Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. 



When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat.



That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time changes, altering the way it measures all of the moments that make up our lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-vs-fresh-experiences">First vs. fresh experiences</h2>



Children cram their days with firsts: a first dive into the pool, a first try at long division, a first sleepover away from home.



These fresh experiences swarm the brain with new images to file away, stretching the subjective length of a single afternoon.



Adults, by contrast, tend to replay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-impacts-our-daily-routines-and-transportation/">familiar routines</a>. With fewer novel snapshots to store, the days collapse into something closer to a highlight reel than a feature film.



According to psychologist Marc Wittmann at the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health <a href="https://igpp.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IGPP</a>), the feeling that time accelerates is tightly linked to how much new material our brains record each day.



He points out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/">memory</a> and time perception sit on the same neural bench; when one slows, the other shrinks. "Newness" holds the key to this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-and-time-perception">Human brain and time perception</h2>



Whenever a brain encounters something it has never processed before, a quick surge of attention flags the event as worth keeping. The more flags raised, the thicker the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">memory log</a> becomes, and the longer that span later feels.



Kids, still green to nearly everything, throw flags left and right. A lunchroom joke, a new word in science class, or a game of tag - each registers as its own small chapter.



Adults often glide through copy-and-paste days that differ only by the date on the calendar. With fewer chapters recorded, the book of any given week reads as a short story.



Research using immersive virtual reality in 2024 showed that older volunteers underestimated simple time intervals by roughly 15 percent, highlighting how novelty <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S096800042300302X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharpens the inner clock</a>.



Routine doesn’t just compress the past; it also drains the present.



Studies tracking holiday seasons in several countries found that people who stuck to predictable daily rhythms felt that Christmas or Ramadan arrived sooner every year, while those who sprinkled in new activities reported a slower march toward the festivities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-processing-speed-linked-with-time">Brain processing speed linked with time</h2>



Every sensation has to travel from eye or ear to cortex. In youngsters, those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">neural highways</a> are short and well-paved. As bodies grow, the routes lengthen, and the conduction speed though still quick can’t match its earlier zip.



Add natural age-related slowing of signal processing and the brain starts sampling the world less often each second.



Fewer samples mean fewer “ticks” on the subjective stopwatch, so a morning meeting seems to vanish faster for a forty-year-old than for a fourth grader.



This sampling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-pupil-dilation-to-brains-working-memory-levels/">shows up in the eyes</a>. Our eyes jerk from point to point in rapid saccades, pausing in brief fixations while the brain grabs a visual frame.



Young, rested eyes squeeze in more fixations per minute. Older or fatigued eyes lag, offering the brain fewer still frames to stitch together. With a thinner film strip, the projection of the day speeds along.



Scientists studying eye movements liken perception to a flipbook. Each fixation is a page; flip them fast enough and you see smooth action.



When fixations slow, the flipbook loses pages. Motion still appears, but the storyline gets choppy, and, in recall, it shortens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-and-alertness">Sleep and alertness</h2>



A single night of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/">good sleep</a> can pull the brake on runaway days. When neurons are well-rested, they fire faster, notice more, and form clearer memories.



Athletes know the flip side: stepping onto the field after too little shut-eye makes the whole match blur. The plays happen, but the mind records only a highlight or two before the final whistle.



Students grinding through an all-nighter meet the same fate - an exam that seems to finish moments after it starts.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-best-treatment-for-excessive-daytime-sleepiness/">Chronic fatigue</a> magnifies the effect. Continually short-changing rest lowers baseline alertness, trimming snapshots day after day.



Over months, life can feel like it’s slipping through the cracks, not because the clock sped up but because the recorder slowed down.



<a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dopamine</a>, a neurotransmitter tied to motivation and time estimation, also dips with sleep debt, further warping the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364166/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of duration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-media-and-lost-time-perception">Social media and lost time perception</h2>



Endless feeds promise variety, yet most algorithms serve look-alike posts. Swipe through video after video of the same dance trend, and the brain barely registers a change.



Hours evaporate while the memory log remains nearly blank. Compound that with the blue-light-induced bedtime delay, and you have a double punch: fewer snapshots captured and fewer hours slept.



