Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

If you can speak multiple languages, is it more difficult for the brain to switch back to the native language or start with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/best-ages-learn-language/">a different language</a>? 

In other words, how does the brain know to “turn off” a language and jump into another?

This question was answered by researchers from <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a> in a new study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The researchers were able to discover the computations that happen in the brain when someone switches between languages. 

“A remarkable feature of multilingual individuals is their ability to quickly and accurately switch back and forth between their different languages,” said Esti Blanco-Elorrieta, the lead author of the study. “Our findings help pinpoint what occurs in the brain in this process--specifically, what neural activity is exclusively associated with disengaging from one language and then engaging with a new one.”

Blanco-Elorrieta also notes that the study shows that turning a language off requires more effort than turning a language on in the brain. In fact, the researchers discovered that switching to a different language was “cost-free” in terms of the brain’s processing activity. 

Studying language switching in people who are multilingual is difficult because turning one language off and another on happens simultaneously. 

Previous studies connected language switching with an increase in activity in the cognitive control regions of the brain but until now, it was not well understood if the act of turning one off or switching to another required the most effort. 

The researchers asked bilingual individuals who were fluent in both English and American Sign Language (ASL) to participate in the study in hopes that it would help distinguish language switching better. 

“The fact that they can do both at the same time offers a unique opportunity to disentangle engagement and disengagement processes--that is, how they turn languages ‘on’ and ‘off',’” said  Blanco-Elorrieta.

Participants in the study could switch from using both ASL and English to just one of the languages which would show how the brain responds to turning on and off a specific language. 

The researchers asked the participants to view pictures and name/sign what they saw. Magnetoencephalography was used to map the neural activity in the brain when the participants named the images. 

When the participants switched between speaking and signing, the researchers found that turning off a language required more effort and increased neural activity. However, turning a language on didn’t increase activity in the brain. 

The researchers also found that speaking and singing at the same time was not any more taxing than just speaking. They also noticed that it was actually easier to sign and speak than just sign 

“In all, these results suggest that the burden of language-switching lies in disengagement from the previous language as opposed to engaging a new language,” said Blanco-Elorrieta.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

How the brain can switch between different languages

If you can speak multiple languages, is it more difficult...

Transfusing the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/depression-diagnosed-blood-test/">blood</a> of younger individuals into older adults may seem like a bizarre, dystopian idea on the surface, but many companies have recently been testing these blood transfusions as a way to treat age-related diseases – and it’s less scary than you may think.

Linda Partridge, a leading geneticist at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> reports that blood transfusions are being seriously considered as one of the most promising developments in modern medicine. In her publication of an analysis of data in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>, Partridge states that research shows young blood may allow humans to avoid diseases such as heart disease, dementia, and even cancer.

In her study, Partridge transfused blood from young mice into older mice, and found that the older mice did not develop age-related diseases, and were able to maintain sharp cognitive function. She also transfused older mouse blood into young mice, which resulted in the opposite effect.

There are currently numerous studies and trials that are testing similar effects, one of which is from a start-up called Ambrosia, which rolled out a study involving 70 participants – each of whom were at least 35 and had paid $8,000 to be part of the experiment. Participants were given plasma from volunteers aged 16 to 25, and results showed improvements in biomarkers of numerous major diseases, including a 10 percent reduction in blood cholesterol.

Scientists also found a 20 percent reduction in carcinoembryonic antigens, which are proteins found in high levels in people with various forms of cancer. Amyloid protein levels dropped as well, which is promising, given that these proteins form toxic clumps in the brains of dementia patients. One particular 55-year-old patient with early onset Alzheimer’s actually began to show improvements in his condition after just one transfusion.

Despite these intriguing results, the benefits of blood transfusion are far from confirmed. Partridge states that blood must be more closely studied in animals in order to identify the molecules that have an effect on our own physical health. 

“Identification of these is a high priority for research,” her study says. “The practical accessibility of both the human microbiome and blood system makes therapeutic manipulation a particularly attractive approach, but research in animals is needed to establish the long-term consequences and possible side effects.”

So, before you go around looking for a younger person to voluntary give up blood for transfusion, you should maybe wait a few years for research to catch up to these bold claims.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Transfusions of young blood may help reduce disease in old age

Transfusing the blood of younger individuals into older adults may...

Our internal clock is integral to the way our body functions, and when the clock is out of sync or “misaligned” with the outside world, it can create a wide range of problems and increase susceptibility to disease. 

