Aging brings changes that affect how we hear and process speech, especially in noisy places. But researchers now show that older adults with long-term musical training fare better than their non-musician peers.



This study, led by Claude Alain and Yi Du, highlights how years of musical experience can shape brain function in later life. Their work introduces the “Hold-back upregulation” hypothesis and explores its neural basis using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lemurs-reveal-surprising-new-clues-about-healthy-aging/">brain</a> imaging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-adults-struggle-with-noisy-speech">Older adults struggle with noisy speech</h2>



As we age, our cognitive and sensory abilities decline. This often leads to the brain compensating by increasing activity and communication between brain regions. But such compensation may require more mental effort and reduces processing efficiency.



This pattern, called the Posterior-Anterior Shift in Aging, shows increased frontal brain activity in older adults. Yet, the extent of this shift varies. Researchers believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-psilocybin-from-magic-mushrooms-delays-aging-and-significantly-extends-lifespan/">lifestyle</a> factors like music training may influence it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musical-training-builds-brain-strength">Musical training builds brain strength</h2>



Cognitive reserve is built through lifelong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-how-some-people-live-past-100-years/">learning</a>. It helps the brain stay resilient against age-related decline. This includes things like multilingualism, advanced education, and especially, musical practice.



Music training requires intense coordination of sound, movement, and memory. These demands help strengthen the brain’s sensory and motor systems. The auditory dorsal stream links sound to action and plays a key role here.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musical-training-helps-adults-hear-better">Musical training helps adults hear better</h2>



To explore the effects of musical training, the study compared three groups: 25 older musicians (OMs), 25 older non-musicians (ONMs), and 24 young non-musicians (YNMs). Each participant completed a speech-in-noise (SIN) task while undergoing fMRI scans. 



They listened to syllables such as /ba/, /da/, /pa/, and /ta/ masked by varying levels of background noise. Older musicians outperformed older non-musicians at higher signal-to-noise ratios (0 and +8 dB), though both older groups performed worse than the younger participants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-paths-of-brain-aging">Two paths of brain aging</h2>



The researchers proposed two possible ways musical training might influence the aging brain. The first is called&nbsp;Bolster Compensation. This idea suggests that musical training strengthens the brain by adding extra neural resources. 



As people age and cognitive abilities decline, these extra resources could help boost brain activity during tasks, compensating for age-related losses.



The second idea is called&nbsp;Hold-Back Upregulation. This theory suggests that instead of pushing the brain to work harder, musical training helps it work more efficiently. It prevents the brain from becoming overactive in response to aging. 



As a result, the brain activity patterns of older musicians remain more similar to those of younger people. This efficient use of brain networks could explain why older musicians perform better on complex listening tasks.



The results supported the second theory. Older musicians showed more efficient brain patterns. Their connectivity strength closely resembled young non-musicians, especially in right hemisphere regions involved in speech <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/">processing</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-brain-s-inner-workings">Mapping the brain's inner workings</h2>



Using advanced analyses like task-induced functional connectivity (TiFC) and inter-subject spatial correlation (ISPC), the researchers revealed more than just stronger brain links.



Older musicians’ brains did not just work better. They were organized more like young brains. Their neural activity followed similar spatial patterns and had fewer shifts in peak connectivity locations.



In one region (left precentral gyrus), non-musicians showed clear spatial drift in activity peaks, while musicians did not. This suggests that musical training preserves both structure and function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musical-training-during-tasks">Musical training during tasks</h2>



The study also measured resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) and found that both older musicians and non-musicians exhibited stronger RSFC compared to younger participants. 



However, this increased connectivity at rest did not correlate with their performance on speech-in-noise (SIN) tasks.



These findings suggest that it is the brain’s reorganization during active tasks - not just its resting state - that plays a key role in shaping behavior. In other words, how the brain adapts while engaged in a challenge may be more important than its baseline connectivity.



There were no differences in BOLD activation (a measure of brain region activity strength) across groups. This supports the idea that spatial organization and connection strength matter more than raw activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-builds-a-youthful-brain">Music builds a youthful brain</h2>



This work reveals how lifelong musical training may protect older adults from neural inefficiency. Instead of overactivating brain regions, trained musicians preserve a more youthful balance. This is especially true in the dorsal auditory stream.



“Just like a well-tuned instrument doesn’t need to be played louder to be heard, the brains of older musicians stay finely tuned thanks to years of training,” said Dr. Yi Du.



“A positive lifestyle helps older adults cope better with cognitive aging, and it is never too late to take up, and stick with, a rewarding hobby such as learning an instrument,” added Dr. Lei Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



While the evidence supports the “Hold-back upregulation” idea, the researchers caution that causality isn’t proven. They recommend future work to examine other sources of reserve such as physical fitness or multilingualism. 



