Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

Being active is an important part of maintaining a healthy lifestyle, especially as you age. And while running, weightlifting and playing sports are all beneficial to your health, just the simple act of walking can also provide numerous benefits. One of these benefits has just been discovered in a new study published in the <a href="http://heartfailure.onlinejacc.org/">Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Heart Failure</a>, which found for the first time that walking can significantly lower the risk of heart failure in older women.

The study involved over 137,000 postmenopausal women aged 50 to 79, making it the largest and most comprehensive to date that has assessed physical activity within the context of heart failure prevention. Results showed that, along with reducing overall heart failure by 25 percent, increased physical activity improved two heart failure subtypes that are defined by cardiac function. These subtypes are reduced ejection fraction, which usually has a worse prognosis, and preserved ejection fraction, which is more common in older adults – particularly women and racial-ethnic minorities. 

Reduced ejection fraction heart failure usually occurs in individuals who have suffered a heart attack. It causes the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/litte-sleep-harmful-heart-health/">heart</a> to become a less efficient pump, which leads to other complications, including the failure of other organs and the need for a heart transplant, as well as sudden cardiac death. Preserved ejection fraction typically occurs in people who haven’t had a heart attack, but do have high blood pressure or diabetes. 

“The heart muscle more or less wears out and becomes an inefficient pump, although not to the extreme seen with reduced ejection fraction,” explains Michael LaMonte, PhD, research associate professor of epidemiology in the <a href="https://sphhp.buffalo.edu/">University at Buffalo School of Public Health and Health</a> Professions and lead author of the study.

“This is the first study to report physical activity levels are related to a lower risk of developing heart failure with reduced ejection fraction in older adults, particularly in women,” LaMonte says. “This is pretty important from a public health standpoint, given the poor prognosis this type of heart failure has once it’s present.”

LaMonte and colleagues analyzed self-reported physical activity information from participants in the Women’s Health Initiative. They found that the cumulative incidence of overall heart failure was lower with increasing physical activity when compared to women who reported no physical activity at baseline. An additional 30 to 45 minutes per day of activity was linked with a risk reduction of 9 percent for overall heart failure, 8 percent for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and 10 percent for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. 

The data also showed that physical activity and walking were inversely associated with the development of heart failure, while intensity-specific (mild, moderate, intense) physical activity was not. This may indicate that it’s the amount and not the intensity of physical activity performed that can potentially prevent heart failure.

“The finding that walking showed a protective association with heart failure and its subtypes is particularly important in a public health context,” says LaMonte. “This is especially relevant given that walking is by far the most commonly reported physical activity in older adults.”

With the population of people 60 and older expected to double in the U.S. by 2035, these findings may be especially important. “Because heart failure is much more common after age 60, and because its treatment is very challenging and costly, the possibility of preventing its development by promoting increased physical activity levels, and specifically walking, in later life could have an important impact on the overall burden of this disease in an aging society,” LaMonte concludes. 

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Walking regularly shown to reduce heart failure risk as we age

Being active is an important part of maintaining a healthy...

You can see it in places like Santa Fe, New Mexico, Moab, Utah, Telluride, Colorado, even in Hill City, South Dakota.  Slowly it seems, the wealthy are buying up the rugged west and costs for enjoying public lands climb lockstep with the alteration of that landscape for increased recreation.

I recently had dinner with a friend of mine who decades ago spent his summers during college living out of a van and working at a rock shop in Moab, Utah.  My friend tells me Moab has changed so much and not for the better, to the degree he can’t visit the town anymore; it’s too sad. Moab is the poster child for a type of change that threatens to engulf the entire western US.  Once a small, quirky town full of working class people and outdoor bums, Moab has become a destination, a tourism mecca. The sad irony is that people like John Muir or Ed Abbey, promoting the natural beauty of places they loved have drawn in tourists that have overrun once lonely places.  As my friend told me, eventually people stop coming to a place because they love it and people start coming simply because it’s the place to be.

In his book, The Man Who Quit Money, Mark Sundeen nicely summarizes the historic feel of Moab, Utah and a way of living that has attracted many to the western US over the years:

“In 1897 – the same year builders broke ground on that icon of modernity, the Eiffel Tower – Moab still had no road or railway service, and the only way to cross the Colorado River into town was by ferry…A graded road and river bridge did not arrive until 1912…Moab has always had a reflexively anti-authoritarian bent.  People came here to do whatever the Hell they wanted. When in 1878 a settler named Arthur Barney crossed the Colorado where Moab now sits, he and his men found a sign on the bank reading NO CAMPING ALLOWED. In excellent Moab form, they threw the sign in the river and crossed.” 

