Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

A new study has demonstrated a link between sedentary behavior and major cardiovascular events. According to the research, which is part of a series of papers that will focus on different risk factors for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wood-coal-cooking-cardiovascular/">cardiovascular disease</a>, physical activity is critically important to help control the growing global issue of heart disease and stroke.

A sedentary lifestyle is one of the leading preventable risk factors for heart disease, in addition to high cholesterol and smoking status. A previous study revealed that physical inactivity is responsible for nine percent of premature deaths worldwide. Sedentary behavior was found to significantly contribute to the incidence of coronary heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, and breast and colon cancer.

For the current investigation, the authors analyzed data from 25 published studies which were focused on the personal and environmental variables related to physical activity or inactivity. The goal was to determine how health care professionals can empower patients to maintain a heart-healthy lifestyle.


Study lead author Dr. Gerald Fletcher is a professor of Medicine and Cardiovascular Disease at <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/patient-visitor-guide/florida">Mayo Clinic Florida</a>.“Proper physical activity should be a lifelong commitment," said Dr. Fletcher.  “The benefits of being physically active exist regardless of sex, ethnicity or age. The most active individuals have an approximate 40 percent lower risk of developing heart disease than those who do not exercise at all.”

The experts recommend at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity or 75 minutes of high-intensity aerobic exercise every week. Aerobic exercise can significantly lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure among hypertensive patients and can reduce the risk of stroke.

The average person engages in sedentary behavior, such as sitting in front of a computer or a television screen, for about eight hours a day. According to the researchers, replacing just one hour of inactivity with an equal amount of activity can effectively lower all-cause mortality.


The researchers suggest that individuals should incorporate more physical activities into their daily routine, such as yard work, household chores, or walking to and from work. Using stand-up desks or taking the stairs instead of an elevator can also help to promote a more active lifestyle. 

“Just like medication, the right form of physical activity has to be specialized for each patient. Physical activity is no different from smoking cessation or eating a heart-healthy diet,” said Dr. Fletcher. “It is up to health care professionals to set an example for their patients in all aspects of life.”

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.onlinejacc.org/">Journal of the American College of Cardiology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sedentary behavior linked to major cardiovascular trouble

A new study has demonstrated a link between sedentary behavior...

Most fossil fuel economic research has focused on how higher income countries generally benefit from use of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carbon-bubble-fossil-fuels/">fossil fuels</a> while developing countries bear the brunt of the negative environmental impacts.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a>, the <a href="http://eiee.eu/en/home/">European Institute on Economics and the Environment (EIEE)</a> and the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Institution for Science</a> created the first quantifiable data set on the social cost of carbon (SCC) for most of the countries on Earth. 

The research is the first of its kind to measure the economic harm from carbon emissions for different countries, and results show that the most affluent countries on Earth will suffer the greatest economic impact from CO2 emissions. 

The United States, Saudi Arabia, and India make up the top three countries that could incur the greatest losses from C02 emissions. 

A study, detailing the data set and the researchers’ findings, was published in the journal Nature Climate Change. 

“We all know carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels affects people and ecosystems around the world, today and in the future; however these impacts are not included in market prices, creating an environmental externality whereby consumers of fossil fuel energy do not pay for and are unaware of the true costs of their consumption," said Kate Ricke, the lead author of the study. 

Currently, the most-trusted estimates of the SCC come from the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)</a>, according to the study. 

The EPA’s latest SCC calculations say that carbon emissions could cost the globe $12 to $62 per metric ton of CO2 by 2020. 

However, the new University of California San Diego study found that this is a major underestimate. 

The researchers combined data from climate and carbon cycle modeling experiments to estimate country-level contributions to SCC. 

This allowed the researchers to measure SCC under different greenhouse gas emissions scenarios factoring in the carbon cycle and the environmental impact of CO2 emissions. 

What the researchers discovered was that the SCC could be anywhere between $180 and $800 per metric ton of carbon emissions. 

The SCC for the US is around $50 per ton more than what previous EPA estimates have calculated, and according to the researchers, annual CO2 emissions are costing the US economy 250 billion dollars. 

“Our analysis demonstrates that the argument that the primary beneficiaries of reductions in carbon dioxide emissions would be other countries is a total myth,” said Ricke. “We consistently find, through hundreds of uncertainty scenarios, that the U.S. always has one of the highest country-level SCCs.”

The study could help better inform climate policy where information is lacking in countries that have yet to recognize the risks of climate change, and the researchers say that the results call for more action on behalf of the US and other high-income countries. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>

CO2 emissions could cost US economy billions of dollars

Most fossil fuel economic research has focused on how higher...