Other brain tasks like memory and attention should also be studied. Still, this study adds strong support to the argument for keeping enriching hobbies throughout life. 



For older adults hoping to sharpen their minds, picking up a musical instrument might be a smart place to start.



The researchers are from the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, <a href="https://www.baycrest.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baycrest Academy</a>, and the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003247" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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How musical training helps the brain as we age

Aging brings changes that affect how we hear and process speech, especially in noisy places. But researchers now show that older adults with long-term musical training fare better than their non-musician peers. This study, led by Claude Alain and Yi Du, highlights how years of musical experience can shape brain function in later life. Their work introduces the “Hold-back upregulation” hypothesis and explores its neural basis using brain imaging. Older adults struggle with noisy speech As we age, our cognitive and sensory abilities decline. This often leads...

Breakthrough may greatly improve the production of clean water. In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a>, experts have had a breakthrough that may help produce clean drinking water at a lower cost. The researchers solved a complex problem that has baffled scientists for decades.

Desalination membranes remove salt and other chemicals from water, cleaning billions of gallons of water for agriculture. While the concept seems simple, the process of desalination is actually very complex and not well understood. 

In collaboration with DuPont Water Solutions, the researchers have solved an important aspect of this mystery, opening the door to reduce costs of clean water production. 

The team discovered that desalination membranes are inconsistent in density and mass distribution, which limits their performance. This means that uniform density at the nanoscale is the key to increasing how much clean water these membranes can pump out.

"Reverse osmosis membranes are widely used for cleaning water, but there's still a lot we don't know about them," said study co-lead author Manish Kumar0. "We couldn't really say how water moves through them, so all the improvements over the past 40 years have essentially been done in the dark."

The efficiency of the membranes tested in the study increased by 30 to 40 percent. In other words, the membranes could clean more water while using significantly less energy, which could greatly expand access to clean water.

"Fresh water management is becoming a crucial challenge throughout the world," said study co-lead author Professor Enrique Gomez. "Shortages, droughts - with increasing severe weather patterns, it is expected this problem will become even more significant. It's critically important to have clean water availability, especially in low-resource areas."

The research was funded by the National Science Foundation and DuPont, which makes numerous desalination products.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Breakthrough may greatly improve the production of clean water

Breakthrough may greatly improve the production of clean water. In...

Megathrust earthquakes and their tsunamis are some of the most destructive natural disasters in the world. A team of geoscientists led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> proposes that the origin of the largest earthquakes and tsunamis can be traced to deep, gradual slow-slip behaviors beneath subduction zones.  

The team discovered that unlike the shallower megathrust earthquakes that move and generate energy in the same direction as the plates move, energy from slow-slip earthquakes may move in other directions, primarily down. "What we found was pretty unexpected," said study co-author Kirsty A. McKenzie.

Subduction zones are created when two of the Earth's plates meet and one moves beneath the other. This typically creates a fault line, as well as a distant line of volcanoes.

The Cascadia subduction zone is typical in that the tectonic plates meet near the Pacific coast and the Cascade Mountains, a volcanic range that includes Mount St. Helens. If it ruptured across its entire length, Cascadia could produce very large earthquakes.

According to the researchers, a megathrust earthquake of magnitude 9 occurred in Cascadia in 1700 and there has not been a large earthquake there since then. Instead, slow-slip earthquakes, which are events that happen deeper and move very short distances at a very slow rate, happen continuously.

"Usually, when an earthquake occurs we find that the motion is in the direction opposite to how the plates have moved, accumulating that slip deficit," said Professor Kevin P. Furlong. "For these slow-slip earthquakes, the direction of movement is directly downward in the direction of gravity instead of in the plate motion directions."

The researchers found that there are areas in New Zealand, which have been identified by other geologists, that slow slip the same way Cascadia does.

"But there are subduction zones that don't have these slow-slip events, so we don't have direct measurements of how the deeper part of the subducting plate is moving," said Professor Furlong. "In Sumatra, the shallower seismic zone, as expected, moves in the plate-motion direction, but even though there are no slow-slip events, the deeper plate movement still appears to be primarily controlled by gravity."

The experts analyzed how deep, slow slips may affect the timing and behavior of megathrust earthquakes. "Slow-slip earthquakes rupture over several weeks, so they are not just one event," said McKenzie. "It's like a swarm of events."

In southern Cascadia, the overall plate motion is about an inch of movement per year, according to the study. In the north by Vancouver Island, the annual rate of plate motion is about 1.5 inches.

