<span style="font-weight: 400;">Rivers attract hydrologists, kayakers, anglers, and artists alike. Somewhere between their consistency and unpredictability, they mesmerize people everywhere. But just as rivers have global influence, intricate and tiny worlds exist within a riparian ecosystem. </span><b>Riparian ecosystems describe the interface between rivers and the surrounding landscape. </b><span style="font-weight: 400;">Here, we’ll take a closer look at these watery worlds.</span>
<h2>Life by the Water</h2>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2016/03/05/20/32/aquatic-1238786_960_720.jpg" alt="Riparian vegetation is distinct from more upland plants" width="960" height="640" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/shutterbug75-2077322/">Shutterbug75</a> from Pixabay.[/caption]

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Because riparian areas surround rivers and streams, it makes sense that they drastically differ from the upland habitats. Most importantly, the presence of water makes these ecosystems distinct. Along with water other major </span><a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">indicators</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of riparian areas soil and vegetation.</span>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Water</b></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Riparian habitats occur directly next to bodies of water. These ecosystems are well-grounded along natural streams and rivers. However, they can also develop </span><a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/technical/?cid=nrcs143_014199" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">adjacent to constructed</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> canals and ditches.</span>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Soil</b></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Due to the natural flux of flow and water tables level, the soil is subject to shifting. The layers of sediment vary in texture and their ability to hold moisture.</span>
<ul>
 	<li><b>Vegetation</b></li>
</ul>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="960"]<img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2020/07/29/04/25/water-5446873_960_720.jpg" alt="Riparian ecosystems are the interface between land and water." width="960" height="640" /> Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/memorycatcher-168384/">MemoryCatcher</a> from Pixabay[/caption]

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The vegetation can often be a key giveaway for riparian areas. Especially in contrast to the upland habitats, riparian ecosystems can look totally different. Imagine willows, rushes, and reeds lining the banks or draping cottonwoods and hemlocks creating shady pools.</span>
<h3>Transitions and Diversity</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Perhaps the most defining characteristic of a riparian ecosystem is that it's always changing. Whether it’s a wetland, riverbank, or floodplain, these are landscapes in flux. Riparian areas specifically refer to the transition between land and water. </span><b>Transitions, like these, between two different ecosystems, are called </b><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ecotone" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><b>ecotones</b></a><b>. </b>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">As a result, riparian ecosystems differ dramatically from one another while also nurturing distinct ecological patches within a single stretch of bank. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> In ecology, this type of ecosystem is described by the word </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">heterogeneous. </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">The prefix </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">hetero</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">- means “other” and -</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">geneous </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">meaning “kind.” For example, while flooding is often deemed as a natural disaster, intermittent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flooding-help-river-ecosystems/">flooding</a> can be a cyclical part of what makes a healthy river. These types of disturbance play a key role in keeping the landscape diversified.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Overall, a heterogeneous ecosystem has a landscape dappled in diversity! </span><b>These distinct habitats support a wealth of plant and animal life and also provide critical ecosystem services.</b>
<h2>Importance of Riparian Ecosystems</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The importance of the water flowing in the rivers and streams may seem clear, so why care about the area beside the water? Just as riparian areas refer to the interface of both the water and land, their importance transcends a single category. Riparian ecosystems make great habitats for animals, but they also have huge economic impacts on society. They </span><a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2008_jones_g003.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">increase property value</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, foster lucrative recreational industries (fishing), and keep water safe and drinkable.</span>
<h3>What the Rivers Do for You: Ecosystem Services</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Ecosystem services are defined as the benefits humans receive from an ecosystem. These benefits include resources (like food and medicine), but they can also be broader (like nutrient cycling). <strong>Riparian habitats are powerhouses when it comes to ecosystem services.</strong> Read the examples below to learn how these ecosystems directly support us.</span><b></b>
<h4>Create Microclimates</h4>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The plants in riparian ecosystems create weather patterns! Called microclimates, these small adjustments to temperature and humidity can have large scale impacts. For example, the </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/tsuga-canadensis/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Eastern Hemlock</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> is a common tree found along waterways in the eastern United States. Its thick branches shade the river below. Unfortunately, the invasive wooly adelgid has caused a significant decline in hemlock populations. Without these common shade trees, the waterways are becoming more </span><a href="https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&amp;httpsredir=1&amp;article=1396&amp;context=master201019" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">acidic</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, which throws the delicate aquatic life off balance. </span>
<h4>Prevent Erosion</h4>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The vegetation along riparian areas play key roles in stabilizing the landscape. This is especially important considering the erosive nature of rushing water. Riparian plants really help keep the structure of river banks! An impressive list of riparian plants that support ecosystem health can be found </span><a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_043594.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">here</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span>
<h4>Provide Habitat</h4>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Riparian plants and surrounding ecosystems provide habitat for a wide range of aquatic, amphibious, and terrestrial animals. Riparian habitat is especially important for </span><a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=pv0TAAAAYAAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA156&amp;dq=important+riparian+habitat&amp;ots=_2u50JowjE&amp;sig=KSnOomykY_mcd23QsjJ3jr1TXSs#v=onepage&amp;q=important%20riparian%20habitat&amp;f=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">migrating birds</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> that need resource-rich safe havens for stopover sites.</span>
<h4>Reduce Water Pollution</h4>
[caption id="" align="alignnone" width="1000"]<img src="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1531208853003-c1ec1b8a81d7?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&amp;ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQiOjEyMDd9&amp;auto=format&amp;fit=crop&amp;w=1000&amp;q=80" alt="Riparian Ecosystem Aerial View" width="1000" height="622" /> Image by <a href="https://unsplash.com/@wynand_uys">Wyland Uys</a> from Unsplash[/caption]

