Music often does more than entertain. It paints images in our minds, builds worlds, and stirs emotions we can’t always explain. A new study shows how even the tiniest human touches in sound can influence this inner world.



The findings from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/music/our-research/cross-disciplinary-research/sydney-music-mind-and-body-lab.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sydney Music, Mind and Body Lab</a>, reveal how subtle shifts in rhythm and tone may fuel imagination in ways technology alone cannot replicate. 



These delicate imperfections - tiny fluctuations in timing or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-and-the-mind-new-clues-about-how-we-experience-pleasure/">volume</a> - can transform repetitive beats into living experiences, sparking imagery that feels real and immersive.



Rather than simply hearing structured sounds, listeners create journeys filled with color, movement, and narrative. The study suggests that the human quality of music holds unique power to trigger creativity and emotional depth. 



The research also shows why live performances, with all their small variations, can feel more moving than flawless recordings, and why imagination often thrives when music carries traces of human touch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-musical-shifts-big-mental-impact">Small musical shifts, big mental impact</h2>



Researchers asked 100 participants to imagine a journey while listening to repetitive drumming. Some heard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/">drumming</a> with random micro-variations in loudness and timing, while others heard perfectly uniform beats or silence.



Those who listened to music with micro-variations reported richer imagery, longer imagined journeys, and more lifelike scenes. 



They often described environments filled with movement, color, or emotion that felt authentic and dynamic, which suggests these subtle rhythmic details significantly influence how the brain constructs vivid inner experiences.



"What excites me is that these little details in music are something we can all feel, even if we don't always notice them consciously," said lead researcher Ceren Ayyildiz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-touch-makes-rhythm-alive">Human touch makes rhythm alive</h2>



The study, published in Scientific Reports, relied on computer simulations of drum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-music-tunes-the-emotions-in-our-memories/">sounds</a>. Researchers created two versions: one with flawless uniformity and another with tiny, natural shifts mimicking human performance.



They then analyzed participants’ mental imagery responses with Bayesian multilevel modeling. The results showed that small fluctuations, often unconsciously introduced by performers, significantly enhance imagination.



These subtle imperfections did not distract listeners; instead, they added depth and texture to the soundscape, making the music feel more organic. Participants reported that the variations encouraged richer narratives, longer journeys, and greater immersion in imagined experiences.



This demonstrates that even the smallest rhythmic nuances can transform sound from a mechanical sequence into something that resonates with the human mind, shaping how people visualize and emotionally respond to music.



"It's not just technical perfection but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-touch-molecular-basis-elkin1-discovery/">human touch</a> that makes music feel more alive and sparks the imagination," Ayyildiz said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musical-skills-amplify-imagination">Musical skills amplify imagination</h2>



Listeners with musical training or strong immersion ability experienced even more vivid mental imagery. For them, micro-variations brought authenticity and richness missing from machine-perfect sounds.



"One possible explanation for this finding is that listeners may perceive drumming with tiny random changes - a core component of human music performance - as more natural and organic," said Ayyildiz.



The study highlights how human imperfections in rhythm bring authenticity and create a sense of connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-and-sound-variations-aid-therapy">Music and sound variations aid therapy</h2>



The insights also suggest therapeutic and practical applications. "Mental imagery already plays an important role in many cognitive therapies," said senior author Dr. Steffen Herff.



"Deliberately tailoring background music - for example through subtle changes in timing and loudness - could be used to either stimulate or dampen imagination depending on the specific therapeutic target," 



For audio engineers and producers, the study provides a new perspective. Micro-variations are already used in studio production as key aesthetic drivers in many forms of music including electronic dance music and hip-hop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-expression-drives-connection">Human expression drives connection</h2>



For musicians, especially drummers, the findings emphasize the creative weight of subtle timing shifts. 



"This study demonstrates how the tiny details in rhythmic timing and expression can greatly alter our perceptions of music," said researcher Dr. Simon Barker.



"The relationship between micro-rhythmic variations and imagination, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/">illusion</a>, and connection are at the core of the art of drumming, and this study is a lovely example of this central aspect of rhythmic expression and communication."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-s-power-comes-from-touch">Music’s power comes from touch</h2>



The study adds to a growing body of work exploring music’s role in imagination, connection, and even loneliness. 