"We don't know how much of that 30 millimeters (1 inch) per year is accumulating to be released in the next big earthquake or if some movement is taken up by some non-observable process," said McKenzie. "These slow-slip events put out signals we can see. We can observe the slow-slip events going east to west and not in the plate motion direction."

Slow-slip events in Cascadia occur every one to two years, but geologists wonder if one of them will trigger the next megathrust earthquake.

"The reason we don't know all that much about slow-slip earthquakes is they were only discovered about 20 years ago," said Professor Furlong. "It took five years to figure out what they were and then we needed precise enough GPS to actually measure the motion on the Earth's surface. Then we had to use modeling to convert the slip on the surface to the slip beneath the surface on the plate boundary itself, which is bigger."

The experts believe that understanding the effects of slow-slip earthquakes in the region at these deeper depths will allow them to understand what could initiate the next megathrust earthquake in the area. Engineers want to know how strong an earthquake will be, but they also want to know the direction of its energy.

"More fundamentally, we don't know what triggers the big earthquake in this situation," said McKenzie. "Every time we add new data about the physics of the problem, it becomes an important component. In the past, everyone thought that the events were unidirectional, but they can be different by 40 or 50 degrees."

Professor Furlong thinks that other subduction zones may also have similar patterns.

"I would argue that it (differences in direction of motion) is happening in Alaska, Chile, Sumatra," said Professor Furlong. "It is only in a few that we see the evidence of it, but it may be a universal process that has been missed. Cascadia exhibits it because of the slow-slip events, but it may be fundamental to subduction zones."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15252027">Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Megathrust earthquakes and tsunamis may be tied to deep, slow activity

Megathrust earthquakes and their tsunamis are some of the most...

Earth's forests are threatened by drought and human development. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>, a team of experts has identified major trends that will impact the world's forests in the coming years. These trends include drought, human development, and viral outbreaks.

Earth's forests are critically important to both humans and wildlife, yet conservation measures are lagging in many countries, said Professor Laura Vang Rasmussen.

"It is critical for all countries - especially those with poor economic conditions, to prioritize forests and have forest conservation plans. Without the adoption of conservation strategies, droughts and viral outbreaks could have severe consequences on forests and humans alike," said Professor Rasmussen.

In collaboration with researchers from the University of Manchester and experts from around the world, the Copenhagen team ranked the events that will have the largest impact on the world's forests over the coming decade.

In Denmark, there has been an increase in the number of summers with scarce rainfall. In other regions, such as the western portion of the United States, droughts have been responsible for massive and devastating wildfires. 

"When we lose forest, due to drought for example, the risk of spreading viruses like coronavirus increases," said Professor Rasmussen. "When forest fires disturb natural ecosystems, disease carrying animals such as bats or rats flee from their charred ecosystems into towns and villages. And, as we have seen with the coronavirus pandemic, viral outbreaks have enormous consequences on global health and economy."

Another trend that will have a major impact on forests is urban development, as more people are migrating from rural areas to cities. Earth's forests are threatened by drought and human development

"It could be that the amount of forest increases as more and more farmers abandon their livelihoods in favor of higher wage urban jobs. This would allow forests room to grow."

"Conversely, we run the risk that ballooning urban populations will increase demand for marketable crops, which will result in more forests being cleared for agriculture," explained Professor Rasmussen.

The planet's human population is projected to increase to roughly 8.5 billion by 2030. This will increase the demand for agricultural land, which means that even more forests will be cleared.

Furthermore, global road networks are projected to expand by roughly 25 million kilometers by 2050. According to Professor Rasmussen, forest conservation also relates to poverty.

"It is problematic that forest conservation, agriculture and poverty are seen as distinct from one another. Indeed, the three factors influence each other, as strategies to increase agricultural production can negatively impact forests." 

"On the other hand, an increase in forested areas makes it more difficult for agriculture to produce enough food. As such, we hope that our research is able to contribute towards highlighting the complex dynamics between agricultural production, deforestation, poverty and food security."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants">Nature Plants</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth's forests are threatened by drought and human development

Earth's forests are threatened by drought and human development. In...

India's air pollution contributed to 1.67 million premature <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-has-increased-covid-19-deaths-by-at-least-15-percent/">deaths</a> in 2019, according to a study led by <a href="https://www.bc.edu/">Boston College</a>. The researchers also determined that pollution-related economic losses totaled $36.8 billion in the same year.

Overall, deaths associated with air quality accounted for 17.8 percent of all deaths across India during 2019.