Things in Moab and throughout the west are changing though.  Ranching, mining, logging and other extraction industries in the western US are slowly being replaced by outdoor recreation and service industries, a shift fraught with unintentional consequences.  

On Patagonia’s blog <a href="https://www.patagonia.com/blog/2017/01/the-outdoor-industry-loves-utah-does-utah-love-the-outdoor-industry/">The Cleanest Line</a>, the company states that outdoor recreation annually drives $12 billion in spending and supports 122,000 jobs in Utah alone (as of January 2017).  According to an article in <a href="https://www.sltrib.com/news/business/2017/07/28/outdoor-recreation-meant-12b-to-utahs-economy-last-year/">The Salt Lake Tribune</a>, the outdoor industry supported 110,000 jobs in 2016, more than double the 32,000 mining jobs or 18,000 energy jobs.  According to a Utah Department of Agriculture and Food report for 2017, agriculture production and processing employed 79,000 people that year.  In 2017, <a href="https://www.deseretnews.com/article/865679687/Report-Utah-tourism-growing-at-record-levels.html">Deseret News</a> reported that tourism in Utah grew 12% from 2011 to 2015.   These numbers are striking when considering a western state like Utah that has traditionally been defined by ‘natural resources’ and hardworking blue collar types.

According to <a href="https://utahbusiness.com/build-population-growth-will-reshape-utahs-housing-landscape/">Utah Business</a>, Utah is projected to double its population by 2065.  Tourism seems to be a new major player in the economics of the west, one that’s here to stay.  <a href="https://newwest.net/city/article/what_is_a_new_west_vs_old_west_economy/C396/L396/">New West</a> says: 

“Vibrant local new economies are emerging. A 2005 government study finds that rural counties specializing in recreation and tourism enjoyed higher employment growth rates, higher percentages of working age residents, and lower local poverty rates.”

The economic and population growth in Utah is affecting national parks and other ‘natural’ areas as well.  <a href="https://www.thespectrum.com/story/news/2018/02/28/zion-national-park-ranks-3rd-u-s-number-visitors/380897002/">The Spectrum</a> reported earlier this year that Zion National Park in Southern Utah is now the third most visited National Park in the US.  Only Great Smoky National Park and Grand Canyon National Park had more visitors than Zion in 2017. 

Zion isn’t alone either; visiting Arches National Park on an average day makes it clear that much of what Ed Abbey feared in visitation has come to pass.  The master plan is complete. Roads are paved and packed with SUVs. On one hike, my fiance Erin and I were baffled to watch a tourist offer a chipmunk scurrying across slick rock water and proclaim, “Stupid chipmunk” when the small mammal didn’t drink.  Small puddles were already nearby. 

It seems from my perspective that the majority of visitors to Arches or Zion aren’t making a real connection to the land.  A ranger in the Grand Canyon once told me about rescuing a woman who walked for miles into the canyon in high heeled shoes.  What brings a person like that to the Grand Canyon? Perhaps clever marketing. 

In Utah, the Office of Tourism seems to have focused its marketing on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-national-parks/">national parks</a>.  The focus on the outdoors makes sense for Utah, it’s the main attraction on hand for tourism.  The Mighty Five ad campaign is one I remember seeing on TV a couple years ago, it’s an a campaign focusing on Utah’s five national parks.  Beyond the Mighty Five, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/ut/list.htm">Utah</a> has six National Monuments, some of which are absolutely as spectacular as the National Parks.  There are also four National Historic Trails passing through Utah and there is one National Historic Site and one National Recreation area.  

Utah is fairly typical of western states, where the majority of federal land is located.  <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/co/list.htm">Colorado</a> has five National Monuments, four National Parks, two National Historic sites and one National Recreation area.  <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/az/list.htm">Arizona</a> follows much the same pattern with only three National Parks but with a whopping 13 National Monuments plus historic sites, recreational sites and historic trails that pass through the state.  It isn’t just the four corners region or desert areas either; <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/or/list.htm">Oregon</a> has five National Parks.  <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/wa/list.htm">Washington</a> State has 15 National Parks and the park service claims, 8,371,753 visitors to those parks annually. 