Its message is clear: even in a world of machine-perfect precision, the smallest human variations breathe life into sound, reminding us of music’s timeless power to shape emotion, enrich creativity, strengthen bonds, and nurture a uniquely human sense of presence and belonging.



"Even tiny fluctuations can make music more meaningful," said Ayyildiz. "It's a reminder that the human feel still matters."



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/FEh_WfGeCTo?si=4ftg3JG20m5vyTxE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Here, tiny fluctuations in timing and loudness introduce a human touch that breathes life into the rhythm - the kind of nuance shown to spark richer mental imagery. Credit: University of Sydney </figcaption></figure>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-12604-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;



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Tiny human touches can make music sound more powerful

Music often does more than entertain. It paints images in our minds, builds worlds, and stirs emotions we can’t always explain. A new study shows how even the tiniest human touches in sound can influence this inner world. The findings from the Sydney Music, Mind and Body Lab, reveal how subtle shifts in rhythm and tone may fuel imagination in ways technology alone cannot replicate. These delicate imperfections - tiny fluctuations in timing or volume - can transform repetitive beats into living experiences, sparking imagery that feels...

A new study from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> has found that facial exercise can speed up the wrinkle-reducing effects of Botox injections. The researchers discovered that exercising muscles in the face accelerates the change in appearance by about one day. 

The results of botulinum toxin (Botox), which include a reduction in forehead <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/maple-leaves-prevent-wrinkles/">wrinkles</a>, frown lines, and crow's' feet, produce a more youthful appearance that lasts for several months. However, it takes a few days for the effects to become visible.

Study lead study author Dr. Murad Alam is a professor of Dermatology and a physician at Northwestern Medicine. 

“Patients often leave getting their Botox to the last minute,” said Dr. Alam. “If people get their botulinum toxin right before a social engagement or important work event, they may worry it won't start working in time. Speeding up the effects could be important to people.”

The general belief in the medical community was once that exercising the treated muscles would make Botox work sooner. According to Dr. Alam, some doctors suggested it did not make much of a difference, and the idea fell out of favor.

“But we wondered who was right. Since there had not been any well-designed randomized studies comparing exercise and no exercise side-by-side, we decided to do one.”

The investigation was focused on 22 adult women with forehead wrinkles who were treated with botulinum toxin. Half of the participants were instructed to exercise their facial muscles over four hours after the injections, while the other half were not. The exercises included raised motions of the forehead and scowls in three sets of 40 repetitions separated by 10 minutes. 

Six months later, when the effects of the Botox had worn off, the participants were retreated and their roles were reversed. The group who had not performed facial exercises in the first trial were instructed to do so, and vice versa.

Ratings by both dermatologists and participants revealed that forehead wrinkles showed improvement in two to three days when the injections were followed by facial exercise, compared to three to four days without exercise. 

By two weeks, there was no difference in the effect between participants who had exercised their facial muscles or not, and there also was no difference in how long the treatments lasted before wearing off. 

“Botox binds to receptors on nerve cells to relax muscles, and it is possible that exercise speeds this binding process,” said Dr. Alam. “For patients who need quick results, the exercise may be worth the effort. Patients appreciate having more control over their care.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jaad.org/">Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Facial exercise can help Botox effects kick in 24 hours sooner

A new study from Northwestern University has found that facial...

A new study led by the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has found that elevated body mass index (BMI) contributes to population patterns in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mortality-rates-heart-failure/">mortality</a>. The research, which is based on BMI measurements and mortality data from 500,000 people, confirms that being overweight increases a person's risk of death from all causes including various cancers and cardiovascular disease.

Among individuals who participated in the UK Biobank, a study of middle to late-aged adults, every 5kg/m2 increase in BMI was associated with a 16-percent higher mortality risk and with a 61-percent higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease.

While it is already known that severe obesity increases the relative risk of death, previous studies have produced conflicting results. The findings of some research suggested that there could be a protective effect at different points of the BMI spectrum. This is the first study to use a genetic-based approach to investigate this link.

The experts at Bristol applied a method called Mendelian randomization, a technique that uses genetic variation in a person's DNA to help understand the causal relationships between risk factors and health outcomes. 

