Roses have long been treasured for their elegance and symbolic meaning. Rose petals, admired in gardens worldwide, have fascinated people with their striking formation patterns.



Recent findings suggest that geometric frustration in tissue growth and cell orientation contributes to the formation of sharp tips in rose petals.



According to new research led by Yafei Zhang from the University of Central Florida, the flower’s pointed edges arise through a mechanism different from commonly known <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015JMP....56h2202H/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gauss incompatibility</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pointed-petals-of-roses">The pointed petals of roses</h2>



Botanists have often assumed that most curling leaves and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-get-their-shape-and-scent-from-a-single-gene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">petals</a> share the same principles of shape formation. Those principles involve internal growth stresses that produce wavelike edges in many plants.



Roses, however, do not follow that broad trend. They showcase crisp margins that hint at a different structural phenomenon.



Researchers discovered that these pointed rims result from Mainardi-Codazzi-Peterson (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S002250962100226X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MCP</a>) incompatibility, which focuses stress into narrow zones. This focus leads to the petal’s signature pointed form without the soft ripples found in other blossoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-internal-stress-directs-growth">How internal stress directs growth</h2>



Stress in plant tissue often emerges when natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-gene-that-gives-a-flower-its-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expansion</a> meets physical limits. Instead of spreading the strain throughout the entire petal, roses concentrate it into small pockets along the rim.



That high-pressure concentration brings about clearly defined tips. Over time, this process creates a feedback loop in which the tissue continues to shape itself around those focused areas of stress.



Once those pointed regions appear, the petal’s growth follows a new path. This pattern sets roses apart from leaves or flowers that display wave-like edges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rose-petals-and-pressure-zones">Rose petals and pressure zones</h2>



In typical leaf development, Gauss incompatibility describes how mismatched growth rates cause edges to bend or ripple. Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-tracks-changes-in-seasonal-flower-cycles-and-migration-patterns-from-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> rely on that effect, ending up with gentle curves that flutter in the breeze.



Roses tap into an alternative method for shaping themselves. Their petals emphasize localized pressure zones, almost like a carefully placed fold that defines the final outline.



Scientists have long used geometry to explain how thin sheets buckle and curl. Roses provide a vivid example of how nature experiments with more than one geometric strategy to achieve a unique aesthetic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-petals-that-are-sharply-sculpted">Petals that are sharply sculpted </h2>



Zhang’s group took a practical approach to confirm that MCP incompatibility drives rose petal formation. They created synthetic petals that mimicked rose tissue growth and tested how those models behaved.



By adjusting parameters in the laboratory, they witnessed the same kind of stress concentration that nature uses. When the tension peaked along certain zones, the synthetic petals sprouted the same crisp tips seen on real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-bees-choose-the-same-flowers-again-and-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roses</a>.



The team combined theoretical analyses, computer simulations, and hands-on fabrication. Each part of their work reinforced the idea that focusing stress can sculpt petals more sharply than traditional wavy patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rose-petal-mechanics-inspire-engineers">Rose petal mechanics inspire engineers</h2>



Insights from plant development often inspire new products. Engineers are intrigued by the way delicate biological structures can fold themselves into complex shapes without external force.



Rose petals might serve as a model for materials that need precise curves. By copying the stress-targeting method, researchers could craft surfaces that transform shape when stimulated.



“Identifying Mainardi-Codazzi-Peterson incompatibility as a shaping mechanism is not only an important milestone in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/morphogenesis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">morphogenesis</a> research but also an inspiration for new designs of shape-morphing materials and structures,” wrote Lishuai Jin from the <a href="https://www.cityu.edu.hk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">City University of Hong Kong</a>, who authored a related perspective.



Devices that curl or crease on demand could lead to innovations in soft robotics or smart textiles. Observing how roses manage tension might help inventors design structures that cleverly change their form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-view-of-nature-s-tricks">A broader view of nature’s tricks</h2>



Gauss-based effects remain familiar territory for botanists studying rippled leaves or wavy petals. Those undulating edges show how differential growth alone can create attractive curvatures in plant organs.



Roses prove there is more than one path to sculpting a petal. Their localized tips reveal that living organisms have multiple strategies for shaping themselves over time.



Scientists suspect that other species might also depend on lesser-known mechanical processes for leaf or petal design. Exploring such adaptations could shed light on previously overlooked nuances in plant development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Zhang and colleagues have opened fresh perspectives on how pointed petals form in nature. Their focus on stress localization offers a direct explanation for the neat edges that give roses their distinct charm.