The eastern US is much less dominated by federal land than the west.  Take <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/vt/index.htm">Vermont</a> for instance, the state only has one National Historical Park and one National Scenic Trail passing through it.  The National Park Service claims 48,945 visitors to Vermont’s park. <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/me/index.htm">Maine</a> has a bit more public land with a National Park, a National Monument, an International Park and an International Historic Site.  Compared to Arizona though, Maine attracts less than one quarter of the visitors to its parks and less than half that of Washington state with 3,430,164 visitors.

The land of the eastern US was quickly developed and much was already lost when parks, monuments and national forests started popping up across the US.  Preservation has naturally favored places where a good amount of unspoiled land was left; places like Utah, Montana or Alaska. According to a 2016 <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/06/upshot/why-the-government-owns-so-much-land-in-the-west.html">New York Times</a> report, the federal government owns 47% of western land.  According to <a href="https://www.summitpost.org/public-and-private-land-percentages-by-us-states/186111">summitpost.org</a>, 95.8% of Alaska is public land but not all of that land is Federal.  Listed in order of highest to lowest percentage of public lands, the first twelve states are all western, with New York ranking as number 13 with 37.1% of its land being public.  In the case of New York, a large portion of its public land is state land. Only 0.3% of New York is federal land according to <a href="https://ballotpedia.org/Federal_land_ownership_by_state">ballotopedia.org</a>.  

It’s clear that federal public lands, including national parks and national forests, are part of what defines western landscape and culture, making it different than the eastern US.  What isn’t clear is what this will mean going forward. The reason why so many national parks and forests were able to be created in the western US is largely due to an accident in demographics.  The US was colonized by Europeans and other settlers starting on the east coast going west. The movement from east to west meant a less densely populated western US when parks and forests started to get set aside, meaning there was more undeveloped land to create parks with in the west.

When it comes to national forests, the pattern of east to west development and private land ownership becomes even more obvious.  54% of land inside eastern National Forest boundaries is actually national forest land, according to <a href="http://www.andykerr.net/kerr-public-lands-blog/2017/1/7/national-forests-in-the-eastern-united-states-an-incomplete-legacy">Andy Kerr’s Public Land Blog</a>.  Much of this privately owned land was already owned by private logging companies in the east, while a much smaller percentage was owned in western states.  

Although the preservation of much of the west is predicated on smaller western populations, there has been a growing trend to promote tourism to parks, forests, deserts, landscapes that need continued protection.  Undoubtedly seeing parks makes you care about them more but not all park experiences are equal. 

Infrastructure in parks is starting to crumble. <a href="https://www.yesmagazine.org/">Yes Magazine</a>, stating an oft recognized problem, writes that National Park’s transportation expenses require about $970 million annually, but in 2016 only received $240 million.  The backlog on infrastructure repairs remains today as well, a big reason parks have started to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-parks-trump-ghost-teddy-roosevelt/">raise fees</a>.  

The popularity of parks is directly contributing to the infrastructure problem and people who drive over roads in large RVs are causing the problem more than backpackers in relatively light cars but probably won’t shoulder more of the burden.  By encouraging more visitation, we’ve caused more problems in parks, problems of congestion, of degradation of both natural environment and infrastructure. With infrastructure also comes of course, less of what people go to parks to see; more asphalt and less grass, rock, trees.

Outside of parks, western cities become more crowded as well.  I’ve driven through mountain towns that now have special routes for people driving ATVs through towns.  Dirt roads are more crowded with ATVs, dirt bikes and SUVs as well, places where mountain bikes were once common are now too dusty to easily ride.  Land prices climb in the most beautiful areas of the west. It becomes increasingly unclear whether the tough working classes who built communities in the west or the Native Americans who’ve often been forced onto marginal lands have a future here.  Campgrounds that were once free are now charging and visits to grocery stores in many tourism driven western towns can induce sticker shock to most. 

With the changing western landscape, environmentalists, especially those in the west should start asking if they’ve made a mistake.  By asking people to visit the west have we simply traded the problems of the extraction industry for new problems caused by industrial tourism?  By focusing on financial benefits of parks are businesses like Patagonia selling out the environment? 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer                            

Image Credit: Photo by <a href="https://unsplash.com/photos/wa2l5tW5ISE?utm_source=unsplash&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_content=creditCopyText">Mitch Nielsen</a> on <a href="https://unsplash.com/?utm_source=unsplash&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_content=creditCopyText">Unsplash</a>

Ecotourism and the rapidly changing New West

You can see it in places like Santa Fe, New...