With data from the UK Biobank, the team demonstrated that the optimum body mass index for survival was lower when calculated using Mendelian randomization. In addition,  the association remained flatter over a larger range of body mass index. The results provide clear evidence of a strong association between obesity and increased mortality risk.

Study lead author Dr. Kaitlin Wade explained: “The findings highlight the need for a global effort to reduce the surging levels of obesity within society and suggest that in most cases, any reduction in body mass index to a normal, healthy level is likely to be beneficial.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1930739x">Obesity</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study: Being overweight increases risk of death from all causes

A new study led by the University of Bristol has...

According to the <a href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/any-anxiety-disorder.shtml">National Institute of Mental Health</a>, an estimated 31.1 percent of US adults will experience an <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/lavender-calming-treat-anxiety/">anxiety</a> disorder at some point in their lives. 

Anxiety disorders are one of the primary mental health concerns in the United States, and recent research has found that more and more young adults are being diagnosed or treated for anxiety. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.utsa.edu/">University of Texas at San Antonio</a> recently conducted a study examining the prevalence of mental health conditions and the increase in diagnoses across college campuses in the US. 

The study, published in the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07448481.2018.1515748">Journal of American College Health</a>, reveals an increase in both diagnoses for mental health conditions as well as college students taking advantage of University health services in recent years. 

The researchers reviewed a National College Health Association dataset that included information on over 450,000 undergraduate students between 2009 and 2015. 

Twelve mental health conditions were considered for the study, and the researchers identified increases in diagnoses of and treatment for 8 of the 12 conditions including anxiety, depression, and panic attacks. 

Treatment and diagnoses of anxiety increased by 5.6 percent in the years reviewed, depression increased by 3.2 percent, and panic attacks increased by 2.8 percent. 

While it’s unclear why these increases occurred, the researchers suggest that it’s due to deteriorating mental health coupled with an increased willingness to seek help. 

However, the researchers note that further studies should be done before drawing any conclusions as to what is causing the increases in diagnoses among college students. 

The study showed that one out of five of the students used their univerisity’s mental health services by 2015. 

Students may be more willing to seek help because of reduced stigmas surrounding mental health. 

“We don't know that the college environment is causing or even contributing to the increase in these conditions, but campuses are going to have to address it,” said Sara Oswalt, the lead author of the study. “Higher education institutions want students to be successful in college, but if mental health issues aren't adequately addressed, it will make student success more difficult to achieve.” 

The researchers say that campuses need to be as prepared as they can to care for students and to make sure they can keep up with demand and take advantage of all available resources. 

“Each institution will need to develop strategies that work for their culture and location, and solution-focused conversations need to happen with the highest levels of administration to adequately implement and support these strategies,” said Oswalt.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study: Higher rates of mental health conditions on college campuses

According to the National Institute of Mental Health, an estimated...

Chicago is often portrayed as one of America’s most violent cities, even sometimes called the “murder capital” of the country. Reading about a violent streak of weekend <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/school-shootings-deaths-increasing/">shootings</a> in the news is, unfortunately, a common occurrence for many Chicago residents. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a> and <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> set out to investigate crime in Chicago to see if any patterns could be identified that could help police officers target specific areas or dates to prevent crime. 

The study was published in an online edition of the journal PLOS ONE. 

The researchers reviewed and analyzed data on nearly six million reported crimes in Chicago between 2001 and 2014 looking for anything that might explain heightened periods of activity. 

“The results were interesting," said Sherry Towers, a member of the research team. “We found that most types of crime in Chicago had very distinct patterns by time of year, time of day, weekday and even holidays.”

Friday, particularly payday Friday and Saturday, seemed to have the most violent activity, especially for batteries and aggravated assaults.

“People are often out and about on the weekend, interacting with a greater variety of people than they typically do on a weekday,” said Towers. “Importantly, especially on Friday and Saturday nights, alcohol is likely to be involved, and that can increase aggression.”

Hot <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-severe-frequent/">summer temperatures</a> also correlated with an increase in aggressive crimes which means that summer weekends are a “perfect storm” for shootings, according to the researchers. 

Holidays and days with rainy, windy weather had fewer reported crimes. 

The study provides essential information that could help with predictive analytics for policing which can aid in preventing crime. 

