When glaciers melt, they release water that carries sulfate-rich minerals previously trapped in the ice. This sulfate flows into streams and wetlands, increasing its concentration in watersheds.



As sulfate accumulates, it creates conditions that can trigger the production of toxic methylmercury, posing risks to ecosystems and wildlife.



Methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin, forms in waterlogged, sulfate-rich wetlands and enters water systems. It accumulates in fish, moves up the food chain to birds, and eventually reaches people who consume contaminated wildlife.



"Very little research has looked at methylmercury production in high-elevation wetlands," said Hannah Miller, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a> and lead author of a recent study.



"This leaves important knowledge gaps regarding how much is being produced in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountain</a> wetlands and how this may change with ongoing climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mercury-turns-toxic-in-wetlands">How mercury turns toxic in wetlands</h2>



Methylmercury production from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> melt sulfate only occurs within a specific range in wetland soils. If glacier-derived sulfate levels are too low, the conversion process doesn’t start; too high, and it stalls.



The ideal range - 0.60 to 1.4 milligrams per gram of dry soil - creates optimal conditions for mercury to transform into its toxic methylated form.



Miller’s team pinpointed this “Goldilocks zone” after testing soil from peatlands, alpine meadows, and riparian zones. Above the treeline, methylmercury levels barely budged. Below the treeline, peatlands pulsed with microbial activity, converting mercury to its toxic form.



"We also found in our experiment that moderate sulfate additions to the subalpine peatlands resulted in the greatest production of methylmercury within the soils," Miller said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatlands-as-mercury-hotspots">Peatlands as mercury hotspots</h2>



In the lab, Miller pumped different sulfate concentrations into soil samples. The response? Peatlands with moderate sulfate additions churned out the most methylmercury.



But there’s a catch. Wetlands above the treeline don’t have much vegetation. Fewer plants mean less carbon-rich material to feed the microbes that convert sulfate to methylmercury. But in the subalpine peatlands, dense vegetation and waterlogged soils create the perfect storm.



Sulfate-reducing bacteria thrive in these oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-could-run-out-of-water-if-glaciers-continue-to-melt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>. They grab onto sulfate, munch through carbon, and churn out methylmercury as a byproduct. And as glaciers keep melting, more sulfate keeps coming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-spread-sulfate">Melting glaciers spread sulfate </h2>



Sulfate doesn’t stay put. It migrates downstream, riding currents and seeping into soils. In the past 30 years, sulfate levels in Boulder’s watershed have shot up by 200%. That spike mirrors a global pattern.



Glacier-fed streams in the Andes, Alps, and Himalayas show similar trends - up to a 2000% increase in sulfate concentrations. As these minerals flow, so does the risk of methylmercury contamination.



"It's a really interesting climate-driven signal that is starting to get more attention," Miller said. "And while increasing sulfate concentrations have direct implications for ecosystems, they can also have indirect impacts, including changing how mercury is transformed within wetlands."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-moves-through-food-chains">Mercury moves through food chains</h2>



Methylmercury doesn’t just stay in the soil. It slips into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>, where fish absorb it through their gills. Small fish pass it to bigger fish. Birds swoop down, eat the fish, and the toxin moves up the food chain.



"In semi-arid mountain ecosystems, poorly developed soils and limited water bodies make it easy to think there is a lower risk for mercury contamination," noted Miller.



"But our findings show there is a risk, particularly in subalpine peatlands, and raise important questions about how this toxin may impact the communities and wildlife that rely on that water source now and in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfate-isn-t-the-only-player">Sulfate isn’t the only player</h2>



Sulfate takes the spotlight, but it’s not alone. Iron, carbon, and water levels also play crucial roles in the methylmercury cycle.



In Boulder’s watershed, dry conditions could limit the spread of peatlands, reducing the areas where methylmercury thrives. But increased precipitation could do the opposite - more wetlands, more methylmercury.



Miller’s study also hints at the role of iron. Sulfate additions alone triggered methylmercury production, but iron concentrations could magnify or mitigate that effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-rising-mercury-levels">Melting glaciers, rising mercury levels</h2>



Glaciers worldwide are melting, releasing sulfate-rich minerals into nearby streams and wetlands. This surge in sulfate is not limited to Boulder but is occurring in mountain watersheds globally. 



As sulfate levels rise, so does the risk of toxic methylmercury formation, impacting ecosystems far beyond Colorado.



Glacial melt in Peru’s Andes has turned once-pristine wetlands into mercury-contaminated hotspots. The European Alps and the Himalayas face similar risks as warming temperatures increase sulfate runoff. 



As glaciers recede, more sulfate spills into wetlands, driving methylmercury production and threatening ecosystems globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-mercury-in-wetlands">Controlling mercury in wetlands</h2>



Monitoring sulfate is one thing. Mitigating its impact is another. Restoring wetlands, managing runoff, and regulating upstream mining could reduce sulfate flow. But Miller and her team aren’t stopping there.



