results not only help explain Agung’s erratic eruptions but could also help forecast volcanic eruptions in Bali in the future.

The last eruption of Agung, one of the deadliest eruptions of the 20th century, occurred in 1963 and nearly 2,000 people were killed. Agung’s eruption was followed by another eruption of the volcano Batur which is close by.

2017’s eruption was preceded by a sudden spike in seismic activity, and several small earthquakes near Agung prompted mass evacuations.

The Bristol researchers were able to study the volcano and seismic activity before the eruption by reviewing satellite imagery provided by the ESA, and the researchers focused on ground deformations near the volcano that could explain its eruption.

After analyzing the satellite images, the researchers noticed that the northern flank of the volcano rose about eight to ten centimeters during peak seismic events.

“From remote sensing, we are able to map out any ground motion, which may be an indicator that fresh magma is moving beneath the volcano,” said Juliet Biggs, the leader of the research.

A notable part of the study was the discovery that Agung and its neighbor Batur may be interconnected by an underground system of magma which could explain why the eruptions happened so close to each other.

“Surprisingly, we noticed that both the earthquake activity and the ground deformation signal were located five kilometres away from the summit, which means that magma must be moving sideways as well as vertically upwards,” the first author of the study. “Our study provides the first geophysical evidence that Agung and Batur volcanoes may have a connected plumbing system.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Neighboring volcanoes in Bali may be connected by a plumbing system

After lying dormant for 50 years, the Agung volcano in...

White-tailed deer browsing habits may affect the vocal communication of songbirds and and other species within their habitat, according to a new new study published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal">PLOS ONE</a>. 

Timothy J. Boycott and his colleagues from <a href="https://www.vassar.edu/">Vassar College</a> have seen a link in the growth of white-tailed deer populations in America and acoustic chances within their habitats that directly affect communication among <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/stress-songbirds-sing/">songbirds</a> and other forest species.

Because the white-tailed deer feed on understory trees and shrubs, they therefore reduce the abundance and diversity of forest vegetation. This then causes more open space for sound transmission to travel rather than bounce off greenery.

Researchers tested their theory by playing recorded songbird tones and trills, as well as white noise, in paired plots that were either fenced off to prevent deer from entering or not. The researchers paid close attention to the fidelity, amplitude, and attenuation of the sounds across said plots.

The plots that allowed deer to graze had greater sound fidelity compared to deer-excluded plots, yet they showed no difference in amplitude. The team believed this is because of the reduced density in vegetation within the deer-browsed plots. The study revealed that birds can communicate better in deer-browsed areas because their transmissions are clearer due to the lacking vegetation.

"While we know quite a lot about the effects of deer browsing on vegetation and we know quite a lot about the effects of vegetation on sound propagation, the two had never been linked,” said Boycott’s colleague Megan D. Gall. “Here we're looking beyond traditional deer browsing ecology and asking how deer might be influencing the communication space for animals."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

White-tailed deer behavior shapes the acoustics of their habitat

White-tailed deer browsing habits may affect the vocal communication of...

In a historic win for environmental protection in the United States, this week the US Senate voted 92 to 8 in favor a major public land conservation bill.

The bill, which received sweeping bipartisan support in an otherwise divided government, is especially noteworthy given that the Trump administration has been working remove public land protections and pave the way for more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-mining-boundary-waters/">mining and drilling</a>.

The <a href="https://www.apnews.com/f3ddf317276b424995743dae41f7148e">Associated Press</a> reports that the new bill is the largest public lands bill to be considered in a decade and includes something for everyone.

Under the new bill, around one million acres of land would be protected and 350 miles of river would be designated as scenic, wild, or recreational.

2,600 miles of new federal trails and 700,000 acres of new recreation or conservation areas would be added under the bill. Mining would also be prohibited across thousands of acres of public land.

“This package gives our country a million acres of new wilderness, protects a million acres of public lands from future mining, permanently reauthorizes the Land and Water Conservation Fund and balances conservation and recreation for the long term,” Representative Raúl Grijalva, the Arizona Democrat who heads the House Natural Resources Committee, told the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/12/climate/senate-conservation-bill.html">New York Times</a>. “It’s one of the biggest bipartisan wins for this country I’ve ever seen in Congress.”

The bill is the result of four years of hard work and members of both the Republican and Democrat parties contributed to the project.

One of the most important components of the bill is the permanent reauthorizations of the Land and Water Conservation Fund.

The fund comes at no expense to taxpayers and instead takes royalties and fees from oil and gas companies that operate in federal areas to help supplement environmental conservation and recreation.  

It was first established in 1964 and although it has received strong support over the years, the program went through a long pattern of expiring, being re-instituted, and expiring again.

Now, the fund won’t expire again as long as the bill passes the House of Representatives.