“If you can tell police where and when to focus their resources, it empowers them with information to be more effective and reduce crime,” said David Ebert. “There are natural time patterns to human activity, but they vary at the neighborhood level so it is important to pick those out and equip officers with this information. We just don't want to put the cops on the dots but put the right officers in the right location at the right times to be on the lookout for certain activities.”

Chicago’s murder rates are high but still lower than large American cities like Baltimore and New Orleans, and this study has wide-reaching applications for studying crime patterns in cities large and small. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Weekends, heatwaves linked to increases in Chicago shootings

Chicago is often portrayed as one of America’s most violent...

Working memory is critical in guiding us through everyday actions such as taking directions or weighing the costs and benefits of a decision. Experts have developed a new model of working memory that explains how the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/brain-compensates-uncertainty/">brain</a> holds information while executing volitional control over itself.

Study lead author Earl Miller is a professor in the <a href="https://picower.mit.edu/">Picower Institute for Learning and Memory</a> at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). As a neuroscientist, Professor Miller has been studying how working memory operates for more than 20 years. 

“What's special about working memory is that it is volitional,” said Professor Miller. “It is the main mechanism by which your brain wrests control from the environment and puts it under its own control. Any simple creature can just react to the environment. But what higher order animals have evolved is the ability to take control over their own thoughts.”

According to Professor Miller, the new model brings together the maintenance and volition of working memory. The model proposes that the brain operates working memory by coordinating neurons in the cortex with bursts of activity specifically timed during the frequencies of specific brain waves. 

In the model, waves in the low “alpha and beta” frequencies carry our knowledge and goals and regulate the higher frequency “gamma” waves, which handle new sensory information that needs to be manipulated. 

For example, low frequency waves may carry the knowledge that you need to purchase a new set of long-lasting tires, as well as the highest price that you are willing to pay for them. High frequency waves may carry the salesperson's pitch about how much two different sets of tires cost and how long they would last.

Meanwhile, the temporary storage of the new sensory information is achieved based on the interactions of these rhythmic waves and the subsequent changes in the strength of the connections among the neurons, called synapses.

Professor Miller said that his lab is using the model to explore new questions that may explain working memory in finer detail. The team also hopes to find ways that working memory may be therapeutically enhanced for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism.

“Can we strengthen the ‘top down’ rhythms when you need to focus, or can we strengthen gamma by weakening beta when you need to be more sensorily receptive?” According to Professor Miller, the model may eventually answer these questions.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/home">Neuron</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How working memory guides you through the day

Working memory is critical in guiding us through everyday actions...

A team of neuroscientists at the <a href="http://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has discovered a way that the brain compensates during challenges when it doubts its own abilities. The study revealed that when tasks are too complicated, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/brain-control-movement-limbs/">brain</a> draws on previous experiences for guidance. According to the experts, this strategy actually improves overall performance.

Study senior author Mehrdad Jazayeri is the Robert A. Swanson Career Development Professor of Life Sciences and a member of MIT's <a href="https://mcgovern.mit.edu/mcgovern-institute-for-brain-research-at-mit">McGovern Institute for Brain Research</a>.

“If you're doing something that requires a harder mental transformation, and therefore creates more uncertainty and more variability, you rely on your prior beliefs and bias yourself toward what you know how to do well, in order to compensate for that variability,” explained Professor Jazayeri.

For many decades, neuroscientists have recognized an amount of uncertainty in the brain as it responds to things that we see or hear but do not fully understand. This uncertainty causes random fluctuations of electrical activity in the brain, or “noise,” that is also generated during social interactions and as we attempt to recall past events.

Previous research has revealed many strategies which help the brain to compensate for this uncertainty, such as relying on an average of its past experiences. The brain is also known to handle conflicting evidence by choosing the more reliable source.

Professor Jazayeri explained that these strategies have been previously shown to work together to increase bias toward a particular outcome, which makes our overall performance better because it reduces variability.

Noise is also produced in the brain during the mental conversion of sensory information into a motor plan. For example, if you try to write your name backward so that it can be read in the mirror, the brain faces uncertainty when attempting to perform this unfamiliar conversion.

Researchers set out to investigate the brain's response to this type of mental conversion using three different tasks. For each task, they compared the performance of the participants in a version of the task that was simple versus a version that was extra challenging.