Cutting back on passive scrolling or swapping it for an activity with genuine novelty - trying a new recipe, learning a chord on guitar - feeds the brain more distinct moments. Those moments stretch subjective time, turning a blur of an evening into something that feels full.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-with-age-comes-responsibility">With age comes responsibility</h2>



Beyond slower processing, adults juggle long lists of responsibilities. Focus narrows to tasks at hand - emails, errands, budgets - scanning less of the environment for new input. Novelty drops, and subjective days shorten.



<a href="https://www.tiaa.org/public/institute/publication/2023/young-adults-their-attitudes-and-outlook-toward-retirement-and-the-future" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A 2023 survey</a> comparing young adults with retirees found that the older group reported the year as “rushing by” nearly twice as often, linking the feeling to the predictability of daily routines rather than to health issues.



Even so, not every senior feels the rush. Researchers tracking so-called “<a href="https://www.nm.org/healthbeat/healthy-tips/4-habits-super-agers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-agers</a>” note that those who keep learning new skills and staying socially engaged maintain sharper senses of time, along with stronger memory performance. Variety keeps the brain’s camera clicking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-your-brain-to-slow-time-perception">Use your brain to slow time perception</h2>



Here's the good news - the tools to lengthen your days fit into ordinary life. Go to bed on a schedule that honors the seven-to-nine-hour rule.



Plan at least one activity each week that forces you out of autopilot: a different jogging route, a museum you’ve never visited, a new language app.



While doing it, pay close attention to sights, sounds, and textures. Engagement packs extra snapshots into the mental album.



Stay curious daily. Swap a lunchtime scroll for a short walk and notice five things you’ve never clocked before - a mural, a bird call, the scent of a bakery vent.



Those micro-discoveries add pages to the flipbook, expanding the subjective afternoon. Over time, the habit can "thicken" the memory book that tells the story of a year, making December feel like it belongs twelve full months away, right where the calendar says it should be.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/why-the-days-seem-shorter-as-we-get-older/2CB8EC9B0B30537230C7442B826E42F1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Review</a>.



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Scientists explain why time seems to move faster and 'fly by' as we age

Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat. That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time...

As we’ve reported, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/left-behind-science-research-excludes/">underrepresentation</a> in scientific research continues to put many women and minority groups at risk. 

But research, studies, and lab tests also leave out female animal subjects due to the persistent notion that female hormones will get in the way of collecting accurate and useable data. 

The fact that women are still described as “hormonal” and emotional does nothing to remedy these dated views. 

Rebecca Shansky, a neuroscientist from <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/">Northeastern University</a>, tackled this stereotype in a new perspective titled “Are hormones a ‘female problem’ for animal research?” which was published in the journal Science. 

Many researchers today continue to operate under the false idea that ovarian hormones in female animal subjects will skew data and because of this, animal test subjects are often mainly male. 

This is not only problematic because its founding is based on sexist ideas, but it can also be dangerous when researchers leave out female test subjects.

“When we view females through a male lens, we risk missing what may be at the crux of the question for females,” said Shanksy. 

Mood and anxiety disorders like Major Depressive Disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder are twice as prevalent in women, yet studies with mostly male test subjects will do little to help explain why women have an increased risk of these mental health disorders. 

What’s surprising is that these troublesome stereotypes were not called seriously into question and scientifically examined until 2014, when a meta analysis showed that in female mice, the estrous cycle had no impact on the data and responded no differently than the male mice in the tests. 

It wasn’t until 2016 when the Sex as a Biological Variable mandate was implemented in the US for grant-funded research, but some scientists continue to work around this rule by conducting tests first on male animal subjects and then redoing the test on female subjects. 

“[This strategy is] dangerous because it perpetuates the dated, sexist, and scientifically inaccurate idea that male brains are a standard from which female brains deviate,” said Shanksy.

Shanksy urges researchers to ensure that gender stereotypes or bias to color or skew their research. 

“Women are not more complicated than men, and hormones are not a ‘female problem’ for animal research. We need to stop treating them that way,” said Shanksy. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock

Females are underrepresented in lab studies due to false ‘hormonal’ stereotypes

As we’ve reported, underrepresentation in scientific research continues to put...

The DNA of 41 human skeletons dating back thousands of years is helping researchers piece together the transition from foraging to farming and herding in Africa. 

An international team of archeologists, geneticists, and museum curators analyzed ancient DNA to help pinpoint the origins of farming and herding in East Africa. 

The team, led by researchers from <a href="http://www.slu.edu/">Saint Louis University</a>, detailed their findings in a new study published in the journal Science. 