An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> has investigated the roles of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/women-migraines/">women</a> in science and beyond. The experts have identified specific barriers that may prevent success, and have also highlighted some simple changes that can be made to draw more women into innovative industries.

The researchers are part of a committee for the international network<a href="http://womenincoastal.org/"> Women in Coastal Geoscience and Engineering</a> (WICGE), which spans Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, France, the United Kingdom, Mexico, and Spain. 

The study revealed that women only represent around 20 percent of the CGE’s most prestigious roles, even though females makes up a third of the CGE community. 

Co-author Professor Ana Vila-Concejo is the deputy director of the One Tree Island Research Station on Australia's Great Barrier Reef and a co-leader of the University of Sydney's Geocoastal Research Group. 

“Our findings are important not only for our field of research but also for other fields in science, technology, engineering and mathematics - and beyond," said Professor Vila-Concejo.

“Reading the survey responses was harder than we had anticipated; I could not read all responses in one go as I was in tears.”

“We found flagrant examples of inequality that included dramatic decisions such as an early career researcher deciding to undergo an abortion out of fear of jeopardising her chances of securing an academic position.”
The researchers analyzed the gender of leaders on the boards and committees of nine societies, 25 journals, and 10 conferences. They also conducted a global survey and collected responses from 314 people.

The study revealed that gender stereotyping was among the most common drivers of inequality in the CGE. The stereotyping of women in STEM as being incompetent and not being taken seriously was found to be a common problem. 


One survey participant responded: “During a job interview, the lead engineer (male) was explaining how they have the ‘boys club’ here at the office. They did offer me the job, but I didn't want to work in that type of environment.”


The researchers found that women being overlooked and ignored in favor of male colleagues was also a key issue. 


Some solutions recommended by the study authors include advocating for more women in prestige roles, promoting high-achieving females, creating awareness of gender bias, and speaking up. Other steps to success include getting better support for return-to-work, redefining success, and encouraging more women to enter the discipline at a young age.

Study co-author Shari Gallop from Macquarie University explained, “The first four steps we recommend can be successfully implemented immediately, while others need institutional engagement and represent major societal overhauls.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/">Palgrave Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Research reveals the primary obstacles professional women face

An international team of researchers led by the University of...

Step aside electric cars, hybrids, Teslas and gas-saving self-driving vehicles, the future of green automotives may soon lie in plastic.

Researchers from <a href="http://www.swansea.ac.uk/">Swansea University</a> have successfully converted plastic waste into hydrogen, paving the way for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles powered by plastic. 

As the world struggles to cope with a major plastic pollution crisis, millions of tons of plastic are entering the ocean each year and little sign of improvement.

Many researchers, conservation groups, and concerned citizens are scrambling to find ways to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pac-man-system-plastic-pollution/">clean up and recycle the plastic waste</a> created each day, and this new research may provide a new innovative solution. 

Plastic waste, even the plastic that can’t be recycled because it’s contaminated by food waste, can theoretically be used to make hydrogen using the new system created by the Swansea researchers. 

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, less common than electric cars and hybrids, use hydrogen and oxygen to create electricity that powers the car. 

It’s an incredibly clean and quiet way to power a car, and using plastic for fuel could be even a better alternative than trying to recycle the world’s plastic. 

“There's a lot of plastic used every year – billions of tonnes – and only a fraction of it is being recycled. We are trying to find a use for what is not being recycled,” said Moritz Kuehnel of Swansea University's chemistry department. “The beauty of this process is that it's not very picky. It can degrade all sorts of waste.”

The plastic is converted to hydrogen using an alkaline solution that is exposed to sunlight. 

The researchers say that plastic powered cars are quite a ways off, but many automotive manufacturers are already investing hydrogen fuel cell vehicle technology. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Could plastic waste one day fuel your car?

Step aside electric cars, hybrids, Teslas and gas-saving self-driving vehicles,...

The symptoms of cognitive decline, whether a result of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twice-americans-alzheimers-2060/">Alzheimer's disease</a> or not, increase during winter and spring, according to a new study. 