"This research is timely, given the confluence of global changes, including climate warming, changes in the supply of reactive elements, and the occurrence of wildfires that are threatening sensitive high-elevation ecosystems," said Eve-Lyn Hinckley, co-author and CIRES Fellow.



Glaciers keep melting, releasing more sulfate into streams and wetlands. This ongoing process fuels methylmercury production, posing increasing risks to ecosystems. 



The outcome hinges on monitoring efforts and proactive intervention to manage these toxic threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/add8a5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Mountain wetlands are turning into mercury hotspots

When glaciers melt, they release water that carries sulfate-rich minerals previously trapped in the ice. This sulfate flows into streams and wetlands, increasing its concentration in watersheds. As sulfate accumulates, it creates conditions that can trigger the production of toxic methylmercury, posing risks to ecosystems and wildlife. Methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin, forms in waterlogged, sulfate-rich wetlands and enters water systems. It accumulates in fish, moves up the food chain to birds, and eventually reaches people who consume contaminated wildlife. "Very little research has looked at methylmercury production...

The chalky white bottom of the deep sea is mostly composed of calcite. 

Calcite on the seafloor formed from the decaying remains of corals and shells from marine organisms and the mineral is crucial for combating ocean acidification. It also acts as a neutralizer for the carbon dioxide in the ocean, but as CO2 levels in the atmosphere and ocean increase, calcite's ability to counter CO2 decreases. 

In some regions, carbon dioxide is already <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-seafloor-erosion/">dissolving calcite</a> and turning the ocean floor a murky brown, but this is just the tip of the iceberg. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> conducted a study examining how CO2 increases would impact calcite and the sea floor. 

Because most of the ocean’s CO2 is contained near the surface, the researchers needed to model CO2 dropping down to the seafloor to better project future ocean acidification. 

“Because it takes decades or even centuries for CO2 to drop down to the bottom of the ocean, almost all the CO2 created through human activity is still at the surface. But in the future, it will invade the deep-ocean, spread above the ocean floor and cause even more calcite particles at the seafloor to dissolve,” said Olivier Sulpis, lead author of the study.

The researchers needed to develop a model for the deep ocean spread of CO2 to understand how it would affect the seabed and so the research team first created a seafloor microenvironment in a lab setting. 

The lab model recreated ocean floor conditions including currents, temperature, sediment compositions, and chemical makeup. 

Several experiments were conducted to find out what factors influence calcite dissolution, and the researchers were able to model the time it takes for calcite to dissolve when exposed to high levels of CO2. 

Because CO2 levels are increasing with unprecedented speed, the study raises concerns about calcite and ocean acidification. Soon the ocean’s natural barrier against acidification may all but completely dissolve. 

“The rate at which CO2 is currently being emitted into the atmosphere is exceptionally high in Earth’s history, faster than at any period since at least the extinction of the dinosaurs,” said Sulpis. “And at a much faster rate than the natural mechanisms in the ocean can deal with, so it raises worries about the levels of ocean acidification in future.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Increased CO2 levels are causing the ocean floor to dissolve

The chalky white bottom of the deep sea is mostly...

Researchers have developed a computer model that is providing new insight into how people responded to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-driving-climate-change/">climate change</a> in the past. The experts are now able to identify the underlying causes of cultural shifts by examining how the changing conditions transformed people's ability to produce food in particular places.

Study lead author Jade d'Alpoim Guedes is an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a>.

“There's been a large body of literature in archaeology on past climates, but earlier studies were mostly only able to draw correlations between changes in climate and civilization,” said Professor d'Alpoim Guedes. “What we're showing in this work is exactly how changes in temperature and precipitation, over space and time, would have actually impacted people - by affecting what they could and couldn't grow.”

By combining contemporary weather station data from across Asia with a climate reconstruction of the entire hemisphere, the researchers were able to create a simulation of how temperatures in Asia changed across space and time. The model also includes data on archaeological sites and the record of seeds found there.

When a major global cooling event happened around 3,700 to 3,000 years ago, not all regions of the globe were affected equally. Just as with climate change today, the impacts were most pronounced in the high latitude and high-altitude areas. 

For example, the team demonstrated how dramatic the changes were in Mongolia and the Tibetan Plateau. Around 3,500 years ago, broomcorn and foxtail millet would have failed to come to harvest about half of the time across this region. People had to abandon the crop and replace it with crops that were more resilient to the increasingly cold conditions, such as wheat and barley.

The researchers also concluded that cooling temperatures would have made it increasingly difficult to grow grain crops across Northern China between AD 291 and 360. According to the experts, this likely played a key role in the relocation of the Chinese capital from Xi'an to what is now Nanjing.