Herding livestock as a form of food production first spread through Kenya and Tanzania 5,000 years ago and later <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/east-africas-hunter-gatherers-ancestry/">foragers in East Africa</a> interacted and mixed with herders. 

But exactly how and when these populations came together was unknown. 

“The origins of food producers in East Africa have remained elusive because of gaps in the archaeological record,” said Mary Prendergast, a co-first author of the study. “This study uses DNA to answer previously unresolvable questions about how people were moving and interacting.”

The DNA analyses showed that between 4,500 and 3,500 years ago, foragers in East Africa interacted with herders and herding livestock quickly spread through the region. 

After 3,500 years ago though, the two groups split off again and became genetically isolated although still living in the same areas next to each other. This suggests that after a brief interlude of co-mingling, the two groups had strict social barriers in place. 

It wasn’t until 1,200 years ago that the researchers found evidence of another major genetic shift when migrations of people from northeastern and western Africa spread into East Africa, bringing with them farming and iron-working. 

“Today, East Africa is one of the most genetically, linguistically, and culturally diverse places in the world,” said Elizabeth Sawchuk, a co-first author of the study. “Our findings trace the roots of this mosaic back several millennia. Distinct peoples have coexisted in the Rift Valley for a very long time.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Katherine Grillo

DNA sheds light on the story of first farmers and herders in East Africa

The DNA of 41 human skeletons dating back thousands of...

African mole-rats have an unbelievable tolerance for pain which allows them to burrow next to venomous ants and eat roots that other animals would avoid. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.mdc-berlin.de/">Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine </a>(MDC) and the <a href="https://www.up.ac.za/">University of Pretoria </a>in South Africa isolated the genes that are directly responsible for pain insensitivity in mole rats. 

Published in the journal Science, the results help show the underlying genetic mechanisms that make some mole rats less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-tree-shrews-spicy-peppers/">sensitive to pain</a>.

“The insights provided by our studies of these animals should help, among other things, in the development of new pain-relieving drugs,” said Gary Lewin who first discovered the extent of mole-rat pain tolerance back in 2008. 

For the study, Lewin and colleagues tested pain tolerance in naked mole-rats and eight related species of mole rats. 

The mole rats were exposed to diluted hydrochloric acid, capsaicin, and allyl isothiocyanate (AITC). Each substance is known to cause a burning sensation when it touches the skin of humans and mammals. 

Mole rats are naturally exposed to some of these substances which are found in the roots and tubers they forage for and eat. 

The researchers injected the substance into the paws of the rats, and three mole-rat species were unphased by the hydrochloric acid. Two of the species in the study did feel the capsaicin solution but only one species, the highveld mole-rat, was unaffected by the AITC. 

“This was a thrilling finding for us,” says Lewin. “AITC attacks amino acids in the body and can thus destroy proteins. That is why all the other species we know avoid coming into contact with the substance.” 

After establishing which species were impervious to which substances, the researchers collected sensory tissue from the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia from all nine species in the study.

Gene sequencing technology allowed the researchers to compare gene activity and isolate two altered genes in the highveld rat. 

The genes contain the blueprint for the ion channels TRPA1 and NaV1.7, which are known for their role in pain sensitivity and perception.

Substances like AITC activate these channels, and in highveld rats, the TRPA1 channel is completely switched off. 

The researchers also found that pain sensitivity could be “turned on” again in the mole-rats. 

“From the thousands of genes we were looking at, we had obviously found the very gene responsible for the highveld mole-rat’s remarkable pain resistance,” said Lewin. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Dewald Kleynhans, University of Pretoria

African mole-rats are insensitive to pain thanks to a special gene

African mole-rats have an unbelievable tolerance for pain which allows...

A new study led by scientists at the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> suggests that CO2 is a better hydraulic fracturing fluid than water. The findings may ultimately lead to a more environmentally friendly form of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fracking-seismic-ripple-effect/">fracking</a> that could also serve as a way to store atmospheric CO2.

Fracking is a method of injecting water mixed with sand and chemicals into solid rock to extract the resources from within. After the extraction is complete, 30 to 50 percent of the fracking fluid remains in the rock formation. Hydraulic fracturing has been very controversial due to its high water consumption and environmental risks.