There had been some research on the correlation between seasons and cognitive abilities in older adults, but a collaborative team from the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto</a> and the <a href="https://sunnybrook.ca/">Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre</a> have now found enough evidence to confirm a seasonal pattern that merits further study. 

The results which were published in the journal PLOS Medicine show that adults with or without Alzheimer's have better cognition skills during the late summer and early fall. 

Data from 3,353 people enrolled in three different cohort studies in the US, Canada, and France were analyzed by the researchers. Some of the data included neuropsychological tests, protein levels and genetic analysis in regards to Alzheimer's disease. 

The researchers found that cognitive abilities were higher in the summer and fall, the equivalent to 4.8 years of age-related decline, than in winter and spring. 

Patients in the different studies were more likely to meet the criteria for cognitive impairment or dementia in winter and spring than fall or summer. 

Even when the researchers controlled for factors like depression, physical activity, or amounts of sleep in the different study participants, the results held true with summer and fall correlating with better cognition. 

There were also fluctuations in Alzheimer's protein levels in the brain based on seasonal changes. 


“There may be value in increasing dementia-related clinical resources in the winter and early spring when symptoms are likely to be most pronounced,” the authors conclude. “By shedding light on the mechanisms underlying the seasonal improvement in cognition in the summer and early fall, these findings also open the door to new avenues of treatment for Alzheimer's disease.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Dementia in older adults is more apparent in winter and spring

The symptoms of cognitive decline, whether a result of Alzheimer's...

<a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/therapy-types/eye-movement-desensitization-and-reprocessing-therapy">Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing therapy</a> (EMDR), is a common and yet controversial form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coping-skills-alleviate-anxiety/">psychotherapy</a> for patients who have experienced trauma. 

It was developed by <a href="http://www.emdr.com/history-of-emdr/">Francine Shapiro</a> in 1987 when the psychologist was taking a walk in the woods. Shapiro realized that EMDR could help lessen the negative feelings and emotions associated with past memories and disturbing thoughts. 

The central concepts behind EDMR involve using both rapid side to side eye movement and talk therapy to help process traumatic events and decrease the emotions and fear surrounding said event. 

Even though there exists evidence that EDMR is effective, there is still uncertainty as to whether the eye movement itself actually helps or if the talk therapy alone could achieve the same result. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ru.nl/english/">Radboud University</a> in the Netherlands and <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">Cambridge University </a>conducted two experiments that put EDMR to the test with the aim of investigating the underlying neurobiological mechanisms that make the therapy so effective. 

The results, published in the journal JNeurosci, show that EDMR suppressed activity in the amygdala, the region of the brain responsible for fear learning. 

When activity in the amygdala lessoned, it allowed participants to reduce the associations between certain stimulus (remembering a traumatic experience, for example) and a fear response. 

This is called extinction learning and it’s a critical part of decreasing the fear response. 

“This study contributes to the understanding of a widely used treatment for traumatic symptoms by providing a parsimonious account for how working memory tasks and goal-directed eye movements can enhance extinction-based psychotherapy, namely through neural circuits similar to those that support cognitive control of emotion,” the authors conclude in the study’s abstract. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How eye movement therapy helps soften traumatic memories

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing therapy (EMDR), is a common...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.mtu.edu/">Michigan Technological University</a> have found that changing the type of silicon used in solar cells can reduce production costs by more than 10 percent.

Joshua Pearce is a professor of Material Sciences and Electrical Engineering and a co-author of the study. He explained that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/harnessing-solar-power/">solar energy</a> is the fastest growing energy source and that costs are already comparable to conventional forms of electricity. An additional ten-percent drop could drive this progression even more. 

“Improving cost per unit power at the cell level can have massive effects downstream,” said Professor Pearce.

Silicon is the standard material used in solar photovoltaic (PV) cells to capture light, and comes in two main forms. Perfect silicon crystals cost more and produce higher efficiencies, while multicrystalline silicon costs less but produces lower efficiencies.

Prior research demonstrated that nano-texturing silicon with dry etching makes black silicon (black-Si) that is more efficient at capturing light than standard etching treatments. 

“Those needles grab the light and don't let it get away. It's like looking into the eyes of Darth Vader,” said Professor Pearce.