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The riparian zone act as buffers between the upland and the water. They act as the t-cells for the river,  keeping the ecosystems healthy. Plants that grow in the river’s buffer zone can filter out between </span><a href="https://www.pecva.org/our-mission/clean-air-and-water/626-riparian-buffers-the-very-best-protection" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">50-100%</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of the nutrients and sediments. Including everything from organic waste to pesticides, these ecosystems have a true superpower. That’s our drinking water they’re cleaning!</span>
<h3>Delicate: Riparian Ecosystems at Risk</h3>
Overall, we clearly see how much value riparian ecosystems have for our well-being. That's why it's upsetting to learn the risks that they face throughout the globe.

Firstly, the most common disruption to river health results from the destruction of the banks. To clarify, everything from clearing vegetation to converting the land for agriculture or development, destroying these habitats can completely upset entire watersheds. Often, overgrazing and pollutants compound these developments, making the problem even worse.

Additionally, invasive species can overtake the ecosystems. Changing the whole structure of the plant community, a new species can wipe out the treasured diversity of the riparian ecosystems.

In conclusion, riparian ecosystems bring life and excitement to riversides around the globe. They contribute important habitat for wildlife while also providing key ecosystem services we could not do without. Next time you're out by the river, take a second to appreciate the plants and animals that live on the banks. Maybe bring a pair of binoculars or a plant identification book to get to know the area a bit better!

[Cover image courtesy of <a href="https://unsplash.com/@tsomme?utm_source=unsplash&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_content=creditCopyText" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Thomas Somme</a> on Unsplash]

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What Are Riparian Ecosystems?

Rivers attract hydrologists, kayakers, anglers, and artists alike. Somewhere between...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Gourmet mushrooms have made their way into cuisines across the globe. Their unorthodox shapes, textures, and tastes make them great to add to dishes and give food that extra kick. Many gourmet mushrooms are grown on small scales, but some can only be harvested from the wild. In this article, we'll give you a quick introduction to gourmet mushrooms - what they are, where to find them, and even some ideas to experiment within the kitchen!</span>
<h2>What Is a Gourmet Mushroom?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">All mushrooms are members of the fungus kingdom. Typically, the mushrooms we eat are the fruiting bodies of a fungus, the part of the organism that produces spores it needs for reproduction. The rest of the fungus is usually underground or coursing through decaying organic matter in strands called mycelium. <strong>But enough about the biology of fungi, we’re here to talk about the delicious varieties of edible mushrooms.</strong></span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">You may be familiar with the common white mushroom, also called the crimini mushroom, the most common edible mushroom worldwide. These are the ones you can find in small styrofoam boxes in the supermarket. Many people have only ever eaten white mushrooms because they are unfamiliar with, or don’t have access to the gourmet mushrooms out there. There are several popular kinds of gourmet mushrooms, with different levels of rarity. Some are extremely hard to come by compared to others and are therefore quite expensive. Here’s a list of some of the most popular gourmet mushrooms, and what you can do with them!</span>