Jet lag is perhaps the most famous example of what can happen when the body’s natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/proteins-circadian-clock-ticks/">circadian rhythms</a> are disrupted through travel across different time zones. Jet lag can cause fatigue, gastrointestinal distress, and make adjusting to new timezones difficult. 

But now, researchers from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> have successfully developed one of the most precise tests to measure an individual's internal clock compared to external time. 

The researcher's methods and results were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

It’s a simple blood test called TimeSignature that only requires two blood draws but can accurately identify a person's internal clock within an hour and a half. 

For example, it could tell researchers that a person’s internal clock says it’s 6 am whereas it’s actually 8 am in that particular timezone. 

“This is a much more precise and sophisticated measurement than identifying whether you are a morning lark or a night owl,” said Rosemary Braun, assistant professor of preventive medicine at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and lead author of the study.  “We can assess a person's biological clock to within 1.5 hours.”

Previous tests that measured internal clocks were time-consuming and took a great deal of effort. Individuals had to have blood drawn every hour and the results were not nearly as accurate as TimeSignature. 

The test measures 40 different gene expression markers and blood can be drawn at any time of the day regardless of the individual’s sleep patterns. Gene data and an algorithm developed by Braun were used in the development of the test. 

The researchers also created a machine-learning method that was able to train a computer to predict the time of day based on the patterns within the 40 gene expression markers. 

Because so much of our body’s natural functions and processes are driven by our internal clock and circadian rhythms, the new test could help provide better treatments for people with misaligned internal clocks. 

It will also make studying the effects of an out of sync internal clock on heart disease, diabetes, and other diseases much easier.

“Timing is everything," said Ravi Allada, a co-author of the work. “We know if you have disruption of your internal clock, it can predispose you to a range of diseases. Before we didn't have a clinically feasible way of assessing the clock in healthy people and people with disease. Now we can see if a disrupted clock correlates with various diseases and, more importantly, if it can predict who is going to get sick.”

Crucially, the test will also be able dictate the optimal times for patients to take certain medications to ensure they are the most effective.

“This is really an integral part of personalized medicine,” said Phyllis Zee, another co-author of the study. “So many drugs have optimal times for dosing. Knowing what time it is in your body is critical to getting the most effective benefits. The best time for you to take the blood pressure drug or the chemotherapy or radiation may be different from somebody else.”
--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New test tells you what time it is in your internal clock

Our internal clock is integral to the way our body...

A new study has found that having an optimistic outlook and staying positive can actually help improve your heart health.

Researchers from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> found that intervention programs focused on psychological well being helped reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. 

People who are able to maintain a positive attitude are better equipped to stay healthy, exercise more, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unsaturated-fats-protect-cardiovascular-disease/">eat well</a>. 

The study was published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 

“We addressed how social environment, psychological well-being and the effectiveness of intervention strategies can help strengthen a patient's outlook,” said Darwin R. Labarthe, the lead author of the review. “We focused on whether psychological well-being can be consistently related with a reduced risk of heart disease.”

Labarthe and colleagues reviewed past research that associated psychological well being with a reduced risk of heart disease. There have been studies that found that optimism has a significant impact on heart health. 

For example, one 2017 study found that older women who were more optimistic had a 38 percent reduced risk of mortality from heart disease. There has also been a growing body of evidence suggesting that someone who feels they have a higher purpose is less likely to have a stroke. 

After reviewing past research and studies, the researchers found that optimism correlated with a decreased likelihood of smoking, a higher chance of engaging in regular exercise, and maintaining a healthy diet by eating more fruits and vegetables. 

In this way, psychological well-being did have an impact on heart health through behavioral changes, having crucial psychological resources like a support system, and improved overall physical health. 

“Optimists persevere by using problem-solving and planning strategies to manage stressors,” said Labarthe. “If others are faced with factors out of their control, they begin to shift their goals and use potentially maladaptive coping strategies, which would ultimately result in raising inflammation levels and less favorable overall heart health.” 

Intervention programs that target the different lifestyle, behavioral and health aspects of a person’s life may be a worthwhile investment for reducing the risk of heart disease, according to the researchers. 

The team discussed the success of mindfulness programs, yoga, and tai-chi which studies have found help reduce anxiety and improve mental well-being. 