"Non-aqueous fracturing could be a potential solution to circumvent these issues," said study co-author Nannan Sun. "We chose CO2 fracturing from a range of options because the process includes multiple benefits. However, we were still lacking a fundamental understanding of the technology, which is greatly important for its further development and deployment."

To investigate whether CO2 may be a more effective alternative to water as a fracking fluid, the researchers collected shale outcrops from China and fractured them with both fluids. The study revealed that CO2 outperformed water, creating complex networks of fractures with significantly higher stimulated volumes.

"We demonstrated that CO2 has higher mobility than water, and, therefore, the injection pressure can be better delivered into the natural porosity of the formation," said Sun. "This changes the mechanism by which the fractures are created, generating more complex fracture networks that result in more efficient shale gas production."

[caption id="attachment_1873301" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/shale-sample-.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1873301" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/shale-sample-.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="971" /></a> A shale sample ready for fracturing with CO2. Image Credit: Xuehang Song[/caption]

Using CO2 for fracturing would eliminate an excessive amount of water waste, reduce the risk of damage to reservoirs, and would provide an underground repository for captured CO2. However, CO2 from emissions sources is currently too expensive to use as an industry-wide replacement for water. 

Next, the researchers plan to test the limits of CO2 fracturing technology to gain a better understanding of how it can be used. 

"Further investigations are needed to identify the effects of type of reservoirs, geomechanical properties and conditions, CO2 sensitivity of the formation, and so forth," said Sun. "Additionally, cooperation with industries will be carried out to push forward the practical deployment of the technology."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/joule/home">Joule</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock

CO2 may provide an eco-friendly alternative to water for fracking

A new study led by scientists at the Chinese Academy...

The last <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-tools-hunt-distance/">Neanderthals</a> died off around 40,000 years ago after migrating from Africa to Europe, and there have been many theories as to what led to the demise of our extinct early relative.

Was it climate change, disease, or did interactions with modern humans cause Neanderthals to go extinct? Even though Neanderthals are some of the most intensely studied group of fossils today, researchers are still unsure about how the species went extinct. There are indeed several hotly contested debates about Neanderthal extinction. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.univ-amu.fr/">Aix Marseille Université</a> in France used a modeling approach to test different hypothetical extinction scenarios. 

The study was published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0216742">PLOS ONE</a>, and the researchers developed a model to simulate how demographic changes could have contributed to Neanderthal population declines over 4,000 to 10,000 years. 

“This study of the disappearance of the Neanderthals published today in PLOS ONE does not attempt to explain ‘why’ the Neanderthals disappeared, but to identify ‘how’ their demise may have taken place,” the researchers wrote. 

First, the researchers created baseline demographics parameters and identified what factors lead to a stable population by using data on Neanderthals, modern hunter-gatherers, and large apes. 

Next, the researchers tested different demographic changes like drops in fertility rates or an increase in infant mortality. 

If populations in the scenarios fell below 5,000 individuals, the researchers considered that extinct. 

The models showed that Neanderthals could have gone extinct within 10,000 years if fertility rates decreased by 2.7 percent, even earlier if fertility rates dropped by 8 percent. 

If infant survival dropped by 0.4 percent, this could have also led to eventual extinction in 10,000 years. 

The study is one of the first of its kind to show how small demographic changes could lead to extinction. 

“This original approach is made on the basis of demographic modeling,” the researchers said. “The results suggest that a very small reduction in fertility may account for the disappearance of the Neanderthal population.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: IR Stone/Shutterstock/Natural History Museum of London

Neanderthals may have gone extinct due to declining fertility rates

The last Neanderthals died off around 40,000 years ago after...

According to a new report from the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/27/us/politics/trump-climate-science.html?smid=nytcore-ios-share">New York Times</a>, President Donald Trump and his administration will complete the overhaul of Obama-administration efforts to curb greenhouse-gas emissions as well as attempt to undermine <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-driving-climate-change/">climate science</a> in order to cut back climate change policy.

One such attempt to sweep climate change under the rug will revolve around the lack of reporting on climate science studies. Specific sectors of the federal government will no longer report on the future effects of the warming planet and alert people to what the globe may look like at the end of the century if climate change is not addressed. 

In fact, White House-appointed director of the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">United States Geological Survey</a>, James Reilly, has ordered that scientific assessments produced by that office must only use computer-generated climate models that predict climate change impacts through 2040 rather than through the end of the century, as has been commonplace.