Biologists now wonder if combining Gauss and MCP effects might generate exotic forms yet to be documented in plants or artificial models. This approach could allow horticulturists to encourage new petal varieties and shapes by tuning growth conditions.



Unraveling these geometric strategies not only expands our understanding of plant morphology but might also influence fields that rely on thin-sheet mechanics. From flexible electronics to architectural design, such phenomena hold potential for creative solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-physics-of-rose-petals">Subtle physics of rose petals</h2>



Roses stand out in a garden for their elegant appearance and alluring fragrance. Yet behind that pleasant exterior lies a fine-tuned interplay of expansion and stress that channels shape in unusual ways.



Scientists see this as a reminder that nature’s aesthetics often result from subtle physics. Roses simply turn these principles into an iconic display admired around the world.



Petals shaped by MCP incompatibility demonstrate just how varied growth processes can be. They signal that nature, in its variety, sometimes uses a different blueprint to craft recognizable forms.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt0672" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



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Scientists finally understand why rose petals have pointed tips

Roses have long been treasured for their elegance and symbolic meaning. Rose petals, admired in gardens worldwide, have fascinated people with their striking formation patterns. Recent findings suggest that geometric frustration in tissue growth and cell orientation contributes to the formation of sharp tips in rose petals. According to new research led by Yafei Zhang from the University of Central Florida, the flower’s pointed edges arise through a mechanism different from commonly known Gauss incompatibility. The pointed petals of roses Botanists have often assumed that most curling...

While it is known that plants have the incredible ability to develop <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/flowers-spread-parasitic-bee-diseases/">flowers</a>, roots, roots, branches based on cues from their environment, not as much is understood about the underlying mechanisms that drive variations in plant shapes.

Study lead author Doris Wagner, a biologist in the School of Arts &amp; Sciences at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, has long been interested in the how plants translate environmental inputs into physical traits. Her team has been studying two key groups of proteins that influence plant shapes, as well as the timing of developmental transitions.

The two proteins - Terminal Flower 1 (TLF1) and Flowering Locus T (FT) - are nearly identical yet serve different purposes. TLF1 proteins promote branch formation, while FT proteins promote flowering in response to seasonal cues like the number of daylight hours.

"These two elements have significance galore," said Wagner. "Besides flowering, they're involved in tuberization in potatoes, bulb formation in onions, tendril formation in grapes, growth cessation in trees, lots of things."

Some experts believe that manipulating these genes could lead to the next "green revolution" by tricking plants to flower more quickly. For example, by editing TFL1, plants could be programmed to produce seeds and fruit in the winter and but just during the long days of summer. On the other hand, altering growth through FT could increase branching followed by more abundant flowering and fruit production.

The two proteins are known to oppose each other - with TFL1 suppressing flowering and FT suppressing branch formation. Using the model species Arabidopsis thaliana, the researchers found thousands of sites where TFL1 was present in the nuclei of plant cells, and these regions were consistent with its role in suppressing flowering.

Next, the team examined the relationship of both TFL1 and FT with LEAFY, a gene that is known to give rise to flowers. When they mutated the sites where TFL1 regulates LEAFY, the protein was now found in parts of the plant where TFL1 is present. "We also saw something that we didn't expect," said Wagner. "LEAFY was gone from all the regions that should make flowers."

The study ultimately revealed that both proteins could activate the FD transcription factor that is required for flowering. In other words, FT and TFL1 compete for this FD factor binding site to influence plant shapes

Wagner is very interested in learning more about this mechanism to better understand how plants can "tune" their growth to best adapt to their environment. In future work, her team will investigate how both proteins respond to cues from the environment, such as the length of day. Wagner also wants to know how FT and TFL1 can control such different processes like flower, bulb, or tendril formation.

"You can imagine locally adapting crops, maybe for a high-altitude site in the Himalayas or maybe a location in the far north where days are short," said Wagner. "These elements could even play a role in rational solutions for climate change, breeding plants that are specifically adapted for new conditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Two competing proteins determine plant shapes

While it is known that plants have the incredible ability...

Researchers at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn/">University of Science and Technology of China</a> (USTC) are shedding new light on the remarkable ability of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-from-ancient-rainforests-can-be-identified-in-fossil-teeth/">plant</a> stem cells, or meristems, to block out viruses as they divide and reproduce, even if the rest of the plant is infected.