“It may seem challenging to help patients modify psychological well-being in the face of a new medical diagnosis, but these events can represent a ‘teachable moment,” said Labarthe. “Just having patient-centered discussions surrounding sources of psychological well-being and information about specific activities to promote well-being are a small, but meaningful, part of a patient's care.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

An optimistic outlook can actually improve heart health

A new study has found that having an optimistic outlook...

According to a recent study published by the <a href="http://www.apa.org/">American Psychological Association</a>, people often trust their gut instincts over logic because they view intuitive decisions as a reflection of their true selves. For this reason, individuals may hold these beliefs with more conviction. 

Study lead author Dr. Sam Maglio is an associate professor of Marketing at the <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/">University of Toronto Scarborough</a>.

“We offer what we believe to be a novel and unique approach to the question of why people come to hold certain attitudes,” said Dr. Maglio. “Focusing on feelings as opposed to logic in the decision-making process led participants to hold more certain attitudes toward and advocate more strongly for their choices.”


The research was focused on a series of four experiments involving a total of more than 450 participants, including local residents, undergraduate students, and online survey takers. In each experiment, participants were asked to choose from a selection of similar items, such as different DVD players, mugs, restaurants, or apartments. 

The individuals were instructed to make their decision either with deliberation and logic or based on gut instincts. Next, the volunteers were asked a series of questions about their choice.

The study revealed that participants who made an intuitive, gut-based <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/brain-overlook-biases-decision/">decision</a> were more likely to report that their decision reflected their true selves. The researchers also found that participants who made intuitive, gut-based decisions were more steadfast in their decisions and more likely to advocate for them.

In one experiment, the participants were instructed to choose between two different restaurants, again based either on logic or intuition, and were then told to publicize their choice by emailing their decision to their friends. The people who picked a restaurant intuitively shared their choice with more people.

“This suggests that focusing on feelings doesn't just change attitudes - it can change behavior, too,” said Dr. Maglio.


The researchers were surprised at how willing people were to make intuitive, gut-based decisions when instructed. 

“So much folk wisdom says that we should eschew intuition because careful deliberation is thought to be the surest path to good choices, but we can't escape our gut feelings.”

“In making decisions, people must decide not only what to choose, but how to choose it,” said Dr. Maglio. “Our research suggests that individuals focusing on their feelings in decision-making do indeed come to see their chosen options as more consistent with what is essential, true and unwavering about themselves.”


The certainty of making a gut-based choice can be a double-edged sword, according to Dr. Maglio.

“When digging our heels in is a good thing, like making sure we hop on the bike every day, there's little downside and a lot of benefit. But dug-in heels give way to stubbornness and isolationism in the blink of an eye.” 

“When our political attitudes are made intuitively and make us certain that we're right, we shut ourselves off from the possibility that we might be even a little bit wrong. For this reason, perhaps a bit of the openness facilitated by deliberation isn't a bad thing after all.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/emo/">Emotion</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People tend to defend decisions based in intuition over logic

According to a recent study published by the American Psychological...

Musicians perceive sounds differently than the average person – a fact that likely doesn’t shock you in the least. But would you be surprised to hear that perception of sound varies between different types of musicians? A new study published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cercor">Cerebral Cortex</a> has found that there are noticeable differences between how the brains of guitarists and beatboxers respond to music.

“Most research in this area has focused on classically trained musicians, who have had extensive tuition from a very young age, but we found that professional beatboxers and guitarists also display neural patterns typical of these expert classical musicians,” says Dr. Saloni Krishnan, the study’s lead author who completed the research while at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>.

The study involved 60 participants who listened to recordings of beatbox and guitar tunes. Half of the people were non-musicians, while the other half were professional beatboxers and guitarists with an average of 8-9 years of experience. Results showed that the sensorimotor brain areas – which control movement – were activated in the musicians’ brains, but this effect was not seen in non-musicians.

But an interesting distinction was found between the two musician groups. The activation of the sensorimotor brain areas was only seen when participants were listening to tracks from their own fields of interest. According to the researchers, this may mean that the brain is connecting movements associated with making that form of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/listening-music-exercise-fight-fatigue/">music</a> while the musician is listening.

For beatboxers, listening to beatboxing sparked activity in the region of the brain that controls mouth movement. For the guitarist group, listening to a guitar track increased activity in the area of the brain responsible for hand movement.

“We are excited by these findings because they indicate that experience of producing music changes the way we perceive it – perhaps explaining why professional musicians can hone in on technical expertise so easily to play complex pieces without having to think about each note,” explains Krishnan.