In other cases, the crop failures led to much more extreme migrations of people that were accompanied by conflict, including violent struggles.

The study also revealed that climate change instigated the development of transportation infrastructure across Asia, including Sui Dynasty's decision to invest in China's Grand Canal. The canal is the world's longest and oldest canal, linking the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, and serves as a major facilitator of trade.

“Crises are opportunities for culture change and innovation,” said study co-author and computational archaeologist Kyle Bocinsky. “But the speed and scale of our current climate change predicament are different.”

Professor d'Alpoim Guedes said that the impacts of warming are going to become quicker and greater. “With global warming these long-lasting patterns of adaptation will begin to change in ways that are unpredictable. And there might not be the behavioral flexibility for this, given current politics around the world.”

The study was published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Jade d'Alpoim Guedes, UC San Diego

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

What happened in the past when the climate changed?

Researchers have developed a computer model that is providing new...

An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> has found that the last few areas of wilderness in the world are rapidly disappearing. The experts are warning that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/conservation-progress-limited-funding/">conservation</a> targets are critically needed to save what little wilderness remains.


The researchers had previously worked together in a 2016 project to map the remaining terrestrial wilderness, followed by another study in which they mapped the Earth's intact ocean ecosystems.

Professor James Watson said the results of those two studies produced the first full global picture of how little wilderness is left, and he was shocked by what he saw.

“A century ago, only 15 percent of the Earth's surface was used by humans to grow crops and raise livestock,” said Professor Watson. “Today, more than 77 percent of land - excluding Antarctica - and 87 percent of the ocean has been modified by the direct effects of human activities.”

[caption id="attachment_1861455" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/amazon-rainforest.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861455" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/amazon-rainforest-1024x680.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="465" /></a> Image Credit: University of Queensland[/caption]

“It might be hard to believe, but between 1993 and 2009, an area of terrestrial wilderness larger than India - a staggering 3.3 million square kilometers - was lost to human settlement, farming, mining and other pressures. And in the ocean, the only regions that are free of industrial fishing, pollution and shipping are almost completely confined to the polar regions.”

Study co-author James R. Allan said that the only way the world's remaining wilderness can be protected is if its importance is recognized in international policy.

“Some wilderness areas are protected under national legislation, but in most nations, these areas are not formally defined, mapped or protected,” said Allan. “There is nothing to hold nations, industry, society or communities to account for long-term conservation.”

“We need the immediate establishment of bold wilderness targets - specifically those aimed at conserving biodiversity, avoiding dangerous climate change and achieving sustainable development.”

[caption id="attachment_1861456" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/whale.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861456" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/whale-1024x717.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="490" /></a> Image Credit: Christopher Michel[/caption]

The researchers said that global policy urgently needs to be translated into local action. Professor Watson explained that one obvious intervention that needs to take priority is establishing protected areas in ways that would slow the impacts of industrial activity on the larger landscape.

“But we must also stop industrial development to protect indigenous livelihoods, create mechanisms that enable the private sector to protect wilderness, and push the expansion of regional fisheries and management organizations,”  said Professor Watson.

"We have lost so much already, so we must grasp this opportunity to secure the last remaining wilderness before it disappears forever.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Gregoire Dubois

The last of Earth’s wilderness will vanish unless it is protected

An international team of researchers led by the University of...

Most animals are hurt primarily by habitat loss.  Trees are cut down; prairies are plowed into fields, poisons leak into water.  

Sometimes the situation is different.  Sometimes the trees are left as pillars of an empty cathedral, bathed in eerie silence.  So is the case with the Atlantic Forest of eastern Brazil and Paraguay. With less name recognition and much less land size than other iconic forests, the Atlantic Forest is often overlooked but it’s an amazing place quickly being emptied of its wondrous inhabitants.  Hunting is one of the major causes of biodiversity loss there, and in some areas many of the trees are left standing, the habitat though shrunk is somewhat intact.

The Atlantic Forest of Brazil is very different from the region’s more famous <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/president-brazil-amazon-rainforest/">Amazon Rainforest</a>.  For starters, the forest is located on the Atlantic side of Brazil, a place easier to access than the remote interior, also a region more heavily populated.  

The area of the Atlantic Forest was first colonized in the 1500s and it’s much closer to large human population hubs than western Brazil.  In fact, the Atlantic Forest is the first environment encountered by Portuguese colonists upon arrival in Brazil. Over 85 percent of the Atlantic Forest has been destroyed.  The remaining portion of the original forest still stands but suffers from over-exploitation.  What is called the Atlantic Forest is actually a mix of different habitat types.