"Pollution takes an enormous human toll in India," said study lead author Dr. Philip J. Landrigan. "It is causing 1.67 million premature deaths per year - many more than from COVID-19."

According to Dr. Landrigan, the consequences for this nation of 1.35 billion people will be long-lasting without efforts to reduce air pollution. 

"It is also having a profound effect on the next generation of Indians. It increases future risk for heart disease, diabetes, and respiratory disease for today's children when they become adults. It is reducing children's IQ. It will be very difficult for India to move forward socially or economically if they don't do something about the problem."

The researchers also discovered rapidly changing patterns of pollution-related disease in India. Deaths associated with indoor air pollution have decreased by 64.2 percent since 1990. During the same time period, deaths related to outdoor levels of fine particle pollution have increased by 115.3 percent, and those related to ozone pollution have increased by 139.2 percent.

India's dramatic spike in outdoor air pollution is tied to an increase in vehicle emissions, as well as the widespread use of coal to generate power.

Climate change exacerbates pollution through atmospheric stagnation, temperature-driven increases in particulate matter, and ground-level ozone formation, which are likely to be particularly severe in India, explained the researchers.

Dr. Landrigan said there are ample solutions and examples of successful pollution reduction policies that can be developed to meet the specific needs of the country and its states. He pointed out that China, a country with a similar size population and equally ambitious economic goals, adopted pollution control targets in its most recent five-year plan and is making progress on pollution control.

"We point to countries like the United States where we reduced air pollution by 70 percent since passage of the Clean Air Act in the 1970s," said Dr. Landrigan. "At the same time, US GDP grew by 250 percent. There are similar statistics from Europe, Australia, and Japan. Pollution control does not stifle economic growth."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/home">Lancet Planetary Health</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air pollution contributed to 1.67 million deaths in India last year

India's air pollution contributed to 1.67 million premature deaths in...

In an interview with Canadian novelist Margaret Atwood on <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/">BBC</a> radio, Prince Charles has urged society to draw on how indigenous communities treat the natural world with respect and seek to preserve it for future generations.

His Royal Highness said that humans should remember they are part of nature and stop exploiting it to avert environmental and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-and-deadly-dolphin-disease-has-been-linked-to-climate-change/">climate</a> catastrophe.

"It is high time we paid more attention to the wisdom of indigenous communities and First Nations people all around the world," said Prince Charles. "We can learn so much from them as to how we can re-right the balance, and start to rediscover a sense of the sacred, because ... Mother Nature is our sustainer."

"But we have forgotten that, or somehow been brainwashed into thinking that we have nothing to do with nature and nature can just be exploited but if we go on exploiting the way we are, whatever we do to nature - however much we pollute her - we do to ourselves. It is insanity."

The Prince of Wales has been an environmental activist for more than five decades. In partnership with the World Economic Forum (WEF), he recently launched the <a href="https://www.sustainable-markets.org/">Sustainable Markets Initiative</a> to address the increasing threats of climate change and biodiversity loss. The goal of the initiative is to make global markets more sustainable, which could help to both fight climate change and build resilience against it. 

During the interview with Atwood, Prince Charles highlighted problems caused by the excessive use of chemicals in agriculture and the pollution of the oceans with plastics. He suggested that as businesses have started to grasp the magnitude of the climate crisis, there has been movement toward a sustainable future.

"Suddenly I noticed in the last 18 months or so, there has been a complete change of approach," he said, emphasizing that the initiative would find opportunities for companies to back projects that value nature, people, and the planet.

At the World Economic Forum 2020 in Davos, the Prince of Wales said that bold and imaginative action was needed to tackle the greatest threats that have ever been faced by humanity - global warming, climate change, and biodiversity loss. "We need nothing short of a paradigm shift."

"I intend to do my utmost to ensure that the message of urgency, systemic change, collaboration and integration is heard. We simply cannot waste any more time - the only limit is our willingness to act, and the time to act is now."

The report was published by the <a href="https://www.trust.org/">Thomson Reuters Foundation</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans should remember they are part of nature, says Prince Charles

In an interview with Canadian novelist Margaret Atwood on BBC...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu/">University of Oregon</a> are describing incredible sounds produced by Weddell seals beneath frozen water. The seals can be heard chirping, whistling and trilling under the Antarctic ice at sound frequencies that are inaudible to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-should-remember-they-are-part-of-nature-says-prince-charles/">humans</a>, according to the study. 

The research was based on two years of recordings at a live-streaming underwater observatory in McMurdo Sound. The recordings captured nine distinct types of ultrasonic seal vocalizations that range up to 50 kilohertz. Humans hear in the sonic range of 20 kilohertz.