Additionally, the MRIs showed a spike in brain activity in a region connected to language tasks, such as reading or picture naming. 

“We’ve identified a perceptual network which is engaged when you hear an instrument you can play, and which shows how acquiring this expertise has shaped your brain responses,” says senior author, Professor Sophie Scott. “There’s already a lot of evidence that music education is good for you – here’s an example of what it does to the brain.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Musicians’ brains respond differently to music depending on genre

Musicians perceive sounds differently than the average person – a...

An international study led by the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> has found that jet-air hand dryers should not be used in hospitals because they spread germs. The researchers pointed out that the guidelines used in hospitals to prevent bacterial contamination should be changed. 


Currently, the Department of Health allows air dryers to be used in public restrooms but not in clinical areas because of the noise they generate. 

Study supervisor Mark Wilcox is a professor of Medical Microbiology. He said that the findings of this research suggest that hospital guidelines must be strengthened to avoid infection risks. 

The investigation was focused on the spread of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-bacteria/">bacteria</a> in public toilets at three different hospitals in the UK, France, and Italy. Each of the restrooms had both paper towel dispensers and jet-air dryers, but only one option was made available at a time. 

“The problem starts because some people do not wash their hands properly,” explained Professor Wilcox. “When people use a jet-air dryer, the microbes get blown off and spread around the toilet room.”

“In effect, the dryer creates an aerosol that contaminates the toilet room, including the dryer itself and potentially the sinks, floor and other surfaces, depending on the dryer design and where it is sited. If people touch those surfaces, they risk becoming contaminated by bacteria or viruses.”

“Jet-air dryers often rely on no-touch technology to initiate hand drying. However, paper towels absorb the water and microbes left on the hands and if they are disposed of properly, there is less potential for cross-contamination.”

Over 12 weeks, levels of bacteria in the restrooms were measured each day, which allowed the experts to compare the use of paper towels to the use of jet-air dryers. Samples were taken from the air, floors, and other surfaces to test for Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococci, and Enterobacteria. 


In two of the hospitals, five times more bacteria was removed from the floors when jet-air dryers were in use compared to when paper towels were used.

“We found multiple examples of greater bacterial contamination on surfaces, including by faecal and antibiotic-resistant bacteria, when jet-air dryers rather than paper towels were in use,” said Professor Wilcox. “Choice of hand drying method affects how likely microbes can spread, and so possibly the risk of infection.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journalofhospitalinfection.com/">Journal of Hospital Infection</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air dryers spread five times more germs than paper towels

An international study led by the University of Leeds has...

Team sports and mock battles may have trained young hunter-gatherers to fight for their lives, in hunting and warfare, a new study says.

The skills children learned by kicking balls or hitting them with sticks, play fighting, running and other games may have once trained skills they would use when tracking animals or raiding neighboring communities. These games improved hand-eye coordination and stamina, both skills needed in battle and providing meat for their own people.

A team of researchers examined records of hunter-gatherer societies in 100 different regions, and found that in 46 of those regions, team sports and other contact games that mimicked hunting and battle skills were common.

“Interestingly, mock warfare was found in 39 percent of culture clusters and boys’ mock warfare in 26 percent,” Dr. Michelle Scalise Sugiyama of the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu/">University of Oregon</a> told the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/">Daily Mail</a>. “This suggests that motivation to engage in coalitional play fighting emerges in childhood.”

The researchers studied records of hunter-gatherers collected in Murdock’s Ethnographic Atlas, looking for cultures that played team sports and other games that included running, throwing and grappling. The games may have taught children skills like kicking and punching, dodging blows and throwing projectiles, and allowed adults to practice those skills.

This kind of play also built teamwork and strategy among the groups that practiced them. Individual members increased their stamina and learned skills that would aid in their own survival and the survival of their group in the future.

Regularly playing team sports let communities evaluate their own people’s combat skills. When played against or with neighboring groups, these sports also let communities build alliances while learning about others’ skills as well, researchers said.

“The widespread evidence for such games among hunter-gatherer societies suggests that the motivation to engage in them is a universal feature of human psychology, generating behaviour that develops, rehearses, and reines the coalitional combat skills used in lethal raiding,” Scalise Sugiyama told the Mail.

The new study has been published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12110-018-9322-6">Human Nature</a>.

Do team sports have roots in hunter-gatherer education?