The ‘forest’ can be Restinga forests, which are usually dominated by densely growing, short shrubby trees that stabilize normally windblown coastal dunes.  Restinga forests also sometimes grow in clumps of taller trees amidst the dunes, creating a savanna-like habitat. There are also seasonal tropical moist forests, which can vary from lowland to submontane and montane depending on the elevation the forest is found at.  Tropical moist forests of course are much hotter in their lowland incarnations than their montane forms at higher elevations. There are also dry Atlantic Forests that transition between the moist forests and the Caatinga desert to the northeast as well as the Cerrado savannas to the east of the forest.  The whole of the Atlantic Forest habitats is incredibly biodiverse and very unique. 

According to <a href="https://www.globalspecies.org/hotspots/display/1">Global Species</a>, the Atlantic Forest contains 20,000 plant species, 40 percent of which are found nowhere else on earth.  There are also 950 bird types found in the Atlantic Forest, including a few threatened parrot species. Some of the better known animals still living in the Atlantic Forest include Golden Lion Tamarins, a small orange monkey that as a child I wanted to trade my brother for on a trip to the Denver Zoo.  The monkey has a small, remarkably human-like dark face surrounded by a mane of leonine hair. According to the <a href="https://www.denverzoo.org/animals/golden-lion-tamarin">Denver Zoo</a>, by 1971 there were only 200 Golden Lion Tamarins left in the wild.  Smithsonian’s <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/golden-lion-tamarin">National Zoo</a> reports that now there are approximately 3,200 Golden Lion Tamarins in the wild, a third of which are descended from captive breeding programs.  Despite the rise in population, there are still too few of the tamarins to feel secure in their future and some animals of the Atlantic Forest are doing much worse.

<a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/09/180925140428.htm">Science Daily</a> reported last month on new research from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> that tells the story of the decline of the Atlantic Forests, which originally measured about 1.1 million square kilometers (approximately 272,000,000 acres).  The forest is now merely 0.143 million square kilometers in size. Because the size is smaller, proximity to humans and developed areas has an increased impact on species living in the remaining forest; this is called edge effect.  

The new research on the Atlantic Forest was carried out by Dr Juliano Bogoni of the <a href="http://www5.usp.br/english/?lang=en">University of São Paulo, Brazil</a>, Professor Carlos Peres from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA), and collaborators from the <a href="http://structure.ufsc.br/">Federal University of Santa Catarina of Brazil</a>.  The researchers analyzed populations of 500 mammals found in the Atlantic Forest region.  The results showed marked declines in many mammal populations, but some groups declined more than others.  

Among the most negatively impacted were large predators like jaguars and pumas as well as larger herbivores.  This trend has been shown in other parts of the neotropics. A classic example is Barro Colorado, an island in Panama that was created by flooding when the Panama Canal was created.  Barro Colorado is the location of the Smithsonian’s Tropical Research Institution and one of the most intensively studied places in the tropics. Jaguars and other large predators were some of the first to leave the island after it was created, changing the dynamics of a once larger piece of forest.  These examples from the tropics show the limitations of setting aside pieces of land for the protection of large mammals. Edge effects aren’t the only problems facing the small pieces of Atlantic Forest left though. 

<a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/09/180912202418.htm">Science Daily</a> reported on another piece of research in September.  The research, carried out by Tiago da Silveira Vasconcelos of São Paulo State University, Brazil and others, looked at the potential future of frogs and toads in the Atlantic Forest region.  There are currently 550 known species of frogs and toads known in the Atlantic Forest, 80 percent of which are found nowhere else on earth. Researchers looked at the distribution of 350 species in the Atlantic forest and another 150 species in nearby habitat.  With data in hand, researchers then made estimations as to the future for these species taking into account climate change predictions. 

Some species in the Cerrado area near the Atlantic Forest look like they’ll fare well in the future of a warmer climate, their habitat may even expand.  The expansion of one habitat comes at the cost of others though. 10 percent of frog and toad species in the Atlantic Forest may face extinction in the time period between 2050 and 2070.  As even more species go extinct in the Atlantic Forest, the empty quiet among the trees becomes more eerie. Even if some of the forest itself may remain intact in protected areas, too much may already have been destroyed to save more than the shadow of a once healthy ecosystem in the Atlantic Forest.                

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

What remains of the Atlantic Forest after destruction, exploitation

Most animals are hurt primarily by habitat loss.  Trees are...

Nitrous oxide (N2O), also known as laughing gas, is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peatlands-release-nitrous-oxide/">potent greenhouse gas</a> with 300 times warming potential than CO2. 

Currently, nitrous oxide accounts for only ten percent of all greenhouse gases, but N20 stays in the atmosphere for 120 years and can destroy the ozone layer. 

Many researchers are concerned about the far-reaching environmental and climate impacts of increasing N2O emissions. Currently, N2O is mainly created through biodegradation of nitrite based fertilizers.