Weddell seals thrive under Antarctic sea ice, using their large teeth to create air holes. While searching for food, the seals can dive to 600 meters and remain submerged for 80 minutes. 

In 1982, researchers identified 34 types of seal calls at sonic frequencies, which were all linked to various social interactions.

Study lead author Paul Cziko began recording the seals' sonic-ranged vocalizations in 2017 after completing the installation of the McMurdo Oceanographic Observatory. He said that workers at McMurdo Station often fell asleep listening to broadcasts of the seals' sonic sounds coming from below.

"The Weddell seals' calls create an almost unbelievable, otherworldly soundscape under the ice," said Cziko. "It really sounds like you're in the middle of a space battle in 'Star Wars,' laser beams and all."

Over the next two years, a broadband digital hydrophone was used that was more sensitive than equipment used in earlier recordings. The new hydrophone picked up the higher-frequency vocalizations during passive monitoring.

"We kept coming across these ultrasonic call types in the data," said study co-author Lisa Munger. "Finally, it dawned on us that the seals were actually using them quite regularly."

"It was really surprising that other researchers previously had, in effect, missed a part of the conversation," said Cziko. He explained that the seals may use the ultrasonic vocalizations to "stand out over all the lower-frequency noise, like changing to a different channel for communicating."

Another possibility is that the vocalizations are used for echolocation, a biological sonar used by other animals to locate prey.

"The possibility of seals using some kind of echolocation has really been discounted over the years," said Cziko. "We actually had a lot of somewhat heated discussions in our group about whether or how the seals use these ultrasonic sounds for echolocation-like behaviors."

It remains a mystery how Weddell seals navigate and find prey during the months of near absolute darkness in the Antarctic winter.

"We'd like to know who is producing the ultrasonic calls - males, females, juveniles, or all of the above," said Munger. "And how are the seals using these sounds when they're out in deeper water, looking for fish? We need to record in more places to be able to correlate sounds with behaviors."

The study is published in <a href="https://asa.scitation.org/journal/jas">The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Weddell seals communicate with ultrasonic sounds

Researchers at the University of Oregon are describing incredible sounds...

In a new report from <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics">JAMA Pediatrics</a>, experts describe how the coronavirus is affecting children. Study co-authors Dr. Lindsay A. Thompson and Dr. Sonja A. Rasmussen also explain what parents can do to help keep their children safe as the pandemic persists.

While most children with COVID-19 have only mild symptoms or even no symptoms at all, others are becoming severely ill. There is a collection of evidence which shows that certain underlying conditions increase the risk for severe COVID-19 among children. These conditions include obesity, asthma, neurologic disorders, heart disease, and being immunocompromised, among others.

"As children get older, their risk of getting sick enough to be hospitalized is higher, although newborns and young infants are also at increased risk," wrote the researchers.

"Risk of death in children is far lower than in adults, but some children have died of COVID-19. Children who are Hispanic, Black, or American Indian or Alaska native are at higher risk for severe disease and death."

"Children can get COVID-19 from family members and other close contacts such as friends and teachers at school and from sports activities." 

In some rare cases, kids who have been infected with COVID-19 have developed a condition called multisystem inflammatory syndrome. "Children may develop this syndrome about 2 to 4 weeks after infection, and some of these children had no symptoms of COVID-19," explained the study authors.

"These children require hospitalization and many need complex supportive therapies to help respond to what seems to be the body’s strong response to being infected with the virus. Some children with this condition have died."

According to the researchers, the most important way to prevent COVID-19 is to avoid getting infected. 

"All family members should follow important recommendations. First, practice the 3 W’s: (1) watch your distance, keeping at least 6-ft distance between you and others; (2) wear a cloth mask when out of your house; and (3) wash your hands often with soap and water for more than 20 seconds, avoiding touching your eyes, nose, and mouth with unwashed hands."

"Second, avoid the 3 C’s: (1) closed spaces with poor ventilation; (2) crowded places with many people nearby; and (3) close-contact settings, such as close-range conversations."

The experts emphasized that getting flu shots for children older than 6 months is more important than ever this year. In addition, they said parents must find ways to balance their children’s needs to stay safe with their needs to learn and socialize with peers. 

"Parents should consult their school system and health department for the best information on local spread of COVID-19, area rules and recommendations, and school procedures. We want to keep children safe and learning while minimizing risks to themselves, their friends, family members, including grandparents, and other vulnerable members of society."

The <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) recommends talking with children about the COVID-19 outbreak to help minimize their stress.

"Reassure your child that they are safe. Let them know it is okay if they feel upset. Share with them how you deal with your own stress so that they can learn from you how to cope with stress."