<img class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-1882934" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/food-2990321_1280-300x199.jpg" alt="shiitake mushroom dried gourmet" width="300" height="199" />

Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/6437364-6437364/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">6437364</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>
<h2>Oyster and Shiitake Mushrooms</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Oyster and shiitake mushrooms are very similar in terms of cultivation but quite different in terms of taste. They are also probably the most common types of gourmet mushrooms on the market. Both oyster and shiitake mushrooms grow naturally on decaying wood in the forest, but both can easily be <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-to-start-mushroom-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">grown in controlled settings</a>. Small to large scale farmers grow them indoors in bags, where the temperature and humidity can be easily controlled for maximum yield. You can even cultivate them in a garage or a spare room of a house because they are so easy to grow. Local restaurants are often on the lookout for these mushrooms, making small scale production quite lucrative. Even a hobbyist mushroom grower can make some extra money by selling their crop to local restaurants or grocery stores. There are many growing kits on the market making it easy to start your own homegrown oyster or shiitake mushrooms.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">In terms of taste, oyster and shiitake mushrooms are quite different. Oyster mushrooms get their name from the taste being reminiscent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-harvests-declining-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">shellfish</a>, albeit more peppery and earthy. Their hardy texture makes them great for stews and other dishes that require long cooking times. Shiitake mushrooms are famous for their tough, dark caps and meaty flavor. The stems are too tough to eat, but the caps are so tasty they can be eaten on their own or as a main ingredient in stir-fries or oven-roasted dishes.</span>

<img class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-1882936" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/yellow-790595_1280-300x169.jpg" alt="yellow oyster mushrooms gourmet" width="300" height="169" />

Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/mistyhamel0-1073615/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">mistyhamel0</a> via Pixabay

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Many other types of gourmet mushrooms are cultivated, like clamshell, maitake, and blewit mushrooms. Each one has its own taste and uniqueness. <strong>Most other gourmet mushrooms are more often collected from the wild, as cultivating them is difficult or impossible.</strong></span>
<h2>Wild Gourmet Mushrooms</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Many gourmet mushrooms are found in the wild, and mushroom hunting is a popular hobby. Many people seek out wild mushrooms to eat themselves, but some people harvest enough to sell to stores or restaurants in small quantities. Whatever the case, tons of different types of mushrooms are harvested from the wild. Here are just a few.</span>

<b>NOTE: There are lookalikes of many gourmet mushrooms that are extremely poisonous. If you go mushroom hunting yourself, you should be a trained expert. Better yet, go with a mushroom hunting expert!</b>

<img class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-1882935" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/morels-490239_640-300x225.jpg" alt="morel mushroom gourmet wild" width="300" height="225" />

Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/bethl-510279/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">bethL</a> via Pixabay
<h3>Morel Mushrooms</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Morel mushrooms, also just called morels, are one of the most popular gourmet mushrooms out there. They are difficult to cultivate, so collecting them from the wild is the more popular method of retrieval for gourmet mushroom lovers. Morels emerge from the forest floor in spring, so they are only available seasonally, making them that much more coveted. They also have a short shelf life, so storing them is not an option without pickling or drying them. Morels are famous for their nutty, earthy, and smoky flavor. They are so flavorful, that gently frying them in butter is enough to make an excellent side dish. <strong>Along with their decadent taste, their unique shape and texture add an extra layer of complexity to any dish.</strong></span>

<img class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-1882932" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/fungus-1194380_1280-300x200.jpg" alt="chanterelle mushroom gourmet wild basket" width="300" height="200" />

Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/barbroforsberg-2023291/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Barbroforsberg</a> via Pixabay\
<h3>Chanterelle Mushrooms</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Chanterelles are another very popular type of gourmet mushroom and are only found in the wild. Their golden color makes them really stand out against the dead leaves on the forest floor. They emerge from the ground during mid-summer through the fall, making them just as seasonal as morels are. But, unlike morels, people have figured out <a href="https://www.thespruceeats.com/how-to-preserve-chanterelle-mushrooms-1327669" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ways to preserve chanterelles</a>, and you can buy them dried or canned. Their taste is very fruity and nutty, so, along with their brilliant color, they make an excellent addition to many dishes. Just make sure you don’t cook them for too long, or else they will become tough and chewy.</span>

<img class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-1882933" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/truffle-4150666_1280-300x200.jpg" alt="truffle mushroom gourmet" width="300" height="200" />

Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/mrdidg-11821588/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mrdidg</a> via Pixabay
<h3>Truffles</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Truffles are perhaps the kings and queens of all gourmet mushrooms. They are a pain to grow, difficult to find, and lose their rich aroma in less than a week. Still, they are an extremely coveted luxury ingredient that will elevate any type of dish you put them in. Like other mushrooms, truffles are the fruiting body of a fungus. These are entirely subterranean - that is, they only grow underground. As if finding them wasn’t hard enough, humans and our poor sense of smell make it impossible to locate the buried mushrooms ourselves. So, people use pigs and <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/truffle-hunting-dogs-track-underground-treasure/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">dogs to locate truffles</a>. Once the animal starts digging, the human knows where to look and carefully excavates the gourmet mushroom from the ground. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Truffles are traditionally used in Italian and French cuisine, although people now incorporate these mushrooms into dishes around the world. The mushroom itself is incredibly rich and overpowering, so rarely do people use the entire mushroom. Instead, they are cut into very thin slices or grated onto food. For better storage and preservation, truffles are also made into oil or butter. Because they are so hard to find, their intense and decadent flavor, and their very short shelf life, truffles are one of the most expensive food ingredients in the world! In fact, white truffles can sell for $168 an ounce, or thousands of dollars per pound! Now that’s gourmet.</span>

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An Introduction to Gourmet Mushrooms