Trump and his administration have also been heavily targeting the <a href="https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/">National Climate Assessment</a>, which has produced a new report roughly every four years, each pertaining to climate change figures if fossil fuel emissions aren’t cut back. The NCA team has already begun work on the next report, however, worst-case scenario projections will not longer be automatically included in the Assessment or in some other government-produced scientific reports.

“What we have here is a pretty blatant attempt to politicize the science — to push the science in a direction that’s consistent with their politics,” Philip B. Duffy, the president of the <a href="https://whrc.org/">Woods Hole Research Center</a>, and who also served on a <a href="http://www.nasonline.org/">National Academy of Sciences</a> panel that reviewed the government’s most recent National Climate Assessment, told the Times. “It reminds me of the Soviet Union.”

“The previous use of inaccurate modeling that focuses on worst-case emissions scenarios, that does not reflect real-world conditions, needs to be thoroughly re-examined and tested if such information is going to serve as the scientific foundation of nationwide decision-making now and in the future,” added James Hewitt, a spokesman for the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a>.

The president also hopes to assemble a new climate review panel led by William Happer, a 79-year-old Princeton physicist who has claimed that “the demonization of carbon dioxide is just like the demonization of the poor Jews under Hitler.” Happer currently serves on the National Security Council as President Trump’s deputy assistant for emerging technologies. 

Happer, who is a beneficiary of far-right billionaires Robert and Rebekah Mercer, who have used their riches to fund efforts to debunk climate science, has been dismissed by most climate scientists, including his peers at Princeton. He is also disliked by several White House officials, who have urged the president not to adopt Happer’s ideas and proposals.

Whether or not President Trump adopts Happer’s proposal, he will still take strides to undermine the severity of climate change and climate science. Since backing out of the Paris accord in 2017, it’s clear the president is determined to ignore evidence of warming in order to benefit his colleagues within the oil, gas, gold, and rare-earth mineral industries.

However, individual government science agencies like the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have stated they will continue to produce thorough climate models that do not give in to the administration’s request for data limitations.

“It is very unfortunate and potentially even quite damaging that the Trump administration behaves this way,” Johan Rockström, the director of the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/pik-frontpage">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a> in Germany, told the New York Times. “There is this arrogance and disrespect for scientific advancement — this very demoralizing lack of respect for your own experts and agencies.”

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Rudmer Zwerver

Trump administration moves to undermine climate science

According to a new report from the New York Times,...

A supernova in the galaxy NGC 1260, about 238 million light years away.

How exploding stars may have led to humans walking upright. Scientists are describing a celestial phenomenon that may have ultimately caused humans to walk upright. According to a study from the <a href="https://ku.edu/">University of Kansas</a>, the Earth was bombarded by cosmic energy from supernovae over millions of years. At its peak 2.6 million years ago, this influx of energy initiated an avalanche of electrons in the lower atmosphere and triggered a series of events that led to bipedal movement. 

The researchers theorize that atmospheric ionization instigated a large increase in cloud-to-ground lightning strikes that lit forests on fire all over the world. This likely means that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/diverse-climates-homo-sapiens-thrive/">homo sapiens</a> mastered the ability to walk upright in response to the transformation of forests into savannas.

"It is thought there was already some tendency for hominins to walk on two legs, even before this event," said study lead author Professor Adrian Melott. "But they were mainly adapted for climbing around in trees. After this conversion to savanna, they would much more often have to walk from one tree to another across the grassland, and so they become better at walking upright. They could see over the tops of grass and watch for predators. It's thought this conversion to savanna contributed to bipedalism as it became more and more dominant in human ancestors."

The researchers have found evidence in seafloor deposits that supernovae exploded around 163 light years away from the Earth during the transition from the Pliocene Epoch to the Ice Age.

"We calculated the ionization of the atmosphere from cosmic rays which would come from a supernova about as far away as the iron-60 deposits indicate," said Professor Melott. "It appears that this was the closest one in a much longer series. We contend it would increase the ionization of the lower atmosphere by 50-fold. Usually, you don't get lower-atmosphere ionization because cosmic rays don't penetrate that far, but the more energetic ones from supernovae come right down to the surface - so there would be a lot of electrons being knocked out of the atmosphere."

Professor Melott and study co-author Brian Thomas explained that ionization in the lower atmosphere meant an abundance of electrons would form more pathways for lightning strikes.