The CDC advises parents to limit their family's exposure to news coverage of the event, including social media. "Children may misinterpret what they hear and can be frightened about something they do not understand."

The experts also recommend keeping up with regular routines, sleeping and eating well, and spending time with your child in meaningful activities like exercising, reading together, and playing board games.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics">JAMA Pediatrics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How is COVID-19 affecting children?

In a new report from JAMA Pediatrics, experts describe how...

A new study from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> has produced a potential solution to the issue of black pod disease among cacao trees. The researchers found high levels of the antimicrobial compound clovamide in the leaves of a disease-resistant strain of cacao, which could ultimately help in breeding <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tropical-trees-do-not-live-as-long-in-hotter-temperatures/">trees</a> with immunity to black pod rot.

The discovery is significant because this fungal disease is a serious problem in all areas of the world where cacao is grown, explained study co-author Professor Mark Guiltinan.

"This is the first time that clovamide has been implicated in cacao resistance to pathogens, and the innovative method we used to measure the compound in the leaves could have a major impact in the quest to develop highly productive, disease-resistant varieties of cacao," said Professor Guiltinan. "But these results may have consequences for advancing disease resistance in other plant species, as well."

The study was focused on a cacao variety known as Scavina 6, which is tolerant of the fungus that causes black pod rot. The leaves of this particular cacao strain were found to accumulate high levels of clovamide and several other metabolites that are known to be involved in responses to stress.

Compared to a susceptible cacao strain, Imperial College Selection 1, concentrations of clovamide were up to 58 times higher than in Scavina 6 leaf extracts.

"These results pointed to clovamide as a potential contributor to disease resistance, and laboratory tests supported this hunch," said Professor Guiltinan.

Lab tests confirmed that the compound inhibits the growth of three pathogens of cacao in the Phytophthora genus. In one experiment, clovamide inhibited the activity of the enzymes proteinase and pectinase, which are known to break down plant cell walls. 

According to the researchers, their study indicates that clovamide prevents the pathogen's ability to break down cell walls while killing and digesting plant tissue.

Study lead author Ben Knollenberg said the findings promise to enhance plant-breeding efforts to develop highly productive varieties of cacao that can withstand the onset of black pod rot. He explained that the method used in this study to measure clovamide levels in leaves could greatly streamline and condense the breeding process.

"The Scavina 6 strain has been utilized as a parent in cacao-breeding programs for decades, but it hasn't been clear why it's resistant to black pod rot, which makes breeding for resistance difficult," said Knollenberg. 

"Breeders cross Scavina 6 with higher-yielding varieties, for example, and they get a bunch of seeds or offspring, which may or may not have inherited the disease resistance. Evaluating the disease resistance of this new generation of trees requires years of growth and measurements in field trials, which requires land, labor and money."

If breeders can screen for leaf clovamide content when the trees are just seedlings in the greenhouse, they can eliminate trees that lack the trait before transplanting the seedlings to the field, said Knollenberg. 

"We think this will accelerate breeding and make it more efficient so that breeders can develop resistant varieties more quickly. For example, instead of growing 1,000 trees to evaluate resistance, with the ability to measure the relative abundance of clovamide in the leaf tissues, they could grow just the 100 highest-clovamide trees instead."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists identify a compound that protects cacao trees from disease

A new study from Penn State has produced a potential...

Pathogens like <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-work-better-together-to-improve-crops/">bacteria</a> and viruses do not affect all plants in the same way. The ability of a species to resist nonadapted pathogens, also known as nonhost resistance, is an important plant defense strategy that remains elusive.

The plant pathogen Phytophthora infestans is best known for causing late blight disease, which was responsible for the Irish potato famine. However, despite being the world's most destructive and costly potato pathogen, P. infestans has no effect on other plants like cucumbers and apples.

There are also many examples of plants that are susceptible to one pathogen but able to resist another closely related strain. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/">American Phytopathological Society</a>, scientists are working to gain a better understanding of the plant immune system, including the mechanism that provides nonhost resistance, in order to improve crop resilience.

Pathogens are a constant threat to agriculture, limiting where crops can be grown and how productive they can become. Experts have reduced the impacts of many diseases through the development of pesticides, farming practices, and breeding techniques. However, globalization and human development are increasingly facilitating the spread of pathogens into new environments. 

"The field of nonhost resistance sets out to identify novel ways to engineer resistance to these plant pathogens, guided by approaches that already exist in nature," explained study co-author Matthew Moscou. 

"This question is fundamental to understanding why some plants get infected by a particular pathogen and others don't, and, vice versa, why a given pathogen can only successfully colonize a limited number of plant species, which collectively form its host range."