In addition, scientists at <a href="http://www.aalto.fi/en/">Aalto University</a> discovered in a previous study that when black-Si is treated with an appropriate atomic layer deposition (ALD) coating, the surface defects that could hurt electrical performance are mitigated. 

It has been commonly assumed that the cost of black-Si cells from dry etching and ALD are too expensive for practical use.  Professor Pearce said that, in this industry, “margins are extremely tight” and there is a push for the lowest costs possible. 

The results of the current study, however, came as a surprise. While the production of individual black-Si passive emitter rear cells (PERC) were found to be between 15.8 and 25.1 percent more expensive compared to the production of conventional cells, the efficiency gains combined with the use of the less-expensive multicrystalline silicon actually outweighed those extra costs. Overall, the cost per unit power dropped by 10.8 percent.

“For the people that think coal technology is going to be able to compete with solar, they should know solar costs are still coming down,” said Professor Pearce. “Most coal companies are already, or near, bankrupt now. There's no way coal's going to be able to compete with solar in the future.”

“This study points to where the future is going to go in PV manufacturing and what countries might want to do to give themselves a competitive advantage.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies">Energies</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Sarah Bird, Michigan Tech

Solar energy use is on the rise as costs continue to drop

Researchers at Michigan Technological University have found that changing the...

A recent study has revealed that there is even less social mobility among Americans than previously thought. The research has found that the occupational status of workers in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-western-united-states/">United States</a> is strongly influenced by that of their parents, and that this association is a major contributor to the lack of social mobility across generations. 


Study author Michael Hout is a professor of Sociology at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University.</a>

“A lot of Americans think the U.S. has more social mobility than other western industrialized countries,” explained Professor Hout. “This makes it abundantly clear that we have less.”

While previous studies have showed a strong association between parental occupation and intergenerational income persistence, these investigations understated the effect of the parents' jobs on the status of their children.

The new study has revealed a more powerful link by accounting for the pay and education of those in a given occupation. The investigation was focused on General Social Survey (GSS) data from 1994 through 2016.

The GSS participants provided detailed descriptions of their current occupation and their parents’ occupations when they were growing up. The responses were classified under 539 occupational categories and then given a socioeconomic score. For example, a score of 9 would be assigned to a shoe shiner, while a 93 would be assigned to a surgeon.

“The underlying idea is that some occupations are desirable and others less so,” explained Professor Hout.

The study revealed that the sons and daughters of high-status parents have more advantages in the labor force than what has been estimated. Half of the participants who had parents in the top tier of occupations now work in occupations that score 76 or higher. On the other hand, half of the individuals with parents in the bottom tier now work in occupations that score 28 or less on the scale.

“Your circumstances at birth - specifically, what your parents do for a living - are an even bigger factor in how far you get in life than we had previously realized,” said Professor Hout. “Generations of Americans considered the United States to be a land of opportunity. This research raises some sobering questions about that image.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New study reveals surprisingly limited social mobility in the US

A recent study has revealed that there is even less...

A new study has found that political anonymity may be the best way to foster the spread of accurate information, encourage productive interactions, and reduce polarization on social media

It’s no secret that social media played a large role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/battling-climate-change-misinformation/">the spread of misinformation</a> which influenced the 2016 presidential election. 

Now, new research shows that there may be a way to use social media to be beneficial and productive, provided you keep party affiliation out of the equation. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a> conducted a study asking both Democrats and Republicans to interpret Arctic sea ice data and graph released by the<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/"> National Aeronautics and Space Administration </a>(NASA) in 2013. 

“NASA found, to its dismay, that a lot of people were misinterpreting the graph to say that there would actually be more Arctic sea ice in the future rather than less,” said Douglas Guilbeault, a member of the research team. “Conservatives, in particular, were susceptible to this misinterpretation.”

The researchers wondered to what extent social media might influence an individual’s interpretation particularly given how politically charged social media is today. 

The results were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

“New scientific information does not change people's minds. They can always interpret it to match their beliefs,” said Damon Centola, the leader of the study. “But, if you allow people to interact with each other in egalitarian social networks, in which no individual is more powerful than another, we find remarkably strong effects of bipartisan social learning on eliminating polarization.”

2,400 Republicans and Democrats were first asked to interpret the graph on their own. After this, 40 percent of Republicans and 26 percent of Democrats misinterpreted the data and thought that the graph showed Arctic sea-ice levels increasing over the next few years. 