Team sports and mock battles may have trained young hunter-gatherers...

Coastal recreation is still big business in America, and people are happy to pay if it means they can surf, collect seashells and photograph the mighty ocean waves.

At least, those are among the findings of a new survey conducted in 2012 and 2013 by the <a href="http://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>. The National Ocean Recreation Expenditure Survey, the first such study conducted by NOAA, found that more than 48 million Americans 18 and older spent about 1.2 billion days along the country’s coastlines in 2012. 

"Nothing of this magnitude had been attempted before, so it took a long time to collect the data, analyze it, and pull it together into a comprehensive report," said economist Scott Steinback in a press release. Steinback, who co-authored the newly released report, works at NOAA’s <a href="https://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/">Northeast Fisheries Science Center</a> laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

NOAA employees found that Americans spent more than $141 billion in coastal recreation and related industries in 2012, supporting 3.1 million full-time and part-time jobs. That money supported another $409 billion in business income and $135 billion in household incomes in areas visited by these ocean tourists.

The online survey, sent out every two months over the course of a year, asked participants to share their ocean-related activities over the past two months. That allowed researchers to get a better picture of coastal recreation spending over a full year, correcting for weather-related falls and spikes.

The survey was developed with the help of focus groups and one-on-one interviews, and questioned participants in six regions, five coastal and one inland. It included questions covering eight categories: viewing or photographing the ocean; beachcombing, tidepooling or collecting items; recreational fishing; recreational shellfishing; hunting; water-based contact sports; boating; and other outdoor activities that didn’t include contact with the water. The questionnaire was sent to people who participated on a research panel run by <a href="https://www.gfk.com/">GfK Group</a>.

"In addition to baseline information on participation and eort, or the time spent in that activity, we collected data on spending related to each category,” Steinback said. “That included the cost of boats and their maintenance, insurance, shing rods, binoculars, and other items to purchases of food, beverages, lodging, paying visitor fees, and other costs of ocean recreation trips."

The study shows how coastal recreation contributes to local economies along the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf of Mexico, he said. 

"It is the first study to estimate participation and effort levels, and the economic contribution of these activities, using data collected from ocean recreation participants from all 50 states and the District of Columbia – not just coastal states,” Steinback said. “If someone in Ohio made a trip to the Jersey shore to hang out at the beach and they participated in our survey, their activities would be included in our estimates.”

Coastal recreation is big business in the U.S., survey says

Coastal recreation is still big business in America, and people...

Diet, exercise reduce the need for blood pressure medicine. Making simple diet and exercise changes could be enough to lower blood pressure and keep patients with hypertension off of medication, according to a new study. 

Around 75 million adults in America suffer from high blood pressure, according to the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fs_bloodpressure.htm">Centers for Disease Control (CDC). </a>

High blood pressure, or hypertension, increases the risk of heart attack, stroke, and in 2013 the CDC reported that more than 360,000 deaths attributed high blood pressure as the primary or contributing cause. 

High blood pressure is damaging to a person’s cardiovascular health and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overweight-heart-disease-risk/">obesity can greatly increase the risk of hypertension</a>. However, diet and exercise may be enough to make blood pressure medication unnecessary. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/">University of North Carolina</a> recently presented a new study at the <a href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association’s</a> Joint Hypertension 2018 Scientific Sessions showing the benefit of lifestyle changes in combating high blood pressure. 

The study found that within 16 weeks, patients with hypertension reduced the need for antihypertensive medications after changing their diet and participating in regular exercise. 

“Lifestyle modifications, including healthier eating and regular exercise, can greatly decrease the number of patients who need blood pressure-lowering medicine. That's particularly the case in folks who have blood pressures in the range of 130 to 160 mmHg systolic and between 80 and 99 mmHg diastolic,” said Alan Hinderliter, an author of the study. 

For the study, 129 overweight or obese men and women, ages 40 to 80, with high blood pressure took part in one of three 16-week intervention programs. 

More than half of the participants were candidates for blood pressure medication at the start of the study. 

In one group, participants took part in a weight management program that included counseling and exercise three times a week. 

The first group also changed their diet to the DASH plan that stresses eating more fruits and vegetables and reducing salt, red meat, and sugar consumption. 

Participants in the second group only changed their diet to meet the DASH guidelines while the third group made no lifestyle changes. 

The first group had the most success in terms of weight loss and lowering blood pressure. At the end of the 16 weeks, participants in the first group lost 19 pounds on average. 