Gourmet mushrooms have made their way into cuisines across the...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Axolotls have captured the imagination of biologists and science enthusiasts alike. These endangered amphibians can be extremely hard to find, and, unfortunately, may not be around forever. Today, let’s take a deeper dive: what is an axolotl?</span>
<h2>Amphibian Taxonomy</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The axolotl goes by many names. Scientifically, it is referred to as</span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Ambystoma mexicanum. </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">More commonly, it’s called the Mexican walking fish. But, this is a misnomer. While axolotls do in fact walk, they are not fish. They are part of the class </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Amphibia</span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">, meaning that they are <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-are-some-endangered-amphibians-going-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">amphibians</a>. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The genus that axolotls are part of, </span><i><span style="font-weight: 400;">Ambystoma, </span></i><span style="font-weight: 400;">contains 32 species. Collectively, they are referred to as the “mole salamanders.” Aside from the axolotl, the most famous member of this genera is the tiger salamander. Oddly enough, the tiger salamander is the state amphibian of several different states including </span><a href="https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-official-item/kansas/state-amphibian/barred-tiger-salamander" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Colorado and Kansas</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span>
<h2><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1882394" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/axolotl-2193310_1280-1024x768.jpg" alt="axolotl blue" width="1024" height="768" /></h2>
<h2></h2>
<h2>Morphology and Biology</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Several key characteristics identify axolotls. Due to their relatively restricted habitat (more on that later), most axolotls look very similar. </span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Body size:</strong> these are large amphibians! To many people, axolotls may look like very large salamanders, as they are usually around 9 inches long. </span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Eyes:</strong> like all mole salamanders, axolotls have “buggy”, protruding eyes. They lack lids and are almost always black in color.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Gills:</strong> external <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-amphibians-breathe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">gills</a> are possibly the easiest identifier of an axolotl. This strange, stringy organ hangs off the back of the amphibian’s neck, almost like a </span><a href="https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/axolotl#:~:text=The%20axolotl%20remains%20aquatic%20(like,fin%2C%20and%20lack%20moveable%20eyelids." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">colorful necklace</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most axolotls on planet earth are in captivity. Because of this, relatively little is known about the specific habits and group dynamics of wild axolotls. That said, we do know several interesting things about their wild behavior.</span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Predators:</strong> axolotls are born hunters. While they will usually hide during the day, axolotls come out at night to feed on small crustaceans, fish, and worms.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Suction eating:</strong> the salamanders are capable of sucking up worms and small prey through the mud and gravel of their habitat. Incidentally, they will often take in small bits of gravel and sand. This isn’t harmful to the axolotl, in fact, it is a necessary step for successful digestion. </span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Parental care:</strong> like almost all salamanders, the parents do almost nothing to care for their young. The father is only present for mating. </span></li>
</ul>
<h2>Coloration</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The different colors of axolotls have been the topic of</span><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1432-0436.1984.tb01393.x" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;"> intense genetic research</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Researchers from the University of Kansas and Indiana University have been studying this topic for several years. They state that “Four genes are known to affect pigmentation in the Mexican axolotl.” Each one of these genes is recessive. Almost certainly, this is what produces the interesting variety of different colors that we today. </span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Wild Type:</strong> this is the most common coloration of axolotls. Their skin is generally dark, ranging from dark olive-green to almost black. On top of the dark coloration, these types of amphibians also have small golden or silver flecks. This tends to give them a sort of mottled appearance.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Melanoid:</strong> the only difference is that the melanoid coloration lacks the gold or silver flecks and is thus entirely dark. Due to this, it can be easy to confuse the wild type coloration with melanoid.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Axunthic:</strong> this is another phenotype that can be difficult to distinguish. Axunthic coloration is the result of the lack of a gene that helps to produce and store yellow pigment. As such, these axolotls tend to look more blue than green but are still largely dark.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Albino:</strong> this one mostly speaks for itself. Albino axolotls are unable to produce any pigment and are thus white.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>White:</strong> somewhat surprisingly, this is different than albino. Whereas the albino phenotype lack the ability to produce pigment, white axolotls actually produce white pigment. This causes them to be a more pure color or white. </span></li>
</ul>
<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1882391" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/xochimilco-5366272_1280-1024x574.jpg" alt="Lake Xochimilco" width="1024" height="574" />

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/kinenriquez-1522280/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">KinEneiquez</a> via Pixabay
</span>
<h2>Axolotl Habitat</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Axolotls are only native to a small portion of Mexico. Presently, they live in a single lake just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/mexico-city-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mexico City</a>: </span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Xochimilco" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Lake Xochimilco</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. As of 2020, the lake exists as a series of canals that run near the outskirts of town. Previously, Xochimilco was much larger, and it was actually a series of lakes. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">According to </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320709003103" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">researchers</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, the axolotls “have seen alarming decline in the last decades owing to habitat loss caused by urban growth.” Additionally, In recent surveys of their populations, a staggeringly low count of 23 axolotls were caught for monitoring and release. This number is down from several thousand only a few decades ago.</span>
<h2>Growth and Regeneration</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Axolotls are the subject of intense biology research. This is primarily due to their unique ability to regenerate parts of their body. Various </span><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature08152" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">studies</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> have shown that the salamanders have the ability to regrow most parts of their body, even if the entire limb was removed. Axolotls have been shown to regenerate eyes, legs, feet, parts of their heart, and even </span><a href="https://neuraldevelopment.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1749-8104-8-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">parts of their brain</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. This makes them a unique animal model to understand growth and development in humans.</span>

Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/uthlas-5660052/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">uthlas</a> via Pixabay.

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What Is an Axolotl?