"The bottom mile or so of atmosphere gets affected in ways it normally never does," said Professor Melott. "When high-energy cosmic rays hit atoms and molecules in the atmosphere, they knock electrons out of them - so these electrons are running around loose instead of bound to atoms. Ordinarily, in the lightning process, there's a buildup of voltage between clouds or the clouds and the ground - but current can't flow because not enough electrons are around to carry it. So, it has to build up high voltage before electrons start moving. Once they're moving, electrons knock more electrons out of more atoms, and it builds to a lightning bolt. But with this ionization, that process can get started a lot more easily, so there would be a lot more lightning bolts."

According to Professor Melott, ancient carbon deposits support the idea of widespread fires because they correspond with the timing of the Earth's bombardment.

"The observation is that there's a lot more charcoal and soot in the world starting a few million years ago," said Professor Melott. "It's all over the place, and nobody has any explanation for why it would have happened all over the world in different climate zones. This could be an explanation. That increase in fires is thought to have stimulated the transition from woodland to savanna in a lot of places - where you had forests, now you had mostly open grassland with shrubby things here and there. That's thought to be related to human evolution in northeast Africa. Specifically, in the Great Rift Valley where you get all these hominin fossils."How exploding stars may have led to humans walking upright

Professor Melott pointed out that there will not be a cosmic event like this anytime soon. In the next million years, the nearest star capable of exploding is 652 light years away. 

"Betelgeuse is too far away to have effects anywhere near this strong," said Professor Melott. "So, don't worry about this. Worry about solar proton events. That's the danger for us with our technology - a solar flare that knocks out electrical power. Just imagine months without electricity."

The study is published in <a href="https://www.jstor.org/journal/jgeology">The Journal of Geology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: NASA

How exploding stars may have led to humans walking upright

How exploding stars may have led to humans walking upright....

A panel of scientists has now officially recognized that human activities have pushed our planet into a new geological era called the Anthropocene, which means "age of man." The <a href="https://theanthropocene.org/topics/anthropocene-working-group/">Anthropocene Working Group</a> (AWG) formally approved not only the term of the new epoch, but also its origin in the 1950s when humans began leaving their permanent mark on the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/venus-mars-insight-earth/">Earth</a>. 

As they define the beginning of the new era, the AWG scientists are working to pinpoint what geological feature best describes its initiation. This "golden spike" may encompass the hydrogen bomb tests of the 1950s, a spike in the burning of fossil fuels, or the emergence of widespread poultry farming. 

The AWG is chaired by Professor Jan Zalasiewicz from the University of Leicester. "The Anthropocene works as a geological unit of time, process and strata. It is distinguishable. It is distinctive," he explained.

The golden spike that the team is probing is technically called a Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), which will produce an exact date and location for the signal of the beginning of the Anthropocene. The GSSP must be measurable in the geological record in rocks, lake sediments, ice cores, or other formations in order to qualify as the sign of a new epoch. 

Professor Zalasiewicz suggested that there are a lot of options. "We are spoiled for choice," he told <a href="https://www.afp.com/en">AFP</a> in 2016. "There's a whole array of potential signals out there." For example, a spike in atmospheric CO2 can be measured in ice cores, while microplastic pollution is appearing in sediments around the world.

The AWG will now construct a proposal to be considered in 2021 by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, which is in charge of the official geologic time chart.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/NASA

Age of Man: Scientists officially recognize the Anthropocene era

A panel of scientists has now officially recognized that human...

In a new study — the first of its kind to functionally link DNA mutations to autism — researchers used artificial intelligence to demonstrate how mutations in “junk” DNA can cause <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-autism/">autism</a>. 

Their findings are published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-019-0420-0">Nature Genetics</a>.

Via machine learning, the research team analyzed complete genomes of 1,790 individuals with autism and their unaffected parents and siblings. Those participating in the study did not have a family history of autism, which meant that their autism was caused by a spontaneous mutation.

The machine learning system predicted that mutations that cause autism are located in parts of the genome that do not encode proteins — regions often called “junk” DNA. The number of autism cases linked to the noncoding mutations was similar to that of cases linked to protein-coding mutations that disable gene function, meaning this discovery goes beyond autism.

"This is the first clear demonstration of non-inherited, noncoding mutations causing any complex human disease or disorder,” said study leader Olga Troyanskaya, the deputy director for genomics at the <a href="https://www.simonsfoundation.org/flatiron/center-for-computational-biology/">Flatiron Institute's Center for Computational Biology (CCB)</a> and a professor of computer science at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a>.