Overall, the experts found that during the version of a task that required difficult mental transformations, people altered their performance using the same strategies that they use to overcome noise in sensory perception. For example, when the individuals  had to draw lines ranging from 7.5 to 15 centimeters, they tended to draw lines that were closer to the average length of all the lines they had previously drawn. 

“This regression to the mean is a very common strategy for making performance better when there is uncertainty,” said Professor Jazayeri.

Based on their findings, the researchers believe that when people get very good at a task that requires complex computation, the noise will decrease and become less detrimental to overall performance. At this point, people will trust their computations more and stop relying on averages.

“As it gets easier, our prediction is the bias will go away, because that computation is no longer a noisy computation,” said Professor Jazayeri. “You believe in the computation; you know the computation is working well.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How the brain compensates for its own uncertainty

A team of neuroscientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) are reporting that politics can interfere with an individual's ability to assess expertise. The study has found that people tend to rank like-minded peers as being more qualified than others in positions that are completely unrelated to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/political-impact-changing-climate/">politics</a>.

“Our findings have implications for the spread of false news, for political polarization and for social divisions,” explained study senior author Professor Tali Sharot. “If we are aware of a person's political leanings, for example on social media, we will be more likely to accept their take on a myriad of issues without scrutiny.”

A team of researchers from UCL and Harvard University instructed 97 study participants to categorize geometric shapes based on the features of the shape. While completing the task, participants were asked whether they agreed or disagreed with a number of political statements, such as “Immigration gives a boost to the national economy.”

After completing the shape categorization task, the individuals were informed of whether their answers were correct and were shown the answers of four other “co-players.” The participants were also shown how the co-players had responded to the political statements.


In reality, the co-players were computer algorithms designed to perform the task either extremely well or relatively poorly. The system was also designed so that some of the co-players would mostly agree with the participants on political issues while others would mostly disagree.

In a second phase of the trial, the participants were given a new set of shapes to categorize and were promised a financial reward based on their performance. For each shape, the individuals were allowed to view the answer of one of the co-players before finalizing their answers.


The study revealed that the participants chose to view the responses of those who shared their political views, instead of increasing their odds of a higher reward by consulting with a co-player who had proven expertise on the task.

“When we examined participants' impressions of the co-players we found they overestimated how good the politically like-minded were at the shape categorization task. This misperception drove the participants to seek advice from the politically like-minded,” said Professor Sharot.

“These results suggest that similarity creates an illusory perception of competence which generalises to unrelated domains. This is an example of a halo effect - the tendency for positive evaluations in one area to influence evaluations in other areas,” added co-lead author Joseph Marks.

“Our findings have clear real-world implications: If people seek out and listen to the advice of those who share their political beliefs over those who possess subject matter expertise, they may end up forming wildly inaccurate beliefs on topics where there are objectively correct answers.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/cognition">Cognition</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People are more likely to listen to peers who share their politics

Researchers at the University College London (UCL) are reporting that...

With the U.S. midterm elections quickly approaching, many in the States may be so focused on domestic politics that you might wonder: why should I care about who the next president of Brazil will be?

There are a couple of reasons why the next president of Brazil is important.  First is that the physical world, the world non-humans live in, the world of rocks and water, trees is not a world that recognizes political boundaries.  The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-largest-rainforests/">Amazon Rainforest</a> is the largest in the world at 1.2 billion acres, containing 10% of the earth’s known species.  The whole of the Amazon Rainforest is contained within the borders of nine different nations. A full 60% of the Amazon is in Brazil.  The next largest amount is the 13% of the rainforest governed by Peru. 

I’ve visited the Ecuadorian Amazon, and even though less than 10% of the Amazon is in Ecuador, that small fragment is a wonderland like few places I’ve visited.  The Amazon is a place patrolled by ants in ancient relationships with trees and fungi. Orchids bloom from tree branches, sloths hang, hidden in lichen spotted coats.  Everything bursts with violent life quickly eaten up by other life. There are 16,000 species of trees in the Amazon. Drugs that rattle the senses with psychedelic epiphany are known by tribespeople.  Other drugs lie hidden in plants, frog venom and fungi waiting perhaps to cure cancer or kill. <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/">Mongabay</a> reported in 2012 that 25% of plants used in modern medicine were produced in the Amazon.  

The Amazon is like no other place on Earth, a place that reflects in some ways the deep connection between humans and the rest of the world.  The Amazon is a hidden store of knowledge and also a giver of life. 