Meristems exist at the tips of all plants. They convert themselves into the various specialized cells that make up the plant, dividing and producing various types of new cells as needed. 

The ability of meristems to block viruses was discovered in the 1950s. Farmers and scientists use this to their advantage by snipping a part of the tip of infected plants to cultivate new, healthy plants. 

The research was focused on Arabidopsis thaliana, a thale cress related to cabbage and mustard that is often used in botanical studies as a model. The experts introduced the plants to the Cucumber Mosaic Virus to investigate how the meristems responded. 

The study revealed that as the virus spread towards the meristems, it stopped just before it reached the WUSCHEL-expression domain. 

WUSCHEL is an extremely important protein that plays a key role in determining the fate of stem cells in the earliest developmental stages of a plant embryo. This protein also regulates the meristems and specifies what type of daughter cells they will produce.

The scientists closely analyzed the distribution of the WUSCHEL proteins, and found that more of these proteins had appeared where the virus had initially tried to establish itself.

When the experts injected the virus directly into the plant's meristems and just below them, the infection only spread in the lower region. 

"There's a chemical called dexamethasone that can induce production of these WUSCHEL proteins in our tested plants, so next, we inoculated more cress with the virus and then gave some of the plants dexamethasone treatment, and some we just left alone," explained study co-author Professor Zhong Zhao. 

Among the untreated plants, 89 percent were infected by the virus. Meanwhile, 90 percent of the treated plants were free from virus invasion. The team was surprised to find that the WUSCHEL proteins worked to inhibit production of viral proteins.

Viruses cannot make their own proteins, so they must manipulate the proteins in an organism in order to replicate. To protect the meristems, the WUSCHEL proteins had essentially frozen all protein production, which prevented the viruses from replicating.

"Our results reveal a conserved strategy in plants to protect stem cells against viral intrusion and provide a molecular basis for WUSCHEL-mediated broad-spectrum innate antiviral immunity in plants," wrote the study authors. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals how the tips of plants block viruses

Researchers at the University of Science and Technology of China...

For the last seven years, the University of California system has been working to reduce carbon emissions from campuses as part of the Carbon Neutrality Initiative. Each campus is looking for ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions through various measures, such as increasing their energy efficiency. 

Researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> and UCLA have turned their attention to campus food, which represents some of the largest indirect sources of greenhouse gas emissions produced by the colleges. 

"Food is a huge part of our climate impact," said study co-author Professor David Cleveland. He noted that despite the fact that the food system contributes about 30 percent of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, few climate change mitigation policies address the issue. 

The experts are exploring the opportunity to lower indirect emissions by reducing food waste and shifting UC campus food away from animal products toward more plant-based meals.

"It's low-hanging fruit," said Professor Cleveland. "It doesn't involve changing our energy grid or converting from natural gas, which are huge infrastructure investments. Changing the food system is relatively quite inexpensive."

He explained that the key to understanding food's carbon emissions lies in examining the amount of energy and resources that go into producing it, and the greenhouse gases that are emitted as a result of those practices.

"The fundamental thing is that animals eat plants," said Professor Cleveland. The plants are converted to become part of the animal and the nutrition it provides. "However, there are a lot of nutrients and energy spent just keeping the animal alive and doing that conversion."

For example, large quantities of water, grain, and soil nutrients are needed to produce a single pound of meat - not to mention the energy required for processing and distribution."It's much more efficient and less impactful to eat plants directly."

The study was focused on potential changes in campus food across 10 institutions and 280,000 students involved in the UC system.

By implementing changes such as moving away from animal products, the researchers found that food emissions could be reduced by 42 to 55 percent. This is equivalent to about 9 percent of UC's overall reduction target, according to the researchers.

Professor Cleveland noted that relatively small changes, like replacing a fraction of red meat with plant-based alternatives, can steer choices to foods that are not only lower impact on the environment but also healthier and often lower cost.

"We don't have to go vegetarian or vegan, but we could be moving toward diets that are more climate friendly. We can do it right now on our campuses. And we can have all these co-benefits because it's very easy to have climate-friendly food that is also healthier, delicious and more socially equitable than more climate-damaging food."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tcpo20/current">Climate Policy</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Healthier campus food could reduce carbon emissions

For the last seven years, the University of California system...

Plants from ancient rainforests can be identified in fossil teeth. In an effort to identify the tropical plants that existed in closed-canopy rainforests, and also to understand where on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/planet-identified-that-is-more-suitable-for-life-than-earth/">Earth</a> these ecosystems existed millions of years ago, scientists analyze the vegetation that is contained in the fossil teeth of extinct animals. A new study led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> has exposed some flaws that may ultimately improve this technique.