As microorganisms break down the fertilizers, N2O is generated. But now, a new study shows that some soil bacteria are primed to eat nitrous oxide even in soil where oxygen levels are plentiful. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> and the <a href="https://www.nmbu.no/en">Norwegian University of Life Sciences</a> conducted a study to examine how soil bacteria respond to nitrous oxide levels in their environment. 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). 

Previously, it was theorized that in order for a bacteria to eat and breath N20, it had to first sense the greenhouse gas. It was thought that N20 only served as a replacement in low oxygen environments. 

However, the researchers soon found that soil bacteria can hedge their bets and will gamble on the chance that there is N20 in the soil. 

This ability is also passed on to new cells so that the bacteria can thrive in low oxygen environments if needed. 

The study has important implications for using soil bacteria to remove N20 from the atmosphere. 

“Despite efforts to address carbon dioxide emissions, nitrous oxide is now emerging as a pressing global concern and requires researchers with different skill sets to come together from around the world to prevent the next wave of climate change,” said  Andrew Gates, a leader of the study. “This work will help inform policy makers of the potential to exploit bacteria as sinks for this powerful climate-active gas.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Soil bacteria eat up this powerful greenhouse gas

Nitrous oxide (N2O), also known as laughing gas, is a...

Aquatic <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/kelp-antarctica-traveled/">kelp</a> forests are considered to be some of the most productive ecosystems on the planet. These giant pillars of seaweed, commonly found along the Pacific coast of North America, provide food and shelter for thousands of marine species.

Study co-author Bob Miller is a biologist from the Marine Science Institute (MSI) at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>.

“Giant kelp's complex physical structure that extends throughout the water column and its very high productivity are unique,” said Miller. “No other species in the kelp forest can replace giant kelp's high capacity to physically modify the environment and produce habitat and food for a myriad of other species.”

For this reason, giant kelp are known as a “foundation species,” which is an organism that plays a major role in the structure of a community.

Giant kelp are typically able to endure strong ocean currents, and can even replenish themselves after storms at an impressive rate that is the equivalent of about three percent of their weight per day. However, according to MSI research biologist Dan Reed, the violent disturbances that are expected to result from climate change could devastate kelp forests across the globe.

“One of the expectations of climate change is that many types of disturbances - for example fire, hurricanes and floods - will occur more often or become more severe in their intensity,” said Reed. “Ecologists have long recognized the important role of disturbance in structuring natural communities, however, they have yet to resolve how natural communities respond to increases in the frequency of disturbance versus increases in the severity of disturbance.”

Max Castorani is a professor of Environmental Sciences at the <a href="http://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a> and the study's lead researcher.

“We found that the frequency of disturbance was the most important factor influencing kelp forest biodiversity, whereas the severity of disturbance in a given year played a minor role,” said Professor Castorani.

Over the course of nine years, the researchers counted and measured more than 200 species of fish, plants, and invertebrates every three months in large experimental kelp forests off the Santa Barbara coast.

By simulating annual disturbances where kelp forests were experimentally reduced each year, the team discovered that the number of smaller plants and invertebrates attached to the seafloor such as algae, corals, and sponges doubled in number. At the same time, the numbers of shellfish, such as clams, starfish, lobsters, and crabs, were reduced by 30 to 61 percent.

“Our findings surprised us because we expected that a single severe winter storm would result in big changes to kelp forest biodiversity,” said Castorani. “Instead, the number of disturbances over time had the greatest impact because frequent disturbances suppress the recovery of giant kelp, with large consequences for the surrounding sea life.”

An ecosystem supported by an unhealthy kelp forest has less protection and becomes less complex and productive overall.

David Garrison is a director of the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=7671">National Science Foundation's Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER)</a> program, which funded the study.

“It's a significant finding that the severity and frequency of disturbances influence kelp bed communities in different ways,” said Garrison. “We need this kind of research to predict what future kelp bed communities will look like, and what ecosystem services they will provide.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19399170/">Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Climate change could devastate most productive kelp ecosystems

Aquatic kelp forests are considered to be some of the...

President Trump has been steadily forging ahead with his mission to put fossil fuels, industry, and domestic energy production first.

Wyoming is at the heart of a new <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fracking-harmful-human-health/">fracking</a> boom as more and more oil and gas companies seek permits to drill on leased land up for grabs in what the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/27/climate/trump-fracking-drilling-oil-gas.html">New York Times</a> calls a “federal lands free-for-all.” 

Over 12.8 million acres of federally controlled parcels of land across the West have been offered up for lease, and the number of acres leased by energy companies has reached record highs since 2012. 

According to the New York Times, the number of drilling rigs in Wyoming has doubled since 2016, a trend that shows no signs of stopping. 

Acquiring drilling rights to federal land has never been easier due to a concerted effort by the Trump administration and lobbyists to reverse policies implemented by the Obama Administration that stringently governed how federal lands were used. 