An international team of neuroscientists led by the <a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en/home.html">German Primate Center</a> has conducted studies on epilepsy patients to determine where and how the brain stores a memory that keeps everything from going dark when we blink our eyes. The experts have identified a region of the brain that is very important for the process of perceptual memory. 

Somehow, we manage to maintain a stable, uninterrupted picture of our environment throughout the process of blinking or moving our head and eyes. 

The researchers theorized that a specific <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/brain-lazy-conserve-energy/">brain</a> region known as the medial prefrontal cortex, which plays an important role in short-term memory and decision-making, may be critical to our visual perception. 

The investigation was focused on this region of the brain in patients with epilepsy. The neural activity in the prefrontal cortex was recorded as the participants observed two separate dot lattices on a screen and were asked to indicate their perception of the orientation of each, such as horizontal or vertical. 

If both orientations were reported as being the same, this was an indication that the subjects used the information from the first round to perceive the second round of dots. A section of the superior frontal gyrus had been previously removed due to illness in one of the participants, and the team discovered that she was unable to store the visual information.

“Our research shows that the medial prefrontal cortex calibrates current visual information with previously obtained information and thus enables us to perceive the world with more stability, even when we briefly close our eyes to blink,” explained study first author Caspar Schwiedrzik.

“Even when we see a facial expression, this information influences the perception of the expression on the next face that we look at.”


Schwiedrzik said that the research demonstrates the important role of the prefrontal cortex in perception and in context-dependent behavior. Next, the researchers want to investigate the role that confidence in one's own perception plays in perceptual memory.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why blinking doesn’t interrupt the stability of our vision

An international team of neuroscientists led by the German Primate...

Researchers at the <a href="https://med.stanford.edu/">Stanford University School of Medicine</a> have found a connection between height and varicose veins. After the genetic analysis of more than 400,000 people, the experts determined that taller people are more likely to develop varicose veins.

Study senior author Dr. Nicholas Leeper is an associate professor of Surgery and of Cardiovascular Medicine at Stanford.

“Genes that predict a person's height may be at the root of this link between height and varicose veins and may provide clues for treating the condition,” said Dr. Leeper.

More than 30 million people in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-western-united-states/">United States</a> have varicose veins, which are swollen veins that are visible just below the surface of the skin. The experts identified 30 genes linked to this condition, which also had a strong genetic correlation with deep vein thrombosis. 

While the complications are often only cosmetic, varicose veins can cause moderate pain. The disorder has also been linked to the more serious side effects of deep vein thrombosis, which occurs when a blood clot forms in one or more of the deep veins in the body.

“The condition is incredibly prevalent but shockingly little is known about the biology,” said study co-lead author Alyssa Flores. “There are no medical therapies that can prevent it or reverse it once it's there.” 

Treatment is usually limited to surgical procedures such as laser treatment or vein stripping. 

“We're hoping that with this new information, we can create new therapies, as our study highlights several genes that may represent new translational targets,” said Flores.

The association between varicose veins and height came as a surprise to the researchers, who also linked the condition to other risk factors such as surgery on the legs, family history, lack of movement, smoking, and hormone therapy.

“Our results strongly suggest height is a cause, not just a correlated factor, but an underlying mechanism leading to varicose veins,” said senior author Dr. Erik Ingelsson.

“By conducting the largest genetic study ever performed for varicose vein disease, we now have a much better understanding of the biology that is altered in people at risk for the disease.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/journal/circ">Circulation</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Taller people are more likely to develop varicose veins

Researchers at the Stanford University School of Medicine have found...

Kids with moms who use marijuana may try it at a younger age. A new study from the <a href="http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a> has found that children will start using marijuana an average of two years earlier when they have mothers who use marijuana.

Natasha Sokol led the study as a doctoral student at Harvard Chan School, and is now a postdoctoral research fellow at the Brown University School of Public Health's Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies.

“Beginning marijuana use at a young age has been linked with negative cognitive and behavioral consequences,” said Sokol. “In a shifting regulatory environment in the U.S. in which the visibility and acceptability of adult marijuana use is expected to increase, it's important to better understand how these changes may impact children's early marijuana use so that we can better identify at-risk youth and implement effective prevention strategies.”

According to the study authors, prohibiting <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/medical-marijuana-chronic-nerve-pain/">marijuana</a> may be inconsistent with public health goals. For example, over half of all arrests in the United States are marijuana-related and these arrests are a major contributor to racial imbalances among those arrested and incarcerated. Furthermore, marijuana has recognized therapeutic benefits for a number of conditions, and could serve as a much safer alternative to opioids.Kids with moms who use marijuana may try it at a younger age 

On the other hand, research has identified many potential negative consequences for children who begin using marijuana at a young age. Impaired decision-making, increased impulsivity, and reductions in IQ have all been linked to marijuana use among young people. The younger the individual is, the more severe the effects, which means delaying the use of marijuana is important. 