"This [discovery] enables a new perspective on the cause of not just autism, but many human diseases,” added co-author Jian Zhou of CCB and Princeton.

Mutations in protein-coding regions of the genome (which only make up about 1-2% of the entire genome) account for at most 30% of autism cases that aren’t linked to a family history of autism. The research team also found evidence to suggest that autism-causing mutations must happen elsewhere in the genome as well.

To figure out which noncoding mutations may cause autism, the team used machine learning to predict how any given sequence would affect gene expression. They applied the machine learning technique to a collection of genetic data called the <a href="https://www.sfari.org/resource/simons-simplex-collection/">Simons Simplex Collection</a>, which contains the whole genomes of about 2,000 “quartets,” meaning a child with autism, an unaffected sibling, and two unaffected parents.

"This is a shift in thinking about genetic studies that we're introducing with this analysis," said Chandra Theesfeld, a research scientist in Troyanskaya's lab at Princeton. "In addition to scientists studying shared genetic mutations across large groups of individuals, here we're applying a set of smart, sophisticated tools that tell us what any specific mutation is going to do, even those that are rare or never observed before."

"The design of the Simons Simplex Collection is what allowed us to do this study," said Zhou. "The unaffected siblings are a built-in control."

The analysis showed that noncoding mutations in many of the children with autism altered their gene regulation, and these mutations also affected gene expression in the brain and genes linked to autism.

 "This is consistent with how autism most likely manifests in the brain," said study co-author Christopher Park, a research scientist at CCB. "It's not just the number of mutations occurring, but what kind of mutations are occurring."

Troyanskaya hopes to expand their methods and use them to improve how genetic data is used for diagnosing and treating diseases and disorders outside of autism.

"Right now, 98 percent of the genome is usually being thrown away," Troyanskaya said. "Our work allows you to think about what we can do with the 98 percent."

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By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock

Mutations in ‘junk’ DNA can cause autism

In a new study — the first of its kind...

Investigation reveals new clues to the evolution of language and communication. In an effort to better understand how <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/brain-storage-learn-language/">human language</a> and communication developed, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes-museums/einrichtungen/dpz/">Leibniz Institute for Primate Research</a> has analyzed the vocalizations of vervet monkeys. It is known that East African vervets have specific alarm calls to warn for a leopard, eagle, or a snake, and the researchers wanted to investigate the call system used by the closely-related <a href="http://www.earth.com/image/the-gambia-river-in-west-africa/">West African</a> vervets.

To examine how the West African vervets would react to unknown sounds, the researchers flew a drone over a group of monkeys and later played them a sound recording of the drone noise. The reactions of the monkeys indicated that they learned very quickly what the sound of the drone meant. 

However, instead of creating a new vocalization, the animals used the alarm call that East African vervets use to warn of eagles or other aerial predators. According to the study authors, this suggests that the call structure was determined long ago in the course of evolution and has been conserved.

Leopards, eagles, and snakes are the three main predators faced by East African vervet monkeys, and the animals use alarm calls that are followed by a specific strategy. When they hear the call for leopard, for example, they climb a tree. The call for eagle means to search the sky and hide, while the call for snake means to freeze like a statue on two legs.

The West African green monkeys were found to use alarm calls for leopards and snakes, but had not developed a call for aerial predators. When the research team carried out the drone experiment, the animals reacted to the drone sound with alarm calls, searched the sky, and hid. 

"The animals quickly learned what the previously unknown sounds mean and remembered this information," said study lead author Julia Fischer. "This shows their ability for auditory learning."

The calls used by West African vervets closely resembled those used by East African vervets as an eagle approaches. "The structure of the alarm calls seems to be deeply rooted in the evolution of vervet monkeys," explained Fischer. Investigation reveals new clues to the evolution of language and communication

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/articles">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Miroslav Halama

Investigation reveals new clues to the evolution

Investigation reveals new clues to the evolution of language and...

Scientists identify dozens of genes that led to the evolution of humans. Researchers from the <a href="http://www.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto</a> have identified genes that are unique to humans and may help to explain our very existence. The study was focused on dozens of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dog-ownership-influenced-genes/">genes</a> that code for proteins called transcription factors (TFs), which are responsible for converting DNA into RNA.