"The Amazon is the world's most diverse rainforest, home to one in 10 known species on Earth," said study lead author Julia Tejada-Lara. "Closed-canopy rainforests have been proposed to occur in this area since at least the Eocene, some 50 million years ago, but we know very little about their extent and evolution through time."

Tropical plants do not preserve well in the fossil record so it is difficult to tell how long closed-canopy rainforests have existed. When reconstructing ancient ecosystems such as these, experts often use stable carbon isotope analyses on both extinct and modern day herbivores. 

Stable carbon isotopes from plants are well-preserved in the body tissues of the animals that eat them. Samples from the bones, teeth, or other biological material can help scientists determine what types of plants specific animals were eating. 

In the new study, the researchers analyzed specimens from the American Museum of Natural History and the Museum of Natural History in Lima. The fossils represented 45 modern herbivores and 12 species animals that ate meat, insects, and fish in western Amazonia. 

Next, the study authors compared their results with a detailed analysis of modern mammals in equatorial Africa. In addition, the researchers obtained nitrogen isotope values from 35 Amazonian mammal species. The team found an unexpected amount of complexity in how nitrogen from fats, carbohydrates, and proteins is incorporated into body tissues in animals from different levels of the food chain.

"Up to this point, there had only been one other broad isotopic sampling--and inferences of food sources--of a tropical closed-canopy rainforest mammal community, and that was in central Africa," said study co-author John Flynn. 

"So we knew that if we wanted to learn more about both modern and ancient Amazon ecosystems, we had to test whether we should expect the tropical forest conditions to be roughly the same in these two continents that separated more than 90 million years ago and have a 1,600-mile-wide ocean between them today."

The study revealed that Amazonian and African closed-canopy rainforests have a very similar dietary carbon isotopic value that may be representative of mammals in any closed-canopy rainforest. At the same time, mammals examined from the Amazon lacked highly negative dietary values that were detected among some of the African animals. The study authors explained that these negative values are often used outright to infer closed-canopy rainforests in fossil records.

"We have found that these negative isotopic values can no longer be used as an indispensable indicator of a rainforest," said Tejada. "And further, that many of the longtime assumptions about ecological niches, feeding habits, and isotopic signatures characterizing tropical communities likely need to be reassessed."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants from ancient rainforests can be identified in fossil teeth

Plants from ancient rainforests can be identified in fossil teeth....

Spinach is not only good for charging up the body, but also for powering fuel cells. According to a new study from <a href="https://www.american.edu/">American University</a>, spinach can be converted into carbon nanosheets to serve as a catalyst for an <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mass-extinction-event-was-caused-by-ocean-deoxygenation/">oxygen</a> reduction reaction in fuel cells.

An oxidation-reduction reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons that generates energy. This reaction can be used to control the energy output of fuel cells and metal-air batteries.

While it is known that certain carbon materials can catalyze an oxidation-reduction reaction, carbon-based catalysts do not always outperform the traditional platinum-based catalysts.

For the current study, the researchers set out to investigate the potential for spinach to serve as an inexpensive and sustainable yet efficient catalyst. 

"This work suggests that sustainable catalysts can be made for an oxygen reduction reaction from natural resources," said study lead author Professor Shouzhong Zou. "The method we tested can produce highly active, carbon-based catalysts from spinach, which is a renewable biomass. In fact, we believe it outperforms commercial platinum catalysts in both activity and stability. The catalysts are potentially applicable in hydrogen fuel cells and metal-air batteries." 

Additional studies that are focused on creating catalysts for fuel cells and metal-air batteries from natural resources are making progress using plants or plant products like cattail grass and rice. Professor Zou's team is the first to explore the use of spinach. 

Beyond the fact that spinach is abundant and easy to access, it is a good candidate because it is rich in iron and nitrogen, which are essential for an oxygen reduction catalyst.

The catalysts being tested are spinach-derived carbon nanosheets that are about one thousand times thinner than a piece of human hair. 

The researchers have found that the spinach-derived catalysts perform better than platinum-based catalysts that lose their strength over time.

Going forward, the team will test out prototypes such as hydrogen fuel cells and develop catalysts from other plants. Professor Zou would also like to make the process more sustainable by reducing the energy consumption that is required.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf">ACS Omega</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spinach can be used to power fuel cells

Spinach is not only good for charging up the body,...