 “The Land and Water Conservation Fund has been a pre-eminent program for access to public lands” Senator Maria Cantwell told the AP.

Three new national monuments will be designated by the National Park Service under the new bill as well.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

U.S. Senate passes monumental public land conservation bill

In a historic win for environmental protection in the United...

Americans have a tendency to think they have the biggest and best of everything.  If you think of the world’s largest trees, you probably think of the sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum) of California.  You’d mostly be right in this case.  

The world’s largest individual tree is a tree named General Sherman located in Sequoia National Park in Tulare County, California.  General Sherman is estimated to be 52,500 cubic feet in volume and is 2,000 years old in an expected life span for giant sequoias of over 3,000 years.  General Sherman is only 274.9 feet tall compared to the tallest tree which measures 379.7 feet (115.7 m) tall. The world’s tallest tree, a redwood named Hyperion, is also in California.  But California is just one of many homes for giant trees. 

Tasmania, the island south of mainland Australia, has its own giant trees.  One fabulous thing about the giant eucalypt trees of Tasmania is that many of them are hollow.  As these trees grow older, the heartwood in the middle of the tree naturally dies and eventually the tree rots into a living hollow cylinder.  I’ve stepped in through a hole in the trunk of one of these trees to find a dim interior space where ten people could easily sleep shoulder to shoulder.  These trees are often homes to bats and insects, making them less than ideal camping spots for many. The hollow space actually serves a useful purpose. Bat guano as well as dead insects create amazing fertilizer, delivered right to the base of the tree.  In fact, in Tasmania, more bats dwell inside hollow trees than in the island’s relatively chilly caves.

[caption id="attachment_1867658" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/general-sherman-.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1867658" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/general-sherman-.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="467" /></a> General Sherman in Sequoia National Park, Image Credit: Songquan Deng/Shutterstock[/caption]

The tallest of Tasmania’s Eucalyptus regnans trees named Centurion measures 99.6 meters (roughly 326.7 feet) tall, according to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-01-24/photographing-one-of-the-worlds-tallest-trees-in-styx-valley/8206910">ABC News</a>.  Even though the tree is a eucalypt, the species is commonly referred to as mountain ash or swamp gum.  The enormous Eucalyptus regnans tree has a couple of distinctions that the redwoods and sequoias in California don’t have.  For one, the Eucalyptus is a flowering plant unlike the cone bearing giants in California. Centurion is actually the tallest flowering plant in the world and has a much faster growth rate than the California trees.  The giant trees in Tasmania are only about 300 years old compared to the thousands of years it takes for a tree like General Sherman to reach its proportions. 

There is a greater diversity in the Tasmanian trees than those in California.  There are five species of Tasmanian Eucalyptus that have been known to reach heights <a href="https://tasmaniasgianttrees.weebly.com/">of 85 meters</a> or more.  The Tasmanian trees are the largest known trees in the southern hemisphere.  Mostly Tasmania’s Eucalypts don’t live long enough to quite reach the size of redwoods.  <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2013/02/australias-tallest-trees/">Australian Geographic</a> reports that in many cases, older inaccurate measurements of trees are still used officially, which opens up the possibility that another tree will claim the title of the world’s highest.  There are other giant tree regions in the world that could possibly contend for the title of biggest. 

Borneo is an outlier as a location for giant trees.  Tasmanian and Californian trees both grow in relatively cool, temperate rainforests.  The tropics, counter to much popular opinion, are not the best place to find the world’s largest or even oldest trees.  Trees seem to grow larger in temperate regions for the most part. Borneo seems to be the exception to the rule. <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2016/11/worlds-tallest-tropical-tree-discovered-along-with-nearly-50-other-record-breakers/">Mongabay</a> reported in 2016 on the discovery of the world’s tallest tropical tree.  Initially it was reported that a Yellow Meranti (Shorea faguetiana) discovered in Borneo was the world’s tallest tropical tree.  Within a few months however, another researcher reported finding 50 trees that were taller, also in Borneo.  The tallest tree in the group is 94.1 meters tall (roughly 294 feet). Unfortunately, giant trees aren’t always allowed to stand as beautiful living beings in their own right.  Deforestation is rampant in Borneo and across the world.

The redwoods and sequoias are but a slim reminder of a grander forest now lost.  In 2015, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/01/150119-california-forests-shrinking-climate-drought-science/">National Geographic</a> asked the question of California’s forests, “Where have all the big trees gone?”  The answer is a complex one. The <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/na0519">World Wildlife Fund</a> reports that less than 4% of California’s original virgin redwood forest still remains with less than 2.5% of that portion protected.  Some of this loss came from floods but the flood damage was worsened by deforestation in neighboring watersheds. Logging for wood of course plays a role in forest loss but so does conversion of land for farming and grazing.  Encroachment of neighborhoods and poor fire management techniques have also contributed to forest loss, but National Geographic reports that climate change may be most to blame.  Since the 1930s, water loss from increased temperature has been a leading factor in the death of giant trees in California.  The giant trees in the rest of the world face similar threats.