The researchers used data from a national survey to assess the timing and extent of marijuana use and initiation among 4,440 children and 2,586 mothers.

The study revealed that 67.2 percent of the children and 35.3 percent of the mothers self-identified as marijuana users. Children with mothers that used marijuana had an increased risk for starting marijuana use prior to age 17, and began using pot at an average age of 16. The average age for initiation among young people whose mothers did not use marijuana was 18.

“Although more research is needed, physicians who prescribe marijuana might consider educating parents who use the drug about the potential dangers of early marijuana use among their children, and provide information and preventive strategies to delay such use,” said study co-author Vaughan Rees.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.ajpmonline.org/">American Journal of Preventive Medicine</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Kids with moms who use marijuana may try it at a younger age

Kids with moms who use marijuana may try it at...

Social media trolls and hackers know that spreading online propaganda is as easy as creating a fake profile. But how do fake accounts collect enough friends to pass for real?

It turns out they’re catfishing, and most of us are falling for it hook, line and sinker.

Over six months, <a href="http://www.facebook.com">Facebook</a> found and suspended about 1.3 billion fake accounts – though another 66 million or more remain, and more are created every day. Anywhere from 9 to 15 percent of <a href="http://www.twitter.com">Twitter</a> accounts may also have been created for the purpose of spreading online propaganda or trolling legitimate users.

In some cases, this goes beyond an annoyance to something truly sinister.

“In December 2017, German intelligence officials warned that Chinese agents using fake <a href="http://www.linkedin.com/">LinkedIn</a> profiles were targeting more than 10,000 German government employees,” Arun Vishwanath wrote in <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-so-many-people-fall-for-fake-profiles-online-102754">The Conversation</a>. 

Israei military officials also accused Hamas operatives of creating fake accounts and luring IDF soldiers to download malware, he said.

Vishwanath set out to discover why fake accounts are so effective at spreading online propaganda and worse.

“The problem isn’t actually that people – and algorithms – create fake proiles online,” he wrote. “What’s really wrong is that other people fall for them.”

To see how big the problem was, he created fake accounts on Facebook and sent friend requests to 141 college students. He originally wanted to see if a certain type of fake account was more successful at snaring friends than others.

Instead, he discovered that only 30 percent of users outright rejected a fake friend request.

“When surveyed two weeks later, 52 percent of users were still considering approving the request. Nearly one in five – 18 percent – had accepted the request right away,” he wrote.

Of those who accepted the request, several shared personal information such as their home address and student ID number with their new “friend.”

The reason, Vishwanath found when he interviewed the friend-accepters, is that they trusted that each profile represented a real person.

“People told me they had thought the profile belonged to someone they knew, or possibly someone a friend knew. Not one person ever suspected the profile was a complete fabrication, expressly created to deceive them,” he wrote.

And that’s a big part of the problem. People who trust that profiles represent real humans – and not bots or intelligence agents playing a made-up persona – give that profile legitimacy. And once a profile has a few dozen “friends,” it looks more legitimate when it attempts to gain (and hack) more, or spread online propaganda through comments on public pages.

Users also trust social media platforms to weed out fake profiles, but they’ve failed to successfully catch them all.

“Furthermore, users who carelessly accept requests assuming their privacy controls protect them imperil other connections who haven’t set their controls as high,” Vishwanath wrote.

One way social media companies could help stem the spread of fake profiles and online propaganda is to institute new tools showing people the weak links in their social media networks: profiles who have gained an unusual number of new followers, sent or accepted an unusual number of friend requests, or been inactive for some time. 

It’s not all up to the social media companies, though.

“Adults should learn – and teach children – how to examine connection requests carefully in order to protect their devices, profiles and posts from prying eyes, and themselves from being maliciously manipulated,” he wrote. “That includes reviewing connection requests during distraction-free periods of the day and using a computer rather than a smartphone to check out potential connections.”

Why most people fall for fake profiles and online propaganda

Social media trolls and hackers know that spreading online propaganda...

Unfortunately, most people find about their genetic predispositions towards certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthier-countries-higher-cancer/">cancers</a> only after a family member has been diagnosed. 

A new study conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> shows just how prevalent genetic risk factors for cancers are, and the results call for more effective DNA screening for everyone. 

The study was published in the journal JAMA Network Open.