Within the next three decades, alien species will increase by more than 35 percent compared to 2005, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>. The international team of researchers reports that potentially invasive plants, arthropods, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-emerged-from-covid-19-shutdown-with-better-songs/">birds</a> are being introduced to new environments at the fastest overall rate. 

"Increases are expected to be particularly large for insects and other arthropods, such as arachnids and crustaceans. We predict the number of aliens from these groups to increase in every region of the world by the middle of the century - by almost 120% in the temperate latitudes of Asia," said study co-author Dr. Franz Essl of the University of Vienna. 

Alien species are plants and animals that humans have moved to regions of the world where they do not occur naturally. When non-native species become invasive, they are capable of altering habitats, disrupting the balance and function of ecosystems, and wiping out native species by competing for limited resources.

The experts predict that around 2,500 new alien species will arrive by mid-century in Europe alone. This means that non-native plants and animals will increase by 64 percent across the continent in a 45-year period. The researchers hope it is possible to reduce the number of alien species with stricter biosecurity regulations.

"Our study predicts that alien species will continue to be added to ecosystems at high rates through the next few decades, which is concerning as this could contribute to harmful biodiversity change and extinction," said study co-author Professor Tim Blackburn. "But we are not helpless bystanders: with a concerted global effort to combat this, it should be possible to slow down or reverse this trend."

The most recent global assessment, which was conducted in 2005, documented 35,000 alien species. For the current study, the research team developed a mathematical model to estimate how many more aliens can be expected by 2050 based on the current rate. 

The model revealed that there will be a 36-percent increase in non-native species by 2050 compared to the numbers recorded in 2005. While Europe will see the biggest influx of non-native plants and animals, Australia is expected to see the least.

"These will primarily include rather inconspicuous new arrivals such as insects, molluscs, and crustaceans. In contrast, there will be very few new alien mammal species such as the well-known raccoon," said study lead author Dr. Hanno Seebens of the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre. 

"We will not be able to entirely prevent the introduction of alien species, as this would mean severe restrictions in international trade. However, stricter regulations and their rigorous enforcement could greatly slow the flow of new species."

"The benefits of such measures have been shown in some parts of the world. Regulations are still comparatively lax in Europe, and so there is great potential here for new measures to curtail the arrival of new aliens."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alien species will increase by the thousands over the next three decades

Within the next three decades, alien species will increase by...

Scientists have demonstrated how artificial intelligence can be used to quickly identify endangered <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plant-seeds-are-traveling-to-the-u-s-in-shipping-containers/">plant</a> species. A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> (iDiv) used an automated technique to pinpoint more than 4,000 types of orchids that are threatened with extinction.

"Overall, our results demonstrate that automated assessments have an important role to play in achieving goals of identifying the species that are at greatest risk of extinction," wrote the study authors.

Orchids are economically important plants in horticulture, the pharmaceutical industry, and in the food industry. However, thousands of orchid species face immediate threats by land use changes and illegal harvesting, which means there is an urgent need to identify the most endangered species while there is still time to save them. 

The most widely used set of criteria for evaluating extinction risk is the global Red List of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). These assessments are so exhaustive that they are only available for a fraction of the species worldwide. 

Out of approximately 29,000 orchid species, only about 1,400 have been assessed by the IUCN Red List. To address this issue, the iDiv team conducted an automated conservation assessment with the help of machine learning algorithms.

"Deep neural networks are widely used in other fields such as image recognition, but they can also help with conservation assessments," said Dr. Alexander Zizka. "With our method, we can incorporate additional aspects such as climate, geographic region or traits related to the respective species - and we can do this very fast."

The researchers assessed the risk of extinction for almost 14,000 orchid species and determined that more than 4,300 are possibly threatened with extinction. The automated assessments identified endangered species with an accuracy of 84.3 percent.

The experts also pinpointed places where orchid conservation efforts are most urgently needed, including Madagascar, East Africa, southeast Asia, and several oceanic islands. 

The automated approach used in this study may be a model for other species. In particular, the method could be a valuable tool for understudied tropical regions that are biodiversity hotspots. 

"A particular strength of our approach is that it can be trained for other taxonomic groups or regions," said Zizka. "By doing so, it could speed up the conservation assessment of all species on Earth."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15231739">Conservation Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Machine learning identifies 4,300 types of endangered orchids

Scientists have demonstrated how artificial intelligence can be used to...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, researchers emphasize that farmers have the knowledge that is needed to vastly improve <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-model-predicts-economically-important-traits-in-crops/">crops</a>. The scientists propose that combining the expertise of farmers with high-tech breeding could unleash the potential to make crops more resilient to climate change.