Borneo, the forest with the largest tropical trees, a place magical enough to partially inspire <a href="https://www.survivalinternational.org/news/5466">Avatar</a>, has one of the highest deforestation rates of anywhere in the world.  According to <a href="http://www.borneofutures.org/deforestation">Borneo Futures</a>, in 1973, 75.7% of the tropical island was covered in forest.  By 2010, only 52.8% of Borneo had forest cover. From 2000 to 2010 alone, 12% of the 2000 forest cover was lost.  More wood is harvested from Borneo than from Africa and the Amazon combined. <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/borneo-has-lost-30-percent-its-forest-cover-past-40-years-180952072/">Smithsonian</a> reports that the deforestation rates in Borneo are twice those of other tropical forests.  This amounts to a loss of 30% of the forest by 2014. Sadly, the forests in Tasmania aren’t safe either.     

Tasmania, home to the southern hemisphere’s largest trees, has long been a battleground between environmentalists and logging.  <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/mar/21/plans-to-log-tasmanias-world-heritage-forests-dropped-after-un-criticism">The Guardian</a> reported in 2016 that the Australian Government had planned to log inside a World Heritage designated forest.  The plans were dropped on recommendations from the UN, and it shows a distinct disregard for an incredibly unique forest.  According to a 2009 report from <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2009/07/a-tasmanian-tragedy-how-the-forestry-industry-has-torn-an-island-apart/">Mongabay</a>, 78% of Tasmania’s original forest has already been cleared or is open to logging.  Most of the trees cut in Tasmania aren’t even used for wood but made into paper.

The topic of widespread destruction of plants older than many nations brings with it the weight of morality.  How can we who are small and young be so destructive to entire microworlds teeming with insects, orangutans, mosses, birds, and entire tree bound ecosystems?                  

--                                            

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Earth’s largest trees stand tall amid multiple threats

Americans have a tendency to think they have the biggest...

The disappearance of great white sharks off the coast of South Africa has made room for the unexpected appearance of sevengill sharks, a top predator from a completely different habitat. These sharks, which are known for having seven gills instead of five, look similar to their ancient ancestors from the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/largest-predatory-jurassic-dinosaur/">Jurassic period</a>.

The long-term study was focused on the ocean surrounding Seal Island in False Bay, South Africa. This site is famous for having “flying” great white sharks that jump out of the water to attack Cape fur seals. 

For nearly two decades, the team documented over 8,000 hours of great white shark observations, including 6,333 sightings and 8,076 attacks on seals. The researchers found that great white numbers were relatively stable for more than a decade until sightings began to rapidly decline in 2015.

[caption id="attachment_1867691" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/predators.png"><img class="wp-image-1867691" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/predators.png" alt="" width="700" height="391" /></a> Photo credit: Great white shark image (left) by Chris Fallows; Sevengill shark image (right) by Neil Hammerschlag[/caption]

Study lead author Neil Hammerschlag is a research associate professor at the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School and Abess Center for Ecosystem Science &amp; Policy.

“In 2017 and 2018, their numbers reached an all-time low, with great whites completely disappearing from our surveys for weeks and months at a time,” said Professor Hammerschlag. “While the reasons for their decline and disappearance remains unknown, it provided a truly unique opportunity for us to see what happens to an ocean ecosystem following the loss of an apex predator.”

“In 18+ years of working at Seal Island, we had never seen sevengill sharks in our surveys,” said study co-author Chris Fallows. “Following the disappearance of white sharks in 2017, sevengill began to show up for the first time and have been increasing in number ever since.”

During 2017 and 2018, the researchers recorded 120 sevengill shark sightings in the absence of great whites. Historically, the only known aggregation site for sevengill sharks in False Bay was located about 18 kilometers away from Seal Island.

The research is providing new insights into how marine ecosystems can be altered after the loss of an apex predator.


The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New predator replacing great white sharks off South African coast

The disappearance of great white sharks off the coast of...

Possible second impact crater discovered under Greenland ice sheet. A few months following the discovery of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/huge-impact-crater-found-beneath-greenland-ice/">19-mile wide crater beneath Hiawatha Glacier</a> in Greenland, a glaciologist from the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a> (NASA) may have found a second, even bigger crater 114 miles away. 

The discovery of the Hiawatha impact crater marked the first ever meteorite impact crater found buried under of one of Earth's largest ice sheets. It was previously thought that impact craters had long since eroded away under ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica. 

Now, pending confirmation, a second impact crater hints at many exciting new discoveries yet to be made and the benefits of studying Earth’s icy and foreboding landscapes.