“As a colleague said, it usually takes a tragedy for people to get tested,” said Michael Murray, the senior author of the study. “Our reliance on a documented personal or family history as a trigger to offer testing is not working. Hopefully, one day we can change that with effective DNA-based screening for everyone.”

Data on more than 50,000 people who had undergone genetic screening showed that over 80 percent of the people screened carried a cancer-associated gene variant in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes. This variance increases the risk of breast, ovarian, prostate and pancreatic cancers. 

The average age of the people in the study was 60, and 267 out of the test group were diagnosed with a BRCA-associated cancer. 

Very few of the study participants both with and without a BRCA association cancer knew they possessed a genetic risk factor. 

Understanding your risk for certain cancers is important because it can lead to early diagnosis and better treatment and prevention methods compared to someone who is diagnosed with a later stage of cancer. 

“Once risk is identified, we can apply proven tools for early diagnosis and prevention, and we believe that the 31% difference in cancer incidence in these two groups is a window into an opportunity to decrease cancer and cancer deaths through genomic screening approaches,” said Murray. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

80 percent of people with genetic cancer risk don’t know it

Unfortunately, most people find about their genetic predispositions towards certain...

Migratory birds often travel incredibly long distances.  At one extreme is the Arctic Tern, which according to <a href="https://www.audubon.org/news/9-awesome-facts-about-bird-migration">Audubon.org</a> is the bird with the longest migration, traveling an impressive 49,700 miles.  I’ve seen these terns flying along the coast of the Sea of Cortez in Mexico, diving headfirst into the water like winged torpedoes.  It’s amazing to think of the same terns I saw in Mexico winging around the Arctic and the Antarctic as well. <a href="http://earthsky.org/earth/which-bird-migrates-the-farthest">Earthsky.org</a> notes that over a tern’s 25 year life span, the distance the bird will travel is about 3 times the distance from the Earth to the moon.  

Other birds have <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-arrive-fall-migration/">migration</a> distances nearly as impressive as the Arctic Tern.  The Wandering Albatross sometimes covers 18,000 miles in a year. Sandhill Cranes sometimes travel as far as Siberia from Cuba, New Mexico or Florida for migrations.  The <a href="http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&amp;articles_id=478">Alaska Fish and Game</a> website tells the story of a typical rufous hummingbird that was banded in Florida and then recaptured 3,530 miles away in Alaska.  It total, the hummingbird might fly as far as 8,840 total miles every year. 

All these distances covered by birds powered only by muscle, feather and wind requires an enormous amount of calories.  Once all the calories needed for these impressive migratory flights were supplied by wild food sources: fish or flowers or seeds.  Humans have continued to encroach on habitats, increasingly making wild places into human dominated landscapes to best serve their own interests.  

It’s not often that someone thinks of Nebraska when talking of beautiful landscapes or wildlife spectacle, but if you are ever lucky enough to visit Kearney Nebraska when Sandhill Cranes visit, you won’t be disappointed.  A couple years ago my fiancé, Erin, and I were living in South Dakota, as close to the migration pathway of sandhill cranes as we might ever be and so we decided to visit. 

One of the first things you notice driving just outside of the city of Kearney in the Platte River Valley is how Cranes really like visiting corn fields.  By the time the cranes visit in the spring, corn has been harvested the previous year and the fields are mostly barren looking but are secretly littered with leftover corn.  The cranes flock to these agricultural leavings, according to <a href="http://outdoornebraska.gov/sandhillcrane/">Nebraska Game &amp; Parks</a>, 90% of migrating crane’s diet is corn.  Only 10% of what cranes visiting Nebraska’s Platte River valley is insects and other invertebrates.  Cranes will also eat frogs, mice and other small vertebrates if they can. Corn is absolutely important for the cranes though, calories are needed for birds that are flying across the whole of the North American continent, on their way to their summering grounds in Siberia from Mexico or the southern US.  It’s estimated that cranes consume 1,600 tons of leftover corn while visiting Nebraska. 

According to <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/500000-cranes-are-headed-nebraska-one-earths-greatest-migrations-180949816/?page=1">Smithsonian Magazine</a>, cranes arriving from the south must add 20% of their body weight before continuing north from Nebraska.  It’s not just Sandhill Cranes that fatten up on corn during migrations either. In the mix are the easy to miss Whooping Cranes as well.  30% of Northern Pintail (ducks) also visit, along with 90% of white-fronted geese and numerous other species.