Scientists have learned that nonhost resistance is a feature controlled by many genes. Physical barriers, such as the plant cuticle, are often key factors in nonhost resistance, as well as the secretion of antimicrobial molecules.

"While the contribution of microbial commensals (microbes that naturally inhabit plant organs without causing any harm) to plant immunity has emerged during the past few years, their explicit role in nonhost resistance has not been demonstrated yet," said study co-author Ralph Panstruga.

"Our knowledge on nonhost resistance largely relies on findings obtained in a handful of (model) angiosperm plant species that are genetically very tractable. We do not know yet to what extent these insights can be generalized, especially with respect to non-angiosperms."

Recent technological advances, including DNA sequencing methods, will make it easier for scientists to learn more about nonhost resistance.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/PUBLICATIONS/MPMI">Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do plants develop resistance to potentially deadly pathogens?

Pathogens like bacteria and viruses do not affect all plants...

A new study from the <a href="https://mipt.ru/english/">Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology</a> (MIPT) suggests that rapid Arctic warming is linked to a series of great earthquakes. Greenhouse gas emissions associated with human activities are driving temperatures up on a global scale, but this does not explain abrupt <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/lake-levels-are-falling-as-temperatures-rise/">temperature</a> spikes that have been periodically observed in the Arctic. 

One of the main factors involved in Arctic warming is the release of methane from thawing permafrost. In the time since record-keeping began, the region has experienced two periods of abrupt warming: in the 1920s and 1930s, and then from 1980 to present day.

Study author Leopold Lobkovsky is a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the head of the MIPT Laboratory for Geophysical Research of the Arctic and Continental Margins of the World Ocean. In his report, Lobkovsky theorizes that unexplained temperature changes in the Arctic could have been triggered by geodynamic factors. In particular, he points to a series of great earthquakes in the Aleutian Arc, which is the closest seismically active area to the Arctic.

To test his theory, Lobkovsky first investigated whether the dates of the great earthquakes coincided with temperature spikes. Based on historical data, he found that the Aleutian Arc was the site of two series of earthquakes in the 20th century. Each of the events was followed by an abrupt rise in temperature about 15 to 20 years later.

Next, Lobkovsky needed to determine how the lithospheric disturbances may have spread over more than 1,240 miles from the Aleutian Islands to the Arctic shelf region.

A model of lithospheric excitation dynamics predicted that the propagation of so-called tectonic waves should travel at about 100 kilometers, or 62 miles, per year. This explains the delay between each earthquake series and the subsequent increase in Arctic temperatures 15 to 20 years later. 

Finally, Lobkovsky set out to understand how these disturbances may intensify methane emissions. He concluded that the deformation waves arriving in the shelf zone cause minor additional stresses in the lithosphere, which are sufficient to disrupt the internal structure of the permafrost. This releases heat-trapping methane into atmosphere, leading to local climate warming.

"There is a clear correlation between the great earthquakes in the Aleutian Arc and the phases of climate warming. A mechanism exists for physically transmitting the stresses in the lithosphere at the appropriate velocities. And these added stresses are capable of destroying metastable gas hydrates and permafrost, releasing methane."

"Each of the three components in this scheme is logical and lends itself to mathematical and physical explanation. Importantly, it explains a known fact - the abrupt rise in temperature anomalies in the Arctic - which remained unaccounted for by the previous models."

According to Lobkovsky, his model will benefit from discussion and will likely be improved, and further research is needed in order to confirm or rule out the link between seismic activity and abrupt Arctic warming.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences">Geosciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Arctic warming linked to earthquakes more than 1,200 miles away

A new study from the Moscow Institute of Physics and...

Tens of thousands of migratory birds that mysteriously dropped dead in the Southwest earlier this year apparently died of long-term starvation. According to the U.S. Geological Survey’s <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nwhc">National Wildlife Health Center</a>, most of the bird carcasses showed signs of starvation, including emaciation, severely shrunken breast muscles, empty stomachs, and kidney failure.

The USGS report suggests that a severe summer drought contributed to prolonged starvation among the birds. An unusual cold front followed the drought, and temperatures plummeted below freezing in early September.

The researchers said that the cold snap likely made things worse, causing the birds to become disoriented. Some were struck by vehicles, flew into buildings, or died from exposure to the cold weather. 

Although the experts could not identify a single, definitive cause of death, they were able to rule out disease and poisoning, according to the <a href="https://apnews.com/article/wildlife-health-wildlife-health-weather-new-mexico-0ec435b343f3285baa1a91e771c3f0b1">Associated Press</a>.