TFs recognize short, recurring patterns across DNA known as motifs and then use them as binding sites to turn genes on or off. It was previously thought that similar-looking TFs bind similar motifs across different species, but the current study has produced evidence which contradicts this theory. 

By using a new computational method, the team was able to better predict motif sequences that each TF binds with. The experts found that some sub-classes of TFs are much more functionally diverse than what was expected.

Study lead author Sam Lambert worked in the lab of Professor Timothy Hughes at the <a href="http://ccbr.utoronto.ca/donnelly-centre-cellular-and-biomolecular-research">Donnelly Centre</a> for Cellular and Biomolecular Research.

"Even between closely related species there's a non-negligible portion of TFs that are likely to bind new sequences," said Lambert. "This means they are likely to have novel functions by regulating different genes, which may be important for species differences."Scientists identify dozens of genes that led to the evolution of humans

According to the researchers, even between chimps and humans - who share 99 percent of the same genetic makeup - there are dozens of TFs that would ultimately express hundreds of genes in different ways. "We think these molecular differences could be driving some of the differences between chimps and humans," explained Lambert.

Professor Hughes is excited about the possibility that some of these TFs could be responsible for the unique features of the human immune system and brain, which are the most complex among animals. The findings may also shed new light on distinct  differences between the sexes, or sexual dimorphism. These differences guide mate selection and decisions that have a major impact on reproductive success.

'Almost nobody in human genetics studies the molecular basis of sexual dimorphism, yet these are features that all human beings see in each other and that we are all fascinated with," said Hughes. "I'm tempted to spend the last half of my career working on this, if I can figure out how to do it!"

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ng/">Nature Genetics</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock

Scientists identify dozens of genes that led to the evolution of humans

Scientists identify dozens of genes that led to the evolution...

Anyone interested in creepy, crawly creatures may have already known that mites and ticks are both arthropods – an incredibly diverse grouping that also includes spiders, scorpions, bees, locusts, crabs, cockroaches and mosquitoes, among others. New genetic data, though, points to a closer relationship.

A genetic study of 10 species of mites and 11 species of ticks found that they’re much more closely related than anyone expected. 

Mites and ticks are both, along with spiders and scorpions, members of the group Chelicerata under the larger arthropod umbrella. The new research, however, shows that they are not two separate groups of species, but rather a single evolutionary lineage.

The discovery could change how scientists think of the chelicerates.

"Spiders, with more than 48,000 described species, have long been considered the most biodiverse chelicerate lineage, but 42,000 mite and 12,000 tick species have been described. So, if mites and ticks are a single evolutionary entity rather than two distantly related ones, they are more diverse than the spiders,” co-author Dr. Davide Pisani of the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> said in a press release.

Arthropods make up about a million of the estimated 9 million animal species on Earth. Not only that, but fossils show that they have been around for about 500 million years. Scientists are still trying to work out how all of the species relate to one another.

"Because of their anatomical similarities it has long been suspected that mites and ticks form a natural evolutionary group, which has been named Acari,” Dr. Greg Edgecombe of the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum London</a> said. “However, not all anatomists agreed, and genomic data never found any support for this idea before."

Because of the roles that many arthropods play in the food chain – from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bees-crops-humans/">bees that pollinate crops</a> to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-virus-dangerous-mite/">mites that endanger them</a>, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tick-mosquito-borne-disease-spreading/">ticks and mosquitoes carrying disease</a> to <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/edible-crab-cancer-pagurus/">crabs beloved by foodies</a> – determining how they are all related is a chore. Figuring it out, however, could lead to advances in agriculture or against diseases like malaria and Lyme disease. 

The discovery that mites and ticks are close cousins can help researchers piece together other relationships between chelicerates.

"Regardless of the methods we used, our results converge on the same answer – mites and ticks really do form a natural group. Evolutionary trees like the one we've reconstructed provide us with the background information we need to interpret processes of genomic change,”  lead author Dr. Jesus Lozano Fernandez of the University of Bristol said. "Our genealogical tree can now be used as the foundation for studies using comparative genomics to address problems of potential biomedical and agricultural relevance, like the identification of the genomic changes that underpinned the evolution of blood-feeding parasitic ticks from ancestors that weren't blood-feeders."

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-10244-7">Nature Communications</a>.

— 

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Genetic data shows mites and ticks may be close cousins

Anyone interested in creepy, crawly creatures may have already known...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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