Before agriculture existed in Nebraska, great migrations still occurred, the Platte River Valley was still abundant with life.  Before it was corn it was plant and animal life fostered in a rich river valley ecosystem that drew the birds. It is still vastly important that instead of some forms of development, corn started being planted in Nebraska.  Human development often spells doom for other animals, migrating birds included. Agriculture isn’t always friendly towards wildlife either. According to <a href="http://migratorysoaringbirds.undp.birdlife.org/en/sectors/agriculture">Birdlife International</a> that habitat conversion or loss is a threat to almost 80% of all threatened or near-threatened bird species worldwide.  This includes habitats now used for agriculture, especially in areas dependent on agriculture like Africa or America’s midwest.  

For now, agriculture in places like Kearney Nebraska is helping or at least allowing cranes to continue their ancient migrations.  Much of how beneficial farmland is to wildlife is dependent on the <a href="http://sustainableagriculture.net/our-work/campaigns/fbcampaign/what-is-the-farm-bill/">Farm Bill</a>.  The Farm Bill is a set of federal laws passed about every five years.  The bill covers a range of topics on farming, which is important for the environment as the specific type of farming practiced can either be in relative harmony with the surrounding environment or detrimental to it.  The first Farm Bill was part of FDR’s New Deal Legislation, confronting some of the problems of the dust bowl and its connection with the Great Depression. Although new farm bills have come and gone, the main purposes of each remain roughly the same as FDR’s original bill, to protect natural resources, keep food prices fair and prevent a catastrophe such as the dust bowl.  

One thing that the current Farm Bill, first passed in 2014 and reauthorized this year, does is give money to farmers to leave easements of land alone, unfarmed for wildlife, including birds.  Leaving land unused can also benefit farmers in the long run; by rotating fallow fields, it prolongs the usefulness of land for agriculture. The bill also encourages and assists farmers and ranchers in activities that promote clean water and air, which is obviously beneficial to wildlife.  For agriculture and animals like the Sandhill Crane to coexist relatively peacefully, there needs to be careful and diligent work.

<a href="https://www.kqed.org/science/10452/farming-for-cranes-can-agriculture-save-an-ancient-migration">KQED</a> tells the story of Greater Sandhill Cranes being listed as threatened in California in 1983.  At one time farmers in California would burn their fields in the fall, to remove unwanted agricultural waste and kill pests.  Obviously the practice of burning left no food for hungry migratory birds and it increased air pollution. Burning was banned in California in 1991 and farmers decided to flood fields instead, to promote decomposition of left over agriculture waste and kill insect pests.  Flooding turned out to benefit cranes by providing wetland habitat for the birds. The Nature Conservancy now owns an island where they show the agricultural benefits of flooding fields and how it also helps birds. 

Other birds can be hurt or helped by agriculture as well.  Hummingbirds can be hurt more easily than larger birds by <a href="https://www.thespruce.com/threats-to-hummingbirds-386488">pesticides</a>.  Hummingbirds are also important in that they play a unique role in agriculture, they can be beneficial pollinators as well.  Not only birds but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bat-friendly-tequila-species-recovery/">bats</a> can help pollinate crops, if the farming techniques are in their favor.  Many other birds can help agriculture by controlling natural pests. Once the system of natural predation breaks down, humans must do the work themselves, much to their detriment.  Almost as important as agricultural products is the deep psychological benefits we all get from sharing the globe with other creatures. 

Sandhill Cranes are possibly one of the oldest birds alive.  The oldest known Sandhill Crane <a href="http://rowe.audubon.org/crane-facts">fossil</a> is the 2.5 million year old remains found in Florida.  Cranes have been living and migrating through North America and other parts of the world for a long time.  The Sandhill Cranes that visit Nebraska every spring, are the largest global population of cranes left. Standing near the Platte River or even on a bridge spanning it and listening for cranes in the morning or evening hours, it’s hard not to feel witness to something ancient.  The birds have an eerie trilling call that’s hard to describe which floats through the cool air. Hundreds, thousands of cranes pass over head or land in groups on sandbars in the water. For a few fleeting months, part of Nebraska is taken over by something not human, something ancient.  An animal that travels under its own muscle power to places as far away as Siberia, with a life we’ll never fully understand passes through. We can but watch and wonder at a creature so comforting and so different; I am grateful birds still share our planet. Whether the beauty of such migrations continues depends on us and how we get our food.             

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Agriculture can both help and hurt annual bird migrations

Migratory birds often travel incredibly long distances.  At one extreme...

Regular bedtime schedules have been proven to be important for children and help to maintain a healthy sleep/wake pattern, which is crucial for a child’s development. 

But now, a new study has found that regular sleep schedules aren’t just for children, and adults benefit from having a regular bedtime as well. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://medschool.duke.edu/">Duke University Medical Center </a>and <a href="https://dcri.org/">Duke Clinical Research Institute </a>conducted the study which was published in the journal Scientific Reports. 