According to the New York Times, Trump’s administration is working to rollback protections for wildlife, air quality, and groundwater. 

Now, big energy companies like Chevron have applied for thousands of permits to drill on federal land and while the economic gains are considerable, so are the potential threats to the environment. 

Some of the policy rollbacks include how often federal land is up for bid, how quickly a permit can be approved, and limiting how long the public has to protest a sale. 

Previously, protests could be filed up to ten days before a lease was issued, and now that number has increased to month. 

The <a href="https://www.blm.gov/">Bureaus of Land Management</a> also faces constraints due to the policy rollbacks and federal leases must be approved by six months. 

To expedite the lease and permit process, the Trump administration has also advised in a memo that environmental assessments are no longer necessary and can be bypassed using a set of loopholes called categorical exclusions.

Perhaps most worrying are the rollbacks that lift restrictions for wildlife habitats and deregulate methane flaring. 

Wyoming is home to a large population of sage grouses and despite extreme conservation measures, male sage grouse populations have experienced declines of up to 30 percent due to increases in energy production. 

“The president, love him or hate him, he’s doing what he said he would do in Washington,” Samantha McDonald, who until August served as a top lobbyist at the <a href="https://www.ipaa.org/">Independent Petroleum Association of America</a>, said during an industry event in Houston. “He’s been actively pursuing a deregulatory agenda that has had millions of dollars of impact.”

Oil production in the U.S. has been growing at an extraordinary rate, and according to the New York Times, states are seeing big returns. Revenue from federal oil and gas sales amounted to $669 million alone for Wyoming. 

The industry and administration are celebrating these gains, but environmental concerns continue to grow along with the surge in fracking. 

“The American West embodies the American spirit, and that is at risk here,” Jeremy Nichols, the energy program director at <a href="https://wildearthguardians.org/">WildEarth Guardians</a>, told the New York Times. “The open spaces, clean air, wild rivers — this is all part of the fabric of the American West, and it is being torn apart, acre by acre, by this unfettered oil and gas leasing.”

Protests to save sage grouse habitats and conserve land have been largely ignored. 

“Literally, thousands of the birds winter there,” Tom Christiansen, who recently worked for the <a href="https://wgfd.wyo.gov/">Wyoming Game and Fish Department</a>, told the New York Times. “We are talking about the highest density population in Wyoming of sage grouse, which has the highest density population in the world. I am very concerned.”

Still, bidding continues, and the impacts of the new administration’s “energy first” policies can be visibly felt across the vast landscapes of Wyoming and the West.  

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Latest fracking boom prompted by Trump policy changes

President Trump has been steadily forging ahead with his mission...

A new discovery at the Department of Energy's <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> has revealed that climate scientists should be paying more attention to what happens among plants at night. The experts have found that, in the absence of photosynthesis, plant nutrient uptake is having an effect on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meat-dairy-production-emissions/">greenhouse gas emissions</a> that is not being accounted for in climate models.


Using a land model that they developed and integrated into the DOE's Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM), the researchers discovered that plants can absorb more carbon dioxide than previously realized. The study also demonstrated that soils lose less nitrous oxide than what has been estimated. 

“This is goodish news, with respect to what is currently in the climate models,” said study lead author William Riley, a scientist in Berkeley Lab's Earth &amp; Environmental Sciences Area. “But it's not good news in general - it's not going to solve the problem. No matter what, plants will not keep up with anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions; it's just that they might do better than current models suggest.”

Over the past decade, humans have emitted an unprecedented amount of carbon dioxide, averaging 34 gigatons per year. Around half of that CO2 lingers in the atmosphere, while the rest is absorbed by oceans and land. The amount of carbon captured by land varies from year to year depending on factors such as land use, fires, drought, and weather.


The Berkeley Lab findings suggest that, by not accurately accounting for what plants do at night and during the non-growing season, climate models may be substantially underestimating the terrestrial carbon sink and overestimating nitrous oxide release.

To test the new model, study co-author Qing Zhu conducted a meta-analysis of 120 experiments that were focused on the short-term nitrogen uptake by plants.

“We also compared observations of nutrient uptake at nighttime versus daytime and across non-growing seasons,” said Riley. “We're pretty confident that the basic mechanisms in the model are correct and this meta-analysis and individual site observations back that up.”

The research team determined that a substantial amount of nutrient uptake occurs in the absence of photosynthesis as plants and microbes compete for nutrients. 

“The amounts vary a lot by latitude, but in the higher latitudes, such as the Arctic, roughly 20 percent of plants' annual nitrogen uptake occurs outside the growing season. That goes up to 55 percent for nighttime uptake in the tropics,” said Riley. 