The researchers suggest that involving farmers in the development of  better crops increases the likelihood that new varieties will be adopted, making crop improvement more efficient.

Study co-author Carlo Fadda is the research director at the Alliance of Biodiversity and International Center for Tropical Agriculture.

"Modern breeding under a microscope in the lab can speed up breeding of 'elite' varieties able to provide significant yield increase," said Fadda."But are those varieties and traits most important to farmers? Do they plant them? On the other hand, traditional varieties can better withstand changing climatic conditions, but are these varieties high-yielding enough?"

The "Seeds for Needs" approach was first introduced in Ethiopia to speed up durum wheat breeding. Scientists took a selection of elite and traditional durum wheat varieties obtained from Ethiopia Biodiversity Institute (EBI) to farmers to get their feedback, and discovered that traditional varieties were superior. These varieties produced double the average national durum wheat yield and exhibited resistance to major diseases.

"Rather than mass-producing seed to cope in a broad range of conditions, we need to find varieties for local contexts in order to maximize yields at each site," said Fadda. "Traditionally, farmers grow a portfolio of crops to withstand different conditions and make different products. Some will plant wheat for bread, for local-brewed beer, for injera - the local flatbread - to minimize their risk."

The Seeds for Needs method relies on cutting-edge breeding to quickly achieve climate-resilient traits and crop varieties. When this technique is combined with farmer-selected crops that can cope in field conditions, the result is a better-adapted food supply that is more resilient to the impacts of the impending climate crisis, said the study authors.

"Climate change is a shifting target, and to address it we need a dynamic process," saif Fadda. "This approach provides a constant injection of new material adapted to a broader set of conditions within one locality. With this approach, as climate change advances, there will always be well-adapted crop varieties for local conditions, bringing together high tech approaches and traditional knowledge."

Study co-author Matteo Dell'Acqua is a geneticist at the Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, in Italy.

"This approach shows the value of combining the most advanced genomics approaches with traditional knowledge of farmer communities," said Acqua. "In this framework, modern breeding and crowd-sourcing methods can complement each other in supporting local adaptation of farming systems to the impacts of climate change."

Now that digital tools are available, the researchers say  that farmer "citizen scientists" can provide reliable information to identify varieties with superior traits tolerant to climate-induced stress. The previous collaborations with farmers show they are eager to be part of trials, to contribute to research or in exchange for advice.

In Ethiopia, two wheat varieties that were developed using the Seeds for Needs technique have been released four years faster than the average time required to release new crop varieties. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Farmers can help make crops more resilient

In a new study published by Frontiers, researchers emphasize that...

An international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> recently conducted the largest-ever analysis of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/invasive-beetle-turns-its-attention-to-guams-endangered-cycad-trees/">tree</a> ring data in the Russian Arctic. The study has revealed that Arctic air pollution is much worse than what was previously realized.

The researchers combined measurements of tree ring width and wood chemistry from living and dead trees with soil characteristics and computer modeling. They found that decades of nickel and copper mining has not only damaged local ecosystems, but has also affected the global carbon cycle.

The devastating impacts of air pollution near the industrial Siberian city of Norilsk can be seen in the annual growth rings of trees in the boreal forest, where a mass die-off has spread up to 100 kilometers.

Norilsk, the world's northernmost city, is one of the most polluted places in the world as a result of intensive mining that dates back to the 1930s. Heavy emissions have destroyed around 24,000 square kilometres of boreal forest since the 1960s. Today, the surviving trees in the higher elevations are suffering as well. 

The researchers have shown how the amount of pollution spewed into the atmosphere by mines is at least partially responsible for the phenomenon of "Arctic dimming," which is usually caused by volcanic eruptions.

"Using the information stored in thousands of tree rings, we can see the effects of Norilsk's uncontrolled environmental disaster over the past nine decades," said study lead author Professor Ulf Büntgen. "While the problem of sulphur emissions and forest dieback has been successfully addressed in much of Europe, for Siberia, we haven't been able to see what the impact has been, largely due to a lack of long-term monitoring data."

The researchers assessed the extent of Norilsk's devastating environmental impacts, which peaked in the 1960s.