The Amazon Rainforest has been described as the lungs of our planet.  According to the <a href="https://rainforestfoundation.org/commonly-asked-questions-and-facts/">Rainforest Foundation</a>, this isn’t exactly true.  Only 20% of our oxygen is produced by rainforests, 80% being produced by microorganisms in the ocean.  It’s important to note that the Amazon Rainforest has an important impact on the Atlantic Ocean as well.  According to NASA’s <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/7021/amazon-river-in-the-atlantic-ocean">Earth Observatory</a>, 7,740,000 cubic feet of water flow from the Amazon River into the Atlantic, every second.  

As the water from tributaries in the high Andes mountains melt out of the snow, as the river twists and turns its way 4,049 miles through the rainforest, something important happens.  Fungi, leaves, rotting wood, dead animals, nutrient rich soil, all mix into the water. Fish defecate. Parrots drop seeds. The water that bursts into the Atlantic is not water alone but a fertile brew of nutrient rich tea.  The nutrition from the Amazon feed microorganisms (including cyanobacteria), which also create oxygen and feed fish, some which people eat. It’s unknown the full extent of the relationship between the world’s oceans and the Amazon but it’s clear that the world’s largest river is important to the Atlantic and the forest on the banks of that river is important as well.  

Whether you ever visit the Amazon or not, you may breathe air that was created by an Amazonian tree.  You enjoy weather patterns wrapped into a global whole which includes the Amazon. Fresh water, fertile land for banana and coffee plantations, gorgeous house plants are all products of the Amazon.  The greatest jungle in the world, a land of piranhas, crocodiles, monkeys and tarantulas is a part of your world whether or not you know it. The people, animals and plants that live there depend on people they’ve never met in their restraint.  

Jair Bolsonaro is running for president in Brazil and threatens the world’s largest rainforest in doing so.  In just six days on the 28th of October, Bolsonaro is set to win the presidential election, polling recently at 58% with voters.  

According to <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2018/10/jair-bolsonaro-looming-threat-to-the-amazon-and-global-climate/">Mongabay</a>, Bolsonaro has vowed to open the Amazon for exploitation like no one before him.  Bolsonaro has said he would abolish Brazil’s Environmental Ministry, saying it will be absorbed by the Ministry of Agriculture.  Brazil is a unique country, having set aside large pieces of land for indigenous peoples. <a href="https://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/brazilian">Survival International</a> reports that there are 240 tribes living in Brazil, making up .4% of the nation’s overall population.  Brazil’s government has recognized 690 territories for indigenous peoples, setting aside about 13% of Brazil’s total landmass.  60% of that Indigenous territory is located in the Amazon Rainforest. In a speech Bolsonaro revealed his plans for Indigenous communities and quilombos, communities of quilombolas the descendants of runaway slaves recognized by the Brazilian constitution, 

“You can be sure that if I get there [to the Presidency], I will not have money for NGOs. If it depends on me, every citizen will have a firearm at home [to defend their property, and] there won’t be one centimeter [or inch] demarcated for indigenous reserves or quilombolas.”       

Mongabay goes on to quote Bolsonaro again at a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sUueYXzr9jE">street campaign event</a>, saying that the government must work for the majority, implying that the minorities might simply disappear.  Bolsonaro has said he wants to open up mining even on Indigenous lands and economic exploitation of the Amazon including more dam projects in the region.  

Bolsonaro also wants to follow in the footsteps of Trump, his American counterpart, and pull Brazil out of the Paris Climate Accords.   

In another way Bolsonaro mirrors Trump with sexist and hateful rhetoric.  <a href="http://time.com/3630922/brazil-politics-congresswoman-rape-comments/">Time</a> reports that the presidential candidate told a congresswoman she’s ‘not worthy’ of sexual assault. 

Also disturbing is that if he’s elected president, Bolsonaro might have strong support from Brazil’s congress, leaving only the country’s Supreme Court standing between Bolsonaro and achieving his goals.  