The results show how important regular and sufficient sleep are to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/litte-sleep-harmful-heart-health/">heart and metabolic health in adults. </a>

The researchers found that people who had irregular sleeping patterns were heavier, had higher blood sugar, and were more likely to have a stroke or heart attack within ten years. Irregular sleep patterns also correlated with an increase in stress and depression. 

For the study, 1,978 older adults between 54 and 93 years old were given devices that tracked sleep schedules and the researchers changed bedtime routines from 10:00 pm to 10:10pm. 

The devices also tracked the duration of a person’s sleep and the participants were surveyed about their bedtime habits (if they liked to sleep in or not). 

There was a definite association between irregular sleeping habits and heart and metabolic health risks. The researchers note that the study results don’t prove that poor sleep is the cause of health problems like obesity or cardiovascular disease, only that there was a link between the two. 

“From our study, we can't conclude that sleep irregularity results in health risks, or whether health conditions affect sleep,” said Jessica Lunsford-Avery, the lead author of the study. “Perhaps all of these things are impacting each other. With more research, we hope to understand what's going on biologically, and perhaps then we could say what's coming first or which is the chicken and which is the egg.”

The researchers did find that regular sleep pattern was also the best predictor of heart and metabolic disease risk which means that future prevention method and treatments should consider the benefits of a healthy sleep schedule. 

“Heart disease and diabetes are extremely common in the United States, are extremely costly and also are leading causes of death in this country,” said Lunsford-Avery. “To the extent we can predict individuals at risk for these diseases, we may be able to prevent or delay their onset.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why going to bed at the same time every night is beneficial

Regular bedtime schedules have been proven to be important for...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC) has revealed that our brains prefer lying on the couch as opposed to being physically active. The research suggests that the brain is actually hardwired to find laziness attractive.

Study senior author Matthieu Boisgontier is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Physical Therapy at UBC.

“Conserving energy has been essential for humans' survival, as it allowed us to be more efficient in searching for food and shelter, competing for sexual partners, and avoiding predators,” explained Boisgontier. “The failure of public policies to counteract the pandemic of physical inactivity may be due to brain processes that have been developed and reinforced across evolution.

The researchers set out to investigate what they refer to as the “exercise paradox,” which is the contradiction between society's desire for people to become more <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/listening-music-exercise-fight-fatigue/">physically active</a> and the reality that humans are becoming generally less active. 

The study was focused on young adults who were given control of an on-screen avatar. The experts flashed small images across the computer screen that depicted either physical activity or inactivity. 

The participants were instructed to move the avatar as quickly as possible toward the pictures of physical activity and away from the pictures of physical inactivity, and then were instructed to do the opposite.

Electrodes recorded the brain activity of the individuals during the trials. The measurements revealed that participants were faster at moving away from lazy pictures and toward active pictures. However, electroencephalograms revealed that moving away from lazy pictures required the brain to work harder.

“We knew from previous studies that people are faster at avoiding sedentary behaviors and moving toward active behaviors,” said Boisgontier. “The exciting novelty of our study is that it shows this faster avoidance of physical inactivity comes at a cost - and that is an increased involvement of brain resources. These results suggest that our brain is innately attracted to sedentary behaviors.”
Now that the experts are aware of the brain's tendency toward laziness, further research will be needed to explore whether the brain can be reconditioned.

“Anything that happens automatically is difficult to inhibit, even if you want to, because you don't know that it is happening. But knowing that it is happening is an important first step,” said Boisgontier.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/neuropsychologia">Neuropsychologia</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The brain’s instinct to conserve energy makes people lazy

A new study from the University of British Columbia (UBC)...

Over 1 billion people in the world still don’t have access to electricity and nearly 3 billion people cook with wood or coal, according to the <a href="http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health">World Health Organization (WHO)</a>. 

The areas where people are without electricity or clean cooking fuels are typically concentrated to rural regions of low and middle-income countries. 

In India, over 20 percent of the population is without electricity, and in China, one-third of the population depends on wood or other solid fuels for cooking. 

The problem with solid fuels is that it emits high levels of harsh pollutants, and the WHO recently found that around four million people die every year from exposure to household air pollution from indoor cooking. 

Studies have shown that household air pollution increases the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wood-coal-cooking-cardiovascular/">heart disease, lung cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). </a>

A new study found that in China, burning wood or coal for cooking increased the risk of death or hospitalization from respiratory diseases like COPD. 

The study was conducted by researchers from <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">Oxford University</a> and <a href="http://english.cams.cn/">the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences </a>and published in the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine.