“That's a huge deal for plants and will facilitate atmospheric carbon uptake, and it's currently completely ignored in most climate models. This type of model improvement will help us better understand implications of future CO2 emissions.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants are storing more carbon thanks to nighttime activity

A new discovery at the Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bitcoin-consume-worlds-energy/">Bitcoin</a>, the much-buzzed about cryptocurrency sweeping the internet, has attracted a wide following and its value has surged nearly tenfold in recent years.Bitcoin growth could push global warming above 2 degrees Celsius 

Even though 2018 saw Bitcoin’s value dip to $6,000 USD, that hasn’t slowed interested or the number of cryptocurrency farms working to mine bitcoin. Bitcoin growth could push global warming above 2 degrees Celsius 

Unfortunately, as Bitcoin’s value grows and more and more minors work to hunt down and record bitcoin purchases, the amount of energy needed to decipher the bitcoin blockchains (a public ledger of all bitcoin exchanges) increases exponentially. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawaii at Manoa</a> conducted a study to project Bitcoin’s energy demands and calculate the cryptocurrency's carbon emissions. 

The results, published in the journal Nature Climate Change, show that if Bitcoin is embraced like other technologies now mainstream, it could produce enough greenhouse gas emissions to raise global temperatures by 2 degrees Celsius by the year 2033. 

In a warming world where scientists are racing to combat emissions and avoid catastrophic climate change, the study shows that bitcoin should be considered in any regulation or mitigation strategies to reduce warming. 

“Bitcoin is a cryptocurrency with heavy hardware requirements, and this obviously translates into large electricity demands,” said Randi Rollins, a co-author of the paper.

In 2017, <a href="https://money.cnn.com/2017/12/07/technology/bitcoin-energy-environment/index.html">CNN reported</a> that Bitcoin used 32 terawatts of energy per year, enough to power millions of households. 

Every Bitcoin purchase is recorded and processed by a group of miners, and miners compete to decipher these complex transactions and show “proof-of-work” since Bitcoin has no bank or stable currency to which it's tied. 

For the study, the researchers took into account several factors for their energy calculations including how much power bitcoin mining required, where miners were located, and the CO2 emissions of the areas where bitcoin mining is popular. 

After analyzing the data, the researchers discovered that in 2017 Bitcoin purchases and mining emitted 69 million metric tons of CO2. 

If implemented at even the slowest rate of other technologies adopted by society, the researchers calculated that Bitcoin emissions could cause global temperatures to climb above 2 degrees Celsius in 22 years. 

“With the ever-growing devastation created by hazardous climate conditions, humanity is coming to terms with the fact that climate change is as real and personal as it can be,” said Camilo Mora, the lead author of the study. “Clearly, any further development of cryptocurrencies should critically aim to reduce electricity demand, if the potentially devastating consequences of 2°C of global warming are to be avoided.”

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Bitcoin growth could push global warming above 2 degrees Celsius

Bitcoin, the much-buzzed about cryptocurrency sweeping the internet, has attracted...

Ahead of Halloween, wildlife officials are urging people to take precautions to protect wildlife. While fake cobwebs are meant to be a fun part of the festivities surrounding the holiday, they pose a risk to wild animals who can become entangled in the fabric.

Fake cobwebs can catch a number of species who live in close proximity to humans such as deer, squirrels, raccoons and insects. <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wind-turbines-harm-birds-100-miles-away/">Birds</a> are likely at the greatest risk of entanglement, especially when cobwebs are hung off the ground and obstruct a bird’s flight path. Since the cobwebs are lightweight, they can also blow away and enter animals’ habitats.

Even if wild animals normally keep their distance from humans, they may be attracted to the area by other Halloween decorations. Pumpkins left outside are a tempting treat and may entice wild animals to a front yard where they can encounter the cobwebs. The Arizona Game and Fish Department even warned residents ahead of Halloween this year that they could be fined up to $300 if wild animals eat their Halloween decorations, according to<a href="https://kvoa.com/news/local-news/2018/10/24/residents-could-be-fined-for-wildlife-eating-halloween-decorations/"> News 4 Tucson</a>.

In one instance, an owl in California became entangled in a fake cobweb on Halloween night. When the owl tried to escape, he panicked and only became more ensnared. Thankfully, the Marin Humane Society responded to the scene and rescued him. He was then taken to WildCare in San Rafael for treatment and was returned to the wild. The family took down their cobwebs after the incident and decided to stop using the decorations permanently.

It’s not just Halloween that threatens wildlife. WildCare has seen animals clash with decorations throughout the year.

"It's a lot more common than people realize," said WildCare Director Melanie Piazza told<a href="https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/Real-Owl-Caught-in-Fake-Halloween-Spider-Web-132831773.html"> NBC Bay Area</a>. "We've had squirrels come in with Fourth of July banners wrapped around their tails and deer that have been stuck in Christmas lights."