There are some signs that Bolsonaro faces strong <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/08/in-brazil-only-the-grandest-of-coalitions-can-now-defeat-bolsonaro">resistance</a> from indigenous peoples, from women’s groups, from environmentalists and others.  If our own recent history is any indication, they need as much support as they can get.  When you think that as an outsider you have no place in another country’s politics, consider the influence America has on the rest of the world already.  Consider the importance of a whole world to everyone. The eyes of the world should be on Brazil and the Amazon. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The next president of Brazil could devastate the Amazon rainforest

With the U.S. midterm elections quickly approaching, many in the...

A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> has demonstrated that a naturally occurring hormone reverses memory loss in the brain that is associated with aging. The findings may lead to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms which underlie memory, and how these mechanisms could ultimately be manipulated.

“Nearly everyone will experience age-related memory loss in their lifetimes, so it is incredibly important to understand its causes and identify ways to mitigate it,” said study lead author and Nobel laureate Dr. Eric R. Kandel. “With today's study, we are not only building a detailed understanding of how age-related memory loss originates in the brain, we've shown how osteocalcin interacts with key proteins in the brain to boost memory.”

Over the years, scientists have come to the realization that not all forms of memory loss are the same. <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/exercise-benefits-alzheimers/">Alzheimer's disease</a> is associated with different changes in the brain compared to age-related memory loss. While both disorders impact the hippocampus, the brain's center for learning and memory, each type of memory loss targets a different area within that region.

“Alzheimer's disease begins in a part of the brain called the entorhinal cortex, which lies at the foot of the hippocampus,” explained Dr. Kandel. “Age-related memory loss, by contrast, begins within the hippocampus itself, in a region called the dentate gyrus.”

In 2013, Dr. Kandel and his team discovered  that a deficiency in the RbAp48 protein contributes to age-related memory loss but not to Alzheimer's disease. Research has shown that RbAp48 levels decline with age, both in mice and in people. When the team artificially increased RbAp48 in aging mice, memory decline was counteracted.

In 2017, the researchers teamed up with Dr. Gerard Karsenty and found that infusions of osteocalcin, a hormone naturally released by bone cells, had a positive effect on memory.

The current study connects osteocalcin and RbAp48, suggesting that interactions between these molecules are the driving force behind the memory improvements that were previously observed. 

A series of experiments revealed that RbAp48 controls the expression levels of BDNF and GPR158, two proteins regulated from osteocalcin. If RbAp48 function was inhibited, however, osteocalcin infusions had no effect on the memory of the mice. Therefore, RbAp48 is needed for the hormone osteocalcin to improve memory. 

This complex sequence of molecular signals is completely unrelated to those associated with Alzheimer's disease. “This is the clearest evidence yet that age-related memory loss and Alzheimer's are distinct diseases,” said Dr. Kandel.

The research team has also shown in studies involving mice that moderate exercise, such as walking, triggers the release of osteocalcin - indicating that exercise is a way to prevent and even reverse age-related memory loss.

“This notion points to another line of inquiry that we're eager to explore, which is how does the aging body act on the aging brain, and how can it be reversed?” said Dr. Kandel. “Our latest findings are almost certainly not the whole story. They are just the beginning.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/home">Cell Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Naturally occurring hormone could prevent or reverse memory loss

A team of researchers at Columbia University has demonstrated that...

A new study by experts at the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a> has revealed that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-intelligence/">air pollution</a> significantly decreased in the United States between 1990 and 2010. The researchers also found that deaths related to air pollution exposure were reduced by almost 50 percent, dropping from around 135,000 to 71,000.

These major improvements in public health and air quality occurred despite increases in population, energy demand, and vehicle usage, and can be tied to the enforcement of new federal regulations during the twenty-year study period.

Study co-author Jason West is a professor of Environmental Sciences and Engineering at the UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health. 

“We've invested a lot of resources as a society to clean up our air,” said Professor West. “This study demonstrates that those changes have had a real impact with fewer people dying each year due to exposure to outdoor air pollution.”

The research, which was led by Yuqiang Zhang of the <a href="https://www.duke.edu/">Duke University</a> Nicholas School of the Environment, confirms several other recent studies which found similar reductions in air pollution-related deaths. Unlike previous investigations, however, the current study used a 21-year computer simulation to estimate air pollution deaths each year.

The team analyzed concentrations of two pollutants, PM2.5 and ozone, across the country between 1990 and 2010. The researchers then compared these declining pollution levels to the causes of death in different geographical areas at the same time.