The researchers reviewed 280,000 health records of adults age 30 to 79 from the <a href="http://www.ckbiobank.org/">China Kadoorie Biobank</a>. 

The health records came from participants located in ten areas of China who had never smoked and were not diagnosed with any respiratory diseases when they enrolled in the Biobank study. 

For nine years, the participants’ health was monitored and at the end of the study, 19,823 of the participants were either hospitalized or died from a major respiratory disease. 

10,553 of the hospitalizations and deaths were linked to asthma or COPD and 7,324 were due to lower respiratory infections such as pneumonia. 

“While many previous studies have suggested a link between solid fuel use and COPD, most of them focused on changes in lung function, rather than hospital admissions or deaths,” said Ka Hung Chan, the lead author of the study. “In addition, we looked at the associations with other respiratory diseases about which little is known.”

The researchers discovered that long-term exposure to indoor solid fuel pollution correlated with a higher risk of hospitalization or death, and people who cooked with solid fuels for more than 40 years were 54 percent more likely to be hospitalized or die from respiratory disease. 

The effects of long-term exposure to indoor solid fuels are detrimental to a person’s health but switching to cleaner fuels can drastically reduce the risks of respiratory disease. 

“Although we cannot infer a causal relationship from these observational findings, our findings make a compelling case to speed up the global implementation of universal access to affordable clean energy, one of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals,” said Zhengming Chen, senior author of the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: ATS

Cooking with wood or coal increases risk of respiratory disease

Over 1 billion people in the world still don’t have...

The first ever public natural swimming pool built in North America is located in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Although Webber Park Pool has been open since July 2015, this summer was marked by an unprecedented amount of closures. 

A natural pool is one that doesn’t use chemicals like chlorine to keep the water clean and instead uses a natural filtration system. 

Much like a river or lake, the pool water is filtered through an outlining pond (a regeneration basin) filled with vegetation. According to <a href="https://www.minneapolisparks.org/activities__events/water_activities/webber_natural_swimming_pool/#group_2_151627">Webber Park’s website</a>, around 7,000 aquatic plants are rooted in layers of limestone and granite gravel in the regeneration basin. 

As the water is pumped out of the swimming pools, it’s filtered through the plants and gravel before being pumped back into the swimming areas. 

All 500,000 gallons of water in Webber Pool is recycled through the regeneration basin every twelve hours. On top of that, the pool is vacuumed daily. 

Natural swimming pools (NSP) are environmentally friendly and the regeneration basin offers habitats for frogs and turtles. 

As climate change will continue to put <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-irrigation-freshwater-supply/">pressure on water resources</a>, finding sustainable solutions to something as seemingly innocuous as the local pool could help reduce carbon emissions and cut down on energy use. 

Natural swimming pools, and eco-friendly ways to improve traditional swimming pools, such as solar heating or hydropower to heat and power pool facilities could be important alternatives in the future. Especially given that the regeneration basin provides habitat to local wildlife. 

Currently, there are two other NSPs in North America. One is a private pool, but this summer, the second public<a href="https://www.thestar.com/edmonton/2018/07/10/first-natural-swimming-pool-in-canada-opens-in-edmontons-borden-park.html"> NSP opened in Edmonton, Alberta Canada</a>. In Europe, you will find over 20,000 public and private NSPs.

[caption id="attachment_1748428" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Webber-Natural-Swimming-Pools_Aerial_08-2018_09H-1.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1748428" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Webber-Natural-Swimming-Pools_Aerial_08-2018_09H-1-1024x684.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="467" /></a> Aerial Photo of Webber Natural Swimming Pool.[/caption]

The Webber Park Pool was a massive undertaking, costing upwards of seven million dollars and taking ten years to build. 

However, once completed, the pool has been a much loved and much needed addition to its Webber Park location in North Minneapolis. 

As far as the decision to build an NSP in its chosen location in Minneapolis in the first place, it really came down to filling a need for the community. 

Jon Olson, the former District 2 Commissioner, wanted to bring something special to North Minneapolis after the previous pool in Webber Park had been removed ten years before construction on the NSP began. 

Robin Smothers, the social media and media relations manager for the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board explained to me that the northside (North Minneapolis) has some of the city’s highest concentrations of poverty and many areas are largely underserved. 

Now, thanks to the decision to build the pool, Residents of the surrounding neighborhoods have free access to lap lanes, a shallow pool, and an open swim area. It’s well monitored by several lifeguard stations and the water quality is routinely tested. 

As someone who lives right down the street from the pool, I can attest to what a popular attraction it is. Rarely is the pool quiet when it’s open, and sometimes they have to close the pool to new traffic lest they exceed the maximum capacity of 500 people. It’s family-friendly, free, and a summer must for nearby residents.