The second group showed lowered blood pressure but not quite as much as those in the first group while the third group only had subtle improvements to blood pressure. 

At the end of the study, 15 percent of participants in the first group still met the requirements for blood pressure medication, 23 percent still needed medication from the second group, and in the third group, 50 percent still had high blood pressure levels that merited medication. 

The researchers say that making lifestyle changes may be enough to help reduce the need for blood pressure medication and could also help patients at risk of cardiovascular disease. 

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Diet, exercise reduce the need for blood pressure medicine

Diet, exercise reduce the need for blood pressure medicine. Making...

A recent study at <a href="https://www.bsms.ac.uk/index.aspx">Brighton and Sussex Medical School </a>(BSMS) has found that smiling does not always represent happiness. In fact, body language expert Dr. Harry Witchel is reporting that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wrinkles-genuine-smile/">smiling</a> is more often associated with social engagement.


People usually smile when interacting with others, and this expression is most commonly perceived as the result of feeling happy. However, the BSMS study has demonstrated that this is not always the case.

According to Dr. Witchel, one-to-one Human-Computer-Interaction (HCI) is a good representation of how humans behave when they are socially engaged. 

The investigation was focused on 44 volunteers between the ages of 18 and 35, who interacted with a computer alone in a room while their faces were recorded. The individuals participated in a Geography quiz which was designed with difficult questions so that they would often get the answers wrong.

After the quiz, the participants rated their subjective experience from a range of 12 emotions including bored, interested, and frustrated. The video recordings of facial expressions were computer analyzed frame by frame to investigate when the individuals were smiling. 

The study revealed that the emotion that was most associated with smiling was engagement rather than happiness or frustration.

“According to some researchers, a genuine smile reflects the inner state of cheerfulness or amusement,” said Dr. Witchel. “However, Behavioural Ecology Theory suggests that all smiles are tools used in social interactions; that theory claims that cheerfulness is neither necessary nor sufficient for smiling.”

“Our study showed that in these Human-Computer Interaction experiments, smiling is not driven by happiness; it is associated with subjective engagement, which acts like a social fuel for smiling, even when socializing with a computer on your own.”

The frame-by-frame smile analysis captured an expression for the question and answer portion of each of the questions. The researchers also monitored the expressions in between and found that participants did not tend to smile while they were trying to figure out the answers.


The individuals did, however, smile right after the computer game informed them if their answer was correct or incorrect. Surprisingly, the participants smiled more often when they got the answer wrong.

“During these computerized quizzes, smiling was radically enhanced just after answering questions incorrectly,” said Dr. Witchel. “This behavior could be explained by self-ratings of engagement, rather than by ratings of happiness or frustration.”

The study is published in <a href="https://jacm.acm.org/">The Journal of the ACM</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals how smiling doesn’t always reflect happy feelings

A recent study at Brighton and Sussex Medical School (BSMS)...

Stories of children raised by animals have long existed in media, myths, and folklore. Children like Mowgli or Tarzan were raised by wild animals in the jungle, while Remus and Romulus suckled on the milk of wild wolves.  There are myths in the Amazon of people who change into jaguars and in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/operation-icebridge-holes-arctic-ice/">Arctic</a> there is a myth of a woman who marries a brown bear. The idea of an impenetrable barrier between humans and animals seems to come from the monotheistic tradition and historically seems to be in the minority of beliefs worldwide.  

But today it seems that the accepted belief is that in some way, humans and other animals are fundamentally different.  Even as some evolutionary biologists attack the belief of human exceptionality, we continue to act as if we are superior to all other life forms.

The idea of children growing up in without humans, more influenced by other animals than their own species, seems initially hard to believe.  As wild as it may seem, beneath the fiction of myth and legend, is a hard seed of reality. Children left without human companionship at an early age are left growing up without language or basic knowledge of human society.  These children are known as feral, wild or properly referred to as ‘isolates’ and there are several historical examples. 

Marina Chapman is unusual among ‘feral’ children in that she grew up to have a relatively normal life as an adult.  Also true to many fictional renditions of the story, Marina was befriended by non-human primates, in her case a troop of Capuchin Monkeys.  At around 4 years old, Marina claims she was abandoned in the jungle of Columbia, where she survived by following monkeys and learning from their behavior.  By the time Marina was found by hunters perhaps five years later, she seemed to have no human language. After her time in the jungle, Marina was sold into prostitution, escaped to live on the street as a pickpocket hiding from police in trees and again captured as a slave by the mafia. Eventually, Marina was rescued and moved to England with her husband where she lives today.  It’s a hard story to believe and many are skeptical about it. Marina Chapman wrote <a href="https://www.guardianbookshop.com/girl-with-no-name.html">a book</a> about her experience but for many it’s still too much to swallow.    