"We can see that the trees near Norilsk started to die off massively in the 1960s due to rising pollution levels," said Professor Büntgen. "Since atmospheric pollution in the Arctic accumulates due to large-scale circulation patterns, we expanded our study far beyond the direct effects of Norilsk's industrial sector and found that trees across the high-northern latitudes are suffering as well."

The researchers also found that tree growth has been drastically stunted since the 1970s by Arctic dimming, a phenomenon in which the sun is partially blocked by particles in the atmosphere. This reduction in sunlight slows the process of evaporation and interferes with the hydrological cycle.

Even though global warming should be boosting the rate of boreal tree growth, air pollution has prevented this from happening. The researchers found that the pollution levels in the atmosphere have diminished the trees' ability to turn sunlight into energy through photosynthesis.

"What surprised us is just how widespread the effects of industrial pollution are - the scale of the damage shows just how vulnerable and sensitive the boreal forest is," said Professor Büntgen. "Given the ecological importance of this biome, the pollution levels across the high-northern latitudes could have an enormous impact on the entire global carbon cycle."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tree rings reveal the shocking extent of Arctic air pollution

An international team of researchers led by the University of...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> is one of the first of its kind to investigate how plants and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/not-enough-is-known-about-how-rainfall-affects-tropical-animals/">animals</a> in the Andes will respond to both human activities and the impacts of climate change. The researchers found that high-elevation biodiversity hotspots will be substantially reduced over the next three decades without urgent intervention.

Global warming is forcing many plants and animals to seek higher ground to find cooler habitats. However, there is only so far up that species can migrate. 

In the Andes, many tropical species thrive in communities that sit above the treeline yet below the permanently frozen mountaintops. These high altitude biodiversity hotspots are known as páramos, or sky islands. 

The most diverse species found in the páramos are relatives of the sunflower in the genus Espeletia. Beyond supporting an abundance of species, human populations rely on these ecosystems as well. 

"Páramos are one of the fastest evolving biodiversity hotspots on earth and they are one of the most threatened," said study co-lead author Dr. Andrés Cortés of the <a href="https://www.devex.com/organizations/colombian-corporation-for-agricultural-research-corpoica-corporacion-colombiana-de-investigacion-agropecuaria-26033">Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research</a>. "Páramos are also the main water supplier of wetland ecosystems and densely populated areas, hence, disregarding the future of the Páramos may jeopardize overall food and water safety in the northern Andes."

Over millions of years, the high-altitude plants that inhabit the sky islands have adapted to extreme fluctuations in temperature, water availability, and sunlight exposure. There are now over 3,000 plant species throughout the South American páramos, which have become the fastest growing ecosystems in the world. However, scientists are investigating whether these species can evolve quickly enough to keep pace with climate change.

Dr. Cortés and his team focused their investigation on Espeletia because it is one of the most diverse and successful plant genera endemic to the páramos. The researchers used the most advanced computer modeling available to predict what the distribution of 28 species of Espeletia will look like in 2050.

After accounting for other factors - such as nature reserves, agriculture and mining, and surrounding forests - the team found that some páramos were particularly vulnerable to climate change and that there are limited opportunities for alpine sunflowers to migrate or adapt.

Further research is needed to investigate the vulnerability of additional species. Regardless, the findings highlight the importance of protecting the páramos.

"We hope that our findings might assist future conservation efforts, such as promoting more sustainable land uses by empowering local communities and developing ecotourism, which are also essential to relieve human impact on tropical-alpine plant diversity in the northern Andes," said the researchers. 

"In the most pessimistic scenario, if Espeletia and Páramos were lost forever, science would lose an underexplored laboratory to study evolution happening at incredible rates -- it would be just as if The Galápagos Islands disappeared."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Biodiversity hotspots are shrinking in the Andes mountains

A new study published by Frontiers is one of the...

If you want to help protect butterflies from climate change, provide them with more shady places to keep cool, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>. The scientists report that the butterfly species which rely on finding shady areas to regulate their body temperature are the most vulnerable to global <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-changing-insect-communities-in-the-arctic/">warming</a>.

The study showed significant variations in the ability of different UK butterfly species to maintain a suitable body temperature. 

The researchers found that larger butterflies which are pale in color, including the Brimstone and the Large White, have the best adaptive strategies to handle climate change. These butterflies have large wings which they can use to reflect the sun's heat either away from, or onto, their bodies. 

The larger and paler butterflies examined for the study were found to have stable or growing populations. By contrast, the larger butterfly species that are more colorful such as the Peacock and Red Admiral have greater difficulty controlling their body temperature, and are therefore more vulnerable to environmental changes.