Fireworks can also cause harm to wild animal through loud noises, toxins and direct obstructions. One Arkansas neighborhood famously brought in the New Year in 2011 with<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/04/us/04beebe.html"> thousands of dead birds falling from the sky</a>. Wildlife officials believe the fireworks caused the birds to become disorientated. The birds began flying at lower heights to avoid the fireworks and collided into homes and trees, resulting in their death.

People who want to enjoy their holidays do not need to forgo all decorations. For Halloween, people can hang fake cobwebs up from inside their windows or use other decorations such as jack-o’-lanterns with fake candles. This way the only ones who are spooked are the trick-or-treaters.

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By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Fake cobwebs can cause more than just a spook to wildlife

Ahead of Halloween, wildlife officials are urging people to take...

All active volcanoes pose a risk to nearby people and communities, but some are more dangerous than others. In an updated volcano threat assessment, the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">U.S. Geological Survey</a> has listed 18 volcanoes as “very high threats.”

Eleven of the 18 riskiest volcanoes in the U.S. are in Washington, Oregon or California, and five are in Alaska, but it’s Hawaii’s erupting Kilauea that tops the volcano threat list.

“This report may come as a surprise to many, but not to volcanologists,” Dr. Janine Krippner of <a href="https://www.concord.edu/">Concord University</a> told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily Mail</a>. “The USA is one of the most active countries in the world when it comes to volcanic activity.”

The <a href="https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/sir20185140">2018 report</a> also lists 39 high threat, 49 moderate threat, 34 low threat and 21 very low threat volcanoes in the U.S. – 161 active volcanoes in total.

Each volcano threat was assessed on 24 different different risk factors, including how active the volcano is, its historic eruptions, how close it is to large populations, and more. 

But a high-risk volcano won’t necessarily be the next one to erupt and cause damage.

“The threat ranking is not an indication of which volcano will erupt next,” the USGS report noted. “Rather, it indicates how severe the impacts might be from future eruptions at any given volcano.”

The top five “high threat” volcanoes on the report are Hawaii’s Kilauea, Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier in Washington, Redoubt Volcano in Alaska, and Mount Shasta in California. The majority of the moderate threat volcanoes are in Alaska, the USGS reported. The report also raised the volcano threat level of Yellowstone in Wyoming.

The volcano threat assessment comes at a time when about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-hazards-millions-risk/">800 million people</a> around the world live within 60 miles of an active volcano. 

“Understanding how volcanic threat varies with distance from the volcano and which groups of people are affected most can contribute to risk reduction by providing empirical data on which to forecast impacts or support evidence-based eruption planning and preparedness,” researchers wrote in a <a href="https://appliedvolc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13617-017-0067-4">study published last October</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Kilauea tops new USGS volcano threat assessment

All active volcanoes pose a risk to nearby people and...

Rising sea levels could force England to sacrifice about 90 miles of its coast – 1.5 million coastal properties – by the year 2080, a new study warns.

“There's already a very significant risk of flooding and coastal erosion,” Dr. Jim Hall of the UK’s <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/">Committee on Climate Change</a> told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily Mail</a>. “That could get a lot worse – about a million-and-a-half properties in future at risk from flooding, 100,000 properties at risk from coastal erosion.”

The committee estimates that the sea around England will rise as much as 3 feet by 2080 due to rising atmospheric temperatures around the world. Depending on the coastal elevation, this could cause England to lose anywhere from 0.1 to 25 meters of coastal land.

The rising sea levels won’t just cause flooding, the researchers said. The shift will allow for more devastating storm surges and cause issues with erosion.

Large swaths of the Lancashire coastline could be lost, along with south Devon, north Somerset and parts of Essex and Norfolk. Some areas may be saved, but financial impact mean others will not.

And as many as 55 landfills could be swamped, spilling hazardous materials into the ocean waters.

The UK study isn’t the first to warn people of the rising sea levels. 

One recent study found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-levels-inland/">13.1 million people in the United States</a> alone could be displaced by coastal flooding. The <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> has released a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maps-potential-sea-level-rise/">set of maps</a> predicting which areas might be hardest hit.

A global study found that even a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-tsunami-flooding/">12-inch rise</a> could lead to flooding and more devastating tsunamis.

The UK government needs to sit down with small coastal communities and begin considering their options before the rising sea levels cause problems, Hall told the Mail.

“We are talking about abandoning houses and people being exposed to intolerable levels of coastal flood risk,” he said.

At least one member of the Committee on Climate Change agreed with him.

“Our current approach to protecting the coastline is really not fit for [this] purpose,” Julia King, Baroness Brown of Cambridge and deputy chairwoman of the committee, told the Mail. “This is a wake-up call.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Rising sea levels could cost England 90 miles of coastland

Rising sea levels could force England to sacrifice about 90...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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