More convincing is the case of John Ssebunya, a man who witnessed his father murder his mother at the age of two or three years old and escaped into the jungle of Uganda.  John told his story in an interview given through translator with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/oct/10/euanferguson.theobserver">The Guardian</a>.  

John recounted how vervet monkeys eventually befriended him, giving him nuts and tubers for food.  Living in an area torn by civil war, John encountered no humans and learned to survive by following and observing the monkeys.  After years in the jungle, John was eventually found by a woman named Millie, who thought he was an injured monkey at first. 

Scientists who tested John by placing him with monkeys feel his interactions with them are convincing, and report that he seems to act as another monkey would, or at least he acts like a human well versed in monkey behavior.  John has been adopted and now lives in England and although in some ways he’s different than other children, he seemed to be adapting well when interviewed in 1999.

Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja is a famous case of a man who is said to have been ‘raised’ by wolves.  In his early childhood, Marcos was sold as a slave by his father to a man to tend his goat herd. Marcos was then brought to a small cave where a goat herder lived, watching the flock.  When the goat herder died, Marcos retreated into the Sierra Morena mountains of northern Spain where he trapped rabbits for food as the goat herder had taught him. Marcos watched other animals to learn what was edible and what wasn’t.  

On one rainy night, the young boy sought shelter in a cave where he slept with wolf pups.  The first encounter with an adult wolf was perilous but Marcos claims he was befriended and sometimes given food.  Eventually police caught Marcos in his teens and forcibly dragged him into civilization. Even into his 70s, Marcos seemed to have a hard time relating to other humans.  A dramatized film and a documentary have made Marcos a minor celebrity in Spain and abroad. A main theme in the story of Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja and others like him is one of betrayal by humans and a strange sort of acceptance on the par of other animals.  

There are many more accounts of children raised by or near other animals with no human contact.  Oxana Malaya is a woman who was ignored by alcoholic parents and took comfort and social contact from dogs in a kennel behind her house.  Neglected continuously from a young age, Oxana lived with dogs as her main companions for five years before being rescued. Malaya learned to bark, growl and act like a dog in virtually every way.  Today, Oxana is in her 30s and lives at a home for the disabled, being mentally much younger than her actual age. There are cases of children in Romania, Siberia, Chile and elsewhere raised by domestic dogs.  There are reports of kids raised by bears, sheep, cattle, goats and even in the Sahara by ostriches. 

There was also a case of a child living in the dark in California with no contact whatsoever with any humans.  There is the famous case of ‘Victor’, a young boy found in the late 1700s in France living in the wild, scavenging and hunting whatever he could find and eventually turned over for research and education by academics.  Experts agree that how well children raised in isolation from other humans will reintegrate into society depends on how young they were isolated. Usually if language isn’t acquired to some degree by the age of 5, it never will be acquired.  

In the cases where the people eventually grew up to get jobs, to find husbands or wives or friends of any type, there was some language learning before 5.  Victor never fully grasped any language or integrated into society. In some cases feral children were seen as little more than freak show attractions. Often once feral children who’ve readapted to society talk about the cruelty of children and other humans towards them.  Human society seems bewildering, money incomprehensible. Some of these former wild children are easily taken advantage of. 

In cases where a child is abandoned and survives with closer interactions with other animals, the question becomes one of what does it mean to be human?  Some psychologists and philosophers have argued that our genetics play the most important role, but if five years with no human interaction can set the course of a lifetime, how can this be so?  

Another question raised is what does it mean to be animal and how are we animals and specifically human animals?  Cases of humans raised apart from others of their own species are very rare but it seems that there is nothing so special about them.  We all if abandoned at a certain part of our lives have the capacity to lose our own special veneer of humanity, to embrace other ways of living, other ways of being a clever animal.  Some have argued that many of these children have severe learning disabilities and were abandoned for relatively short periods. What of the children that grew up to be functional adults?  Are they hoaxes or are they a window into the nature of our own reality? 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Real cases of children raised by wild animals

Stories of children raised by animals have long existed in...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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