Many of the deaths may have also been tied to this year's devastating wildfire season. In September, Professor Martha Desmond of New Mexico State University speculated that the fires may have pushed some birds into early migrations that they were not physically prepared for, while others likely died from lung damage.  

“Birds who migrated before they were ready because of the weather might have not had enough fat to survive,” Professor Desmond told <a href="https://www.cnn.com/">CNN</a>. “Some birds might have not even had the reserves to start migrating so they died in place.”

The USGS team found no evidence of smoke poisoning in the birds. Regardless, Jon Hayes of the Audubon Society believes the fires played a role. 

“The birds could have been altering their migration path to avoid smoke plumes, thereby increasing the energy demand of their migration and causing exhaustion,” Hayes told Audubon Magazine. “The evidence they’ve shown regarding poor body condition could still fit that scenario, and so I think there’s still questions like the role of fire in particular.”

Many different types of migratory birds were found dead, including bluebirds, sparrows, blackbirds, flycatchers, and warblers. There were multiple reports by people who had witnessed strange behavior among birds leading up to the die-off. For example, birds that are typically seen foraging in shrubs or trees were observed chasing insects on the ground.

The first signs of the mortality event emerged on August 20, when about 200 dead birds were found at the White Sands Missile Range in southern New Mexico. Over the next few weeks, dead birds began turning up in alarming numbers across several states. 

In her interview with CNN, Professor Desmond said that many birds were lethargic and unresponsive, and were getting struck by cars in larger numbers than ever before. She added that at the missile range golf course, swallows were sitting on the ground letting people approach them.

Professor Desmond pointed to the role of climate change in this shocking mortality event. “We have lost three billion birds in the U.S. since 1970 and we’ve also seen a tremendous decline in insects, so an event like this is terrifying to these populations and it’s devastating to see.”

Experts warn that rising temperatures due to human-caused climate change will cause even more severe droughts in the Western United States. A recent study from Columbia University reports that the region is experiencing a 20-year megadrought that is on its way to becoming the worst in modern history. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shocking bird mortality event was caused by long-term starvation

Tens of thousands of migratory birds that mysteriously dropped dead...

In the midst of chaos, it becomes more difficult for people with clinical anxiety and depression to make sound decisions. But these patients can dramatically improve their judgement by focusing on previous successes, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a>.

The findings are particularly relevant during the ongoing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/research-confirms-that-covid-19-enters-the-brain/">COVID-19</a> pandemic, when important decisions must be made on a daily basis to avoid illness. 

The researchers examined the probabilistic decision-making skills of more than 300 adults. Some of the participants had been diagnosed with major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. In probabilistic decision making, people tend to subconsciously rely on the positive or negative results of their previous actions. 

Participants with overlapping symptoms of both anxiety and depression - such as obsessive worrying or a lack of motivation - were found to have the most trouble executing a computerized task that simulated a rapidly changing environment.

By contrast, individuals without significant symptoms of anxiety and depression learned more quickly to adjust to volatile conditions based on the actions they had previously taken.

"When everything keeps changing rapidly, and you get a bad outcome from a decision you make, you might fixate on what you did wrong, which is often the case with clinically anxious or depressed people," explained study senior author Professor Sonia Bishop. "Conversely, emotionally resilient people tend to focus on what gave them a good outcome, and in many real-world situations that might be key to learning to make good decisions."

However, this does not mean that people with clinical anxiety and depression are doomed to a life of bad decisions, said Professor Bishop. For example, individualized treatments, such as cognitive behavior therapy, could improve both decision-making skills and confidence by focusing on past successes, instead of failures, she noted.

The research expands on Professor Bishop's 2015 study, which found that people with high levels of anxiety made more mistakes when making decisions in both stable and rapidly changing environments. For the current study, the team looked at whether people with depression would also struggle with their judgement in volatile environments.

"We wanted to see if this weakness was unique to people with anxiety, or if it also presented in people with depression, which often goes hand in hand with anxiety," said Professor Bishop. "We also sought to find out if the problem was a general one or specific to learning about potential reward or potential threat."

A series of experiments revealed that having symptoms common to both anxiety and depression predicted who would struggle most with making sound decisions in the face of changing circumstances.

"We found that people who are emotionally resilient are good at latching on to the best course of action when the world is changing fast," said Professor Bishop. "People with anxiety and depression, on the other hand, are less able to adapt to these changes. Our results suggest they might benefit from cognitive therapies that redirect their attention to positive, rather than negative, outcomes."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Focus on the positive to make sound decisions during turbulent times

In the midst of chaos, it becomes more difficult for...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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