Using data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, they estimated deaths from ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, respiratory disease related to ozone, and from lung cancer and stroke related to PM2.5.

“These health improvements likely have continued beyond 2010 as we observe that air pollutant concentrations have continued to decrease,” said Zhang.

Regardless of the recent progress, air pollution remains an important public health issue in the United States. For example, the total of 71,000 deaths attributed to air pollution in 2010 is the equivalent of one out of every 35 deaths in the country, and also the number of deaths from all traffic accidents and all gun shootings combined.

“Even though we've seen some tangible success, there are still people dying, and a public health challenge remains going forward,” said Professor West. “New federal policies curtailing air pollution regulations likely will slow the improvement in air quality or possibly make air quality worse.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_Chemistry_and_Physics">Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Significant decline in air pollution has cut related deaths in half

A new study by experts at the University of North...

New research has found that DNA plays a significant role in determining academic achievement, and even the kind of university that students choose to attend.

The study was conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/">King’s College London</a> and the results show that DNA has more influence on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/robots-influence-children-education/">education</a> than environmental factors like where a person grew up.

3,000 pairs of twins participated in the study and researchers examined academic achievement at various levels of education. 

Genetics were important at every stage of education up to college for teenagers and accounted for 51 percent of the deciding factors in whether or not someone went to college. 

No matter how well a student had done in school, genetics also played a large role, 47 percent, in the decision of which school to attend. 

Environmental factors only accounted for 36 percent of determining the choice of school and quality of education.  

The researchers used the Complete University Guide to rate the quality of different institutions, according to the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6290303/How-DNA-shape-education.html">Daily Mail.</a>

“We have shown for the first time that genetic influence on educational achievement continues into higher education,” said Emily Smith-Woolley, the co-leader of the study. “Our results also demonstrate that the appetite young adults have for choosing to continue with higher education is, in part, influenced by their DNA.”

The research supports the famed “nature versus nurture” debate and previous studies examining the role that genetics play in our quality of life and decision making has found similar results. 

For example, one study with a sample of over 20,00 people showed that genetics played a role in determining income, career, and level of education. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Your DNA influences how well you perform in school

New research has found that DNA plays a significant role...

Past studies have produced evidence that light drinking has a protective effect on the heart, but there is also research which shows that it can increase the risk of cancer. In an effort to pinpoint the amount of low-level drinking that is detrimental to health, researchers set out to investigate the link between daily alcohol use and mortality.

The study was focused on 340,668 individuals from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) and 93,653 individuals from the Veterans Health Administration (VA) outpatient medical records. 

The researchers compared self-reported <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-2-million-deaths/">alcohol</a> use to mortality incidence, which had been documented during follow-ups. The study revealed that individuals with the least risk of death were those who drank one or two beverages 3 times per week.

“The minimum risk of low‐level drinking frequency for all‐cause mortality appears to be approximately 3 occasions weekly,” wrote the researchers. “The robustness of this finding is highlighted in 2 distinctly different data sets: a large epidemiological data set and a data set of veterans sampled from an outpatient clinic. Daily drinking, even at low levels, is detrimental to one's health.”

The findings of the study are adding to a growing collection of studies which suggest that no amount of alcohol is safe. The research also contradicts the common belief that a glass of wine a day is beneficial to heart health.

Study co-author Dr. Sarah Hartz is an assistant professor of Psychiatry at the <a href="https://medicine.wustl.edu/">Washington University School of Medicine</a>.

“The cutoff seems to be that we shouldn’t drink more than three times a week,” said Dr. Hartz. “The frequency of drinking does matter, in the same way that taking a medicine matters. If you take a medicine once a week, it impacts you differently than if you take a medicine every day.”

Dr. Hart suggested that abstaining from alcohol is not necessarily the only way to be healthy, but that people need to re-evaluate the way they perceive alcohol.

“I drink recreationally, and my main take-home is that I can’t think of it as a healthy behavior,” said Dr. Hartz. “This isn’t like smoking, where you should immediately quit. It’s bad for you, but we do a lot of things that are bad for us. Just don’t fool yourself into thinking this is a healthy behavior.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15300277">Alcoholism: Clinical &amp; Experimental Research</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts advise against drinking alcohol more than 3 times a week

Past studies have produced evidence that light drinking has a...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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