Axolotls have captured the imagination of biologists and science enthusiasts...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The term “osmosis” may bring back nightmares from high school biology. Many people might remember that it has something to do with water… and something to do with cells. This omnipresent process is occurring all around us, constantly. Scientists and industries have learned to manipulate this phenomenon in all manners of interesting applications. Today, let’s break the biology textbook back open and take a moment to better understand: what is osmosis?</span>
<h2>Understanding Osmosis</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Osmosis has many practical utilities in both industry and nature. Before we understand how osmosis functions in real life, let’s first take a look at the definition of osmosis and some easy-to-understand examples.</span>
<h3>Vocabulary</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">First, let’s get familiar with some vocabulary that will be necessary to understand the technical definition of osmosis. </span>
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Solvation: the process of dissolving something in a liquid. When making hot chocolate, the powder dissolves into the water via the process of solvation.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Solvent: the liquid that does the dissolving. In the above example, the water is acting as the solvent.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Solute: the substance that is being dissolved. In the above example, the hot chocolate powder is acting as the solute.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Semipermeable membrane: a filter of sorts that selectively lets some substances through, but does not allow others to pass. For example, a window screen is a type of semipermeable membrane. Air, water, and dust can all move through the screen, but a cat, coffee mug, or computer cannot pass through.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>Definition</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Okay, now we’re ready! As defined by </span><a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/osmosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Merriam-Webster</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, osmosis is the “movement of a solvent (such as water) through a semipermeable membrane… into a solution of higher solute concentration that tends to equalize the concentrations of solute on the two sides of the membrane.”</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Take a look at the diagram below to help understand.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;"><img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882078" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Osmosis-semi-permeable-membrane.jpg" alt="Osmosis semi-permeable membrane" width="544" height="260" /></span>
[Diagram courtesy of <a title="via Wikimedia Commons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0307_Osmosis_cleaned.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">OpenStax</a> / <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY</a>]

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The pink liquid in the beaker exists on both sides of the semi-permeable membrane (the dotted red line). Notice that the concentration of the solute (the small spheres) is higher on the right-hand side than the left-hand side. There are about 7 spheres on the left-hand compared to about 30 on the right-hand side. The solvent will move from left (lower solute concentration) to right (higher concentration) in order to equalize the concentrations. Note that the solute particles do not move - only the liquid solvent.</span>
<h2>Osmosis Examples</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Armed with a working definition, let’s examine some easy-to-understand examples of osmosis.</span>

[caption id="attachment_1882080" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1882080" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/food-624603_1920-1024x679.jpg" alt="Raisins osmosis" width="1024" height="679" /> [Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/forwimuwi73-519165/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Forwimuwi73</a> via <a href="https://pixabay.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>][/caption]
<h3>Raisin in Water</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">This is an experiment that is easy to try at home. Take a few raisins and place them into a cup of </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tap-water-contaminants/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">tap water</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Come back 30 minutes later and what will you see? The raisins will have swollen to a larger size. Why? Osmosis. The water contains fewer solutes (like sodium, potassium, and magnesium) than the raisin. In response, the water moves from low solute concentration (the tap water) to high solute concentration (the raisin).</span>
<h3>Sore Throats</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">An </span><a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/strep-throat/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350344#:~:text=Gargle%20with%20warm%20salt%20water,out%20the%20liquid%20after%20gargling." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">oft-cited remedy</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> for a sore throat is to gargle salt water. This can be very beneficial, and it is an example of osmosis. When you have a sore throat, the cells in the back of your throat are often swollen, filled with water. When you mix salt into tapwater, it creates a somewhat concentrated saline solution. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">This solution has a higher concentration of solutes (salt) than the cells in the back of your throat. Thus the water moves from low solute concentration (your throat) to high solute concentration (the saltwater). This causes temporary relief from the swelling. </span>
<h2>Applications of Osmosis</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Osmosis is an important process both in nature and society. Let’s take a closer look at some of the applications and instances of osmosis around us. </span>
<h3><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1882081" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/chicken-brine-1024x768.png" alt="chicken brine" width="1024" height="768" /></h3>
[Image by <a title="via Wikimedia Commons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dry_brining_chicken.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lexlex</a> / <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY-SA</a>]
<h3>Food Preservation</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Osmosis is an age-old technique used to </span><a href="https://www.almanac.com/content/preserving-meats-salting-and-brining#:~:text=Brining%20Pork,salt%20and%20sugar%20are%20dissolved." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">preserve meats</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Typically, the process is referred to as “</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/video/desalination-method-will-help-manage-hypersaline-brines/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">brining.</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">” Meat is cut into smaller pieces and then encased in a very highly concentrated saltwater solution. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Over the course of several days or weeks, the water inside the meat will move from low solute concentration (in the meat) to high solute concentration (in the saltwater solution). The loss of water makes the meat an inhospitable place for bacteria to grow, thus helping to preserve the meat. This was a common tactic for sea voyages before the invention of refrigeration. </span>
<h3>Plants</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Osmosis is what allows </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4097062/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">plants to survive</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Specifically, the process of osmosis draws water from the roots of the plant to the leaves of the plant. This is accomplished by the usage of a salt gradient. The lowest part of the plant, </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-find-water/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">the roots</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, has the least amount of salt. The highest part of the plant, the leaves, has the highest concentration of salt. This causes water to constantly be drawn upwards towards the leaves.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Plants also use osmosis for </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">other purposes</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">, as well. Specialized cells, called “</span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deeper-look-plants-breathe/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">guard cells</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">”, grow and shrink in response to how much water the plant has. When the plant is engorged with water, the cells swell with water and create tiny openings in the leaf. This allows water to escape. When the plant is low on water, the cells shrink, causing that same opening to shut, thus conserving water.</span>
<h2>Osmotic Understanding</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">That wasn’t too complex! Do you still have any questions about osmosis? Any relevant examples you’d like to share? Let us know in the comments. </span>