My family frequented the pool often this summer as it was the perfect way to cool off during the hot summer days and provides an outlet for people of all ages and all swimming capabilities. 

And yet, this summer saw an influx in closures due to high levels of bacteria and failed water quality tests, more than in previous seasons. Residents were frustrated because the pool was often closed on the hottest days of the season and the park’s managers seemed to offer little consolation that they were working to fix the problem. 

This summer saw record-breaking heat waves worldwide and the Twin Cities were not exempt from that. For Minnesota, the summer started as early as May with temperatures <a href="http://www.startribune.com/record-breaking-heat-hangs-over-minnesota-on-memorial-day/483878341/">reaching 100 degrees Fahrenheit</a>, which has only happened once before in the metro area in May.

There was no shortage of hot days this summer so you can imagine that not having access to resources like Webber Pool, especially one so costly and so long in the making, would be more than aggravating. 

So what caused the first NSP in North America to shut down for so many days when so many people were relying on a cool dip in the local pool? 

The answer is a little unsavory and has to do with ducks, well more accurately, duck poop. The pool’s failing water quality tests and high levels of bacteria were traced back to fecal matter from ducks frequenting the pool at night. 

“They're becoming more comfortable with this pool, and we're seeing them here more often than we did last summer,” said Jeremy Barrick of the Minneapolis Parks and Recreation Department in <a href="https://kstp.com/news/webber-natural-pool-water-quality-issues-minneapolis/4994032/">a local ABC Eyewitness News report</a>. 

By the end of July 2018, the pool had been closed 24 days over the course of the summer according to the <a href="http://www.startribune.com/webber-pool-in-north-minneapolis-is-open-again/489386791/">Star Tribune</a>. At one point, the pool was closed more often than it was open due to failed water quality tests. 

While the park board and staff implemented several solutions to help deter the ducks such as placing alligator, coyote, and owl decoys, netting, and coyote urine around the pool, there are concerns that the methods simply aren’t enough and that it’s costing too much. 

The proposed methods above were estimated to cost less than $8,000 and none are invasive or harmful to the pool or surrounding habitat. 

“We’re frustrated, obviously,” Jeremy Barrick, assistant superintendent for environmental stewardship told the <a href="http://www.startribune.com/webber-pool-closed-again-tuesday-after-failing-another-water-quality-test/488435851/">Star Tribune</a>. “We’re working really hard to figure this out. We’re looking for humane ways to deter the wildlife.” 

One day, my mother said she had to help with an impromptu duck removal operation as swimmers helped lifeguards shoo away a group of ducks that were trying to get cozy in the open swim area. 

Barrick also mentioned that natural filtration systems take five years to mature which makes sense if you think about the natural flora and fauna that grow in lakes and ponds.

The questions that remain are will these deterrents work for 2019’s summer season, or will an increase in summer temperatures and precipitation affect the pool’s ability to keep clean and mature?

To answer these questions, who better to turn to than Webber Pool’s Water Quality Supervisor, Rachael Crabb. 

According to an <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/climate-change-mn.pdf">Environmental Protection Agency publication</a>, as climate change continues it will mean warmer days, increases in precipitation and heavy rainfall, and storms are projected to get more intense for the state of Minnesota. Crabb explained that while heavy rainfall doesn’t affect the pool, a 2016 flood event did disrupt the pool’s water quality because there was just too much overflow. 

A flood wall was built in response and now, in the event of future heavy flooding, stormwater overflow will be guided to the pond on the north side of the pool and will be able to protect the Webber Pool Facility up to a one in a 50 year flood event, according to Crabb. 

In regards to the event of hotter summers and longer heatwaves, Crabb explained that these events are not a problem for Europe’s NSP’s and there are natural pools in much hotter regions in Italy and Spain compared to Minneapolis.

 Luckily, hot weather should not impact Webber Pool but Crabb did say that if water temperatures exceed certain standards, the park board will test the water quality more often. 

For me personally, I love living so close to such an awesome resource and innovative project, right in Minnesota’s backyard. I would rather swim in a lake over chlorine any day, but driving out to one of Minnesota’s ten thousand lakes isn’t always an option. 

I’m hopeful that the natural filtration system will eventually work up to its full potential and as evidenced from my inquiries to the park’s staff, the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board are working hard to ensure the pool’s success. . 

-

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.minneapolisparks.org/activities__events/water_activities/webber_natural_swimming_pool/#group_2_151627">Webber Park</a>

North America’s first natural swimming pool battles summer closures

The first ever public natural swimming pool built in North...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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