Next, the researchers gave some study participants the opportunity to interact on an experimental social media platform specifically created by the research team. 

To test how much political polarization influences an individual’s ability to subjectively look at climate change research, the researchers split the participants into three groups on the social media platform. 

One group knew the political affiliation of each of their social media contacts on the platform. Another group did not know who they were interacting with, only the political affiliation assigned via a donkey or republican symbol at the bottom of the screen. The third group was non-political and anonymous.

When political affiliation was kept anonymous and the participants were simply sharing their opinions on the data, 88 percent of Republicans and 86 percent of Democrats figured out the sea-ice levels were dropping. 

Some of the participants were not allowed to interact on the social media platform and their final responses stayed true to the earlier survey answers with many still misinterpreting the graph. 

“We all expected polarization when Republicans and Democrats were isolated,” said Centola. “But we were amazed to see how dramatically bipartisan networks could improve participants' judgments. But the biggest surprise--and perhaps our biggest lesson--came from how fragile it all was. The improvements vanished completely with the mere suggestion of political party.”

The results show how influential political party affiliation is in our society. However, the researchers say that the study shows promise and that people are more open-minded when politics are kept out of the picture in terms of understanding climate change research. 

“Most of us are biased in one way or another,” said Centola. “It's often unavoidable. But, if you eliminate the symbols that drive people into their political camps and let them talk to each other, people have a natural instinct to learn from one another. And that can go a long way toward lessening partisan conflict.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>

Social media can help reduce polarization on climate change

A new study has found that political anonymity may be...

Having a diverse group of people on a board of directors is not only in keeping with growing expectations for companies to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-benefit-diversity-schools/">be more inclusive</a>, but it can also be both better for the environment and save millions of dollars in potential lawsuits. 

A new study has found that companies that have a good balance of men and women on their board of directors are less likely to be sued for environmental law violations. 

The reason behind this has to do with both gender socialization and diversity theories, along with the idea that problem solving is more effective between a group of people with a broad and diverse mindset.  

The research was conducted by Chelsea Liu, a senior lecturer at <a href="https://business.adelaide.edu.au/">Adelaide Business School</a> and published in the Journal of Corporate Finance. 

Liu reviewed 1,893 lawsuits against 1,500 firms of the finance company <a href="https://www.standardandpoors.com/">Standard and Poor’s </a>from 2000 to 2015.

After sorting through the different companies and the lawsuits raised regarding environmental concerns, Liu noticed that the companies with more gender-diverse boards had fewer lawsuits. 

To break it down, Liu found that for every female board of director added to a company, there was a 1.5 decrease in lawsuit exposure which translates to around 3.1 million dollars in savings. 

“This can be attributed to 'diversity theory', which says that a group of people from more diverse backgrounds - gender, race etc. - tend to make better collective decisions, because they canvas a wider range of perspectives,” said Liu of her findings. “Having a range of perspectives can result in improved corporate environmental policy, which in turn can reduce exposure to environmental lawsuits.” 

Having a more gender diverse board or hiring more female CEOs also has a positive impact on the environment because studies have shown that women are more likely to seek outside advice and care about protecting and managing the environment. 

“Gender socialization and ethics theories suggest that girls are brought up to be more caring towards others which can enhance environmental decision-making in the boardroom,” said Liu.

The study shows that companies should continue to invest in and hire more diverse employees from a wide range of social and economic backgrounds. 

Liu also notes that the results may help persuade countries currently debating whether to implement mandatory boardroom gender quotas to pass those mandates. 

“With corporate environmental responsibility becoming a more important social issue, these findings can have significant implications for policymakers, investors, and managers,” said Liu. “Environmental violations not only have a significant impact on societies, but they can also cause devastating losses of shareholder value.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gender diverse boards make for greener companies

Having a diverse group of people on a board of...

Homelessness <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homeless-program-saves-money/">takes a toll </a>on both mental health and wellbeing and for children, and these impacts can be devastating on early development. 

According to the <a href="http://www.apa.org/pi/families/poverty.aspx">Americans Psychological Association</a>, homelessness affects physical and mental health, and being homeless at a young age increases the risk of depression, anxiety, malnutrition, and chronic illness. 

Homeless children are also twice as likely to develop a learning disability due to a lack of education or having education interrupted or delayed. 