The study revealed that some butterfly species must seek out a microclimate, or an area with suitable temperatures, in order to control their body temperature. 

Around two-thirds of UK butterfly populations are in a state of decline as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation, and the landscape modifications have eliminated many of the microclimates that butterflies need to survive. Climate change is making matters much worse by causing more extreme weather events and greater fluctuations in temperature.

"Butterfly species that aren't very good at controlling their temperature with small behavioural changes, but rely on choosing a micro-habitat at the right temperature, are likely to suffer the most from climate change and habitat loss," said study first author Dr. Andrew Bladon.

"We need to make landscapes more diverse to help conserve many of our butterfly species. Even within a garden lawn, patches of grass can be left to grow longer - these areas will provide cooler, shady places for many species of butterfly. In nature reserves, some areas could be grazed or cut and others left standing. We also need to protect features that break up the monotony of farm landscapes, like hedgerows, ditches, and patches of woodland."

The research, which involved the analysis of nearly 4,000 wild butterflies and their surroundings, shows that butterflies are either thermal generalists or thermal specialists. However, this classification does not always correspond with the roles they play in their habitats.

"As we plan conservation measures to address the effects of climate change, it will be important to understand not only the habitat requirements of different butterfly species, but also their temperature requirements," said lead investigator Dr. Ed Turner.

"With this new understanding of butterflies, we should be able to better manage habitats and landscapes to protect them, and in doing so we're probably also protecting other insects too."

In recent decades, the ranges that are suitable for species adapted to cooler environments are shrinking, and many butterflies have expanded their ranges northward. This study is the first to track how individual butterflies respond to small temperature changes.

The findings can be used to predict how climate change will impact certain butterfly communities, and may ultimately improve the conservation strategies designed to protect them.

"I like to think of butterflies as the gateway drug," said Dr. Bladon. "If we can get people involved in butterfly conservation, that's the first step to getting them to care about insects more broadly."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How to help protect butterflies: give them some shade

If you want to help protect butterflies from climate change,...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, experts describe how better conservation planning could improve the lives of humans while still protecting <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/latin-america-contains-a-third-of-the-worlds-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a>.

Study lead author Jaramar Villarreal-Rosas is a PhD candidate in UQ's School of Earth and Environmental Sciences. She said the benefits people receive from ecosystems, also known as ecosystem services, are under increasing threat worldwide due to the negative impacts of human activities.

"There's been a substantial decrease in the quality and quantity of freshwater from wetland ecosystems in the Americas since European settlement, according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services," said Villarreal-Rosas. "The same data shows that, at the same time, pollination services - from insects and birds - are declining in Europe and Central Asia." 

According to Villarreal-Rosas, these are critical services that we tend to take for granted - the food we eat, the air we breathe, or the sense of relaxation after a walk in a park. "And to date, landscape planning decisions have largely been made without fully considering the multiple benefits people obtain from nature."

The research team analyzed 326 published studies that applied systematic conservation planning for ecosystem services worldwide. The experts investigated the extent to which the papers correctly integrated the benefits people receive from ecosystems, and whether the research had accounted for multiple values and connections to land.

The analysis revealed that only two percent of the conservation plans considered all of the aspects of ecosystem services that benefit people and acknowledged different values of the land.

"This means we're largely making planning decisions that may put ecosystem services at risk, and in turn, people's livelihoods and lifestyles may be greatly affected," said Villarreal-Rosas.

"Conservation plans are falling short of maximizing benefits for both people and nature. There is an urgent need to develop efficient and effective planning strategies to protect and restore ecosystem services for multiple stakeholders."

Study senior author Professor Jonathan Rhodes said the research team did just that, outlining a formal process that governments and policy makers can use when putting together their conservation plans.

"Solutions must explicitly include benefits to different people in space, time and socioeconomic status," said Professor Rhodes."People have different values and connections to land and these should be acknowledged to ensure planning decisions have positive outcomes for multiple people."

"Through the principles we've outlined in this study, we're hoping to not only improve ecosystem services globally, but to increase efficiency, transparency and equity in decision making processes."

"We see conservation planning shifting towards holistic approaches, where both the diversity of people and nature is valued, respected, and protected.

Professor Rhodes noted that making these changes is essential to achieve international policy agendas such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/home">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Conservation plans could benefit both nature and people

In a new study from the University of Queensland, experts...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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