[caption id="attachment_1867674" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Screen-Shot-2019-02-12-at-2.08.14-PM.png"><img class="wp-image-1867674" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Screen-Shot-2019-02-12-at-2.08.14-PM.png" alt="" width="700" height="336" /></a> Image Credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center/ Jefferson Beck[/caption]

The second crater’s discovery was recently detailed in a new study published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.

Measuring over 22 miles wide, the researchers who made the discovery, including glaciologist Joe MacGregor, say that the two craters probably weren't formed at the same time.

“We've surveyed the Earth in many different ways, from land, air and space - it's exciting that discoveries like these are still possible,” said MacGregor. 

After the Hiawatha crater was identified, the researchers reviewed and analyzed topographic maps of Greenland's surface below its thick ice sheet. 

Satellite imagery, radar data from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/icebridge/index.html">Operation IceBridge</a>, and a high resolution digital elevation model of the Arctic were also used to find the second crater.

[caption id="attachment_1867675" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/NASA-Goddard.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1867675" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/NASA-Goddard.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="394" /></a> Image Credit: NASA Goddard[/caption]

About 114 miles southeast of the Hiawatha crater, MacGregor identified a circular pattern in the maps and model. Not only did MacGregor find a circular shape, but also a bowl shaped depression in the bedrock surrounded by an elevated rim. 

“The only other circular structure that might approach this size would be a collapsed volcanic caldera,” said MacGregor. “But the areas of known volcanic activity in Greenland are several hundred miles away. Also, a volcano should have a clear positive magnetic anomaly, and we don't see that at all.”

Statistical analysis and dating of the ice around the craters also show that the two probably formed from different impact events but the researchers say they can't rule out the possibility that one event formed both craters. 

“The ice layers above this second crater are unambiguously older than those above Hiawatha, and the second crater is about twice as eroded,” said MacGregor. “If the two did form at the same time, then likely thicker ice above the second crater would have equilibrated with the crater much faster than for Hiawatha.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Possible second impact crater discovered under Greenland ice sheet

Possible second impact crater discovered under Greenland ice sheet. A...

São Paulo, Brazil, home to tens of millions of people who live in the city and its sprawling outskirts, has a major scorpion problem that isn’t going away anytime soon. 

A combination of climate change, urban expansion, and poor city sanitation management have all contributed to what is now a widespread yellow scorpion infestation for many rural and urban areas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/president-brazil-amazon-rainforest/">Brazil</a>. 

Previously, scorpions were unheard of anywhere but in rural regions of Brazil, but warmer temperatures due to climate change are creating optimal conditions for scorpions to spread and thrive across the country. 

The scorpions are even making their way into colder southern regions of the country previously thought uninhabitable for the arachnids. 

In a new installment of <a href="https://theconversation.com/venomous-yellow-scorpions-are-moving-into-brazils-big-cities-and-the-infestation-may-be-unstoppable-110844">The Conversation</a>, Hamilton Coimbra Carvalho, a researcher in Complex Social Problems at the the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/">University of São Paulo </a>discusses the infestation and the complexities that arise when trying to control and reduce the problem.

“Brazil’s scorpion infestation is the perfect example of how unpredictable modern life has become,” Carvalho writes. “It is a hallmark of what those of us in the complex problems field call a “VUCA” world – a world that’s volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous.”

Scorpions impact countries all over the world but the arachnids typically stick to hot and dry climates. 

In Brazil, Carvalho explains some cities offer an oasis for scorpions with uncollected garbage providing food and water, and not only that but they are incredibly adaptable as a species. 

While yellow scorpions have venomous and painful stings, their stings are not often fatal. However, with the increase of scorpions across cities in Brazil, the risk of death from bites also increases.

Children are most at risk of dying from a scorpion sting, and Brazil’s Ministry of Health reported that there were <a href="https://g1.globo.com/ciencia-e-saude/noticia/2019/01/11/brasil-teve-mais-de-140-mil-acidentes-com-escorpioes-em-2018-veja-como-se-proteger.ghtml">140,000 people stung by a scorpion in 2018.</a>

As widespread and problematic as the scorpion infestation is, Carvalho notes that surprisingly little is being done to manage it.

“And, beyond some rather tepid national and state-level efforts to train health officials in scorpion risk, authorities seem to have no plan for fighting the infestation at the epidemic level it is heading towards,” Carvalho writes. 

It’s a problem with no clear answer according to the complex social problems expert, and even now it may be too late to prevent future infestations.

“Venomous yellow scorpions, I fear, have already claimed their place alongside violent crime, brutal traffic and other chronic problems that urbanites in Brazil must cope with daily,” Carvalho concludes.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Yellow scorpion infestation in Brazil driven by climate change

São Paulo, Brazil, home to tens of millions of people...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

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