A new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.bmc.org/programs/childrens-healthwatch">Children’s HealthWatch</a> found that being homeless during the pre or postnatal period or for more than six months correlated with the highest risk of negative health outcomes. 

The study was published in the journal Pediatrics. 

The researchers interviewed 20,000 low-income caregivers of children under the age of four. The participants had visited outpatient pediatric clinics in five cities across the U.S between 2009 and 2015. 

The team asked questions about how the children of the participants experienced homelessness and conducted an assessment of the children's’ health, previous hospitalizations, and development. 

Homelessness that lasted for more than six months had the most adverse effect on children and pre and postnatal homelessness also took a toll. 

The results show that the longer a child experiences homelessness during their most formative, early years, the higher the risks of health problems. 

“These findings back up what we already knew about how the stress of homelessness affects children's health,” said Megan Sandel, the lead investigator at Children's HealthWatch, “but this helps us determine which children are at greatest risk, and makes the argument that policymakers and providers need to intervene to change the trajectory of a child's development.”

The study also highlights the burden on healthcare that homeless children create because of the increased need for hospitalizations, healthcare, and interventions which just adds to the instability and strain on well-being for children and their families. 

Preventing or reducing child homelessness can start with pediatricians who might see warning signs when caring for children from unstable homes according to the study authors. 

“Interventions that prevent homelessness for families and pregnant women can be extremely effective, and with data on the housing status of our patients, we can better advocate for more resources to drive innovations in addressing housing instability,” said Deborah Frank, the senior author of the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The damaging impact of homelessness at a young age

Homelessness takes a toll on both mental health and wellbeing...

Today marks the launch of a novel study on the benefits of LSD microdosing, where participants will set up a placebo-controlled trial on their own and report back. 

It’s the first ever placebo-controlled trial of psychedelic microdosing, according to a new report from <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/sep/01/first-ever-trials-on-the-effects-of-microdosing-lsd-set-to-begin">The Guardian</a>. 

The researchers hope that the results will give more scientific backing to the claims that microdosing can improve mood and focus without the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lsd-permanently-impact-personality/">mind-altering hallucinogenic effects</a> of a full dose.

Microdosing has been practiced since LSD was first synthesized in 1936, but lately it’s become popular in the California digital tech world, according to The Guardian.

Many employees in Silicon Valley report taking a small amount of LSD one or more times a week and this is said to improve focus, creativity and boost mood. 

It’s even been said that microdosing can treat depression, although there have been no formal studies to verify these claims. 

Microdosing and taking hallucinogens in general is also illegal, and so conducting a study on whether or not psychedelics in small doses is beneficial would be difficult, to say the least.  

Enter the <a href="http://beckleyfoundation.org/">Beckley Foundation</a> which is a UK based organization dedicated to studying psychoactive substances. 

The Beckley Foundation set up <a href="https://selfblinding-microdose.org/index.html">the placebo study </a>so that anyone who has had experience with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/human-brain-lsd-microdosing/">LSD</a> and psychedelics, particularly those who already microdose, can participate in the online trial. 

It will be a self-blinded study where participants will be asked to prepare a set of LSD microdosing tablets and an identical set of placebo tablets, and put the tablets in unmarked envelopes so that the participant will not know which they are taking. 

The study participants will also take part in games and tests online to test cognitive ability and the envelopes will be marked with QR codes so that only the research team will know which tablet is being taken. 

Because people who microdose are likely to have engaged in LSD and psychedelic drug activity before, the controlled placebo study will answer an important question. Is microdosing actually beneficial or are participants simply experiencing mood altering benefits based on their expectations of taking the drug? 

“The people who microdose right now are not an average random set of people from the street,” Balázs Szigeti, the study leader told The Guardian. “They are very likely to have used psychedelics before and have preconceptions about them. “You are doing something novel and exciting and that you believe in – and you know you are doing it. It is absolutely no surprise that you are getting a positive effect.”

What is especially interesting about the study is the self-blinded aspect. All of the work is being reporting back to the Beckley scientists online and there is a possibility that participants could misuse the self-blind system know which capsule they are taking. 

However, the researchers have hope that there is enough interest in the study that participants will stick to the guidelines and that the study will garner a larger sample size than ordinary clinical trials. 

The results are set to be published next year. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

First ever study launched to explore benefits of microdosing LSD

Today marks the launch of a novel study on the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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