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What Is Osmosis?

The term “osmosis” may bring back nightmares from high school...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Earth is a watery planet. Roughly </span><a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth?qt-science_center_objects=0#" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">71%</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of the surface of the Earth is liquid. Of that 71%, about </span><a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth#:~:text=The%20vast%20majority%20of%20water,need%20every%20day%20to%20live." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">96% is saltwater</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Based on these numbers, we can compute that only about 3% of the earth’s surface is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-saltwater-marine-animals/">fresh water</a>. This poses a large problem for the roughly 7 billion people on planet earth that all need access to fresh water for drinking, cooking, and irrigation. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Worse, about </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-severe-water-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">1 out of every 5</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> people is at risk of severe water shortages in the near future. Wouldn’t it be convenient if we could use the abundance of saltwater on planet earth for drinking and irrigation? Scientists around the world have been working on this problem for decades. Today, let’s understand how desalination works.</span>

[caption id="attachment_1881668" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1881668" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/deslination-1024x683.jpg" alt="desalination plant" width="1024" height="683" /> <a title="via Wikimedia Commons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_desalination_plant_in_Eilat.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Moshe Pridan (Israel National Photo Collection)</a> / Public domain[/caption]
<h2>Why Are Oceans Salty?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The “salt” in saltwater comes from two different sources. First, it comes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increase-nitrogen-runoff/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">runoff</a>. Rain is generally slightly acidic. Therefore, when it falls on rocks and cliffs, rain tends to erode these surfaces ever so slightly. Over tens of millions of years, this dissolved rock matter flows into streams and rivers, </span><a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/freshwater-quality-monitoring/atlantic-ocean-watershed.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">eventually flowing into the ocean</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The second source is actually from the ocean itself. Gashes in the seafloor, called hydrothermal vents, produce large amounts of steam and heat. This causes a variety of chemical reactions. Among these reactions is the release of metal ions </span><a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/whysalty.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">into the water</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, like sodium, chloride, and magnesium. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The strength or concentration of seawater is referred to as "salinity;" salinity differs based on temperature, precipitation, and evaporation. Generally, the salinity of seawater is roughly 3.5%. This is equivalent to 3.5 grams of salt per liter of water — about half of a teaspoon.</span>
<h2>What Is Desalination?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;"><strong>Desalination is simply the process of removing salt from water.</strong> Or, sometimes, removing the water from the salt. While this may sound simple, it is a problem that scientists have been trying to efficiently solve for decades. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Considering that </span><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/wash_statistics.html#:~:text=An%20estimated%20790%20million%20people,access%20to%20adequate%20sanitation%2015." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">25% of the world’s population</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> does not have access to properly sanitized water, there is a major incentive to develop cheap, sustainable desalination technologies. Moreover, </span><a href="https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/es/papers/Coastal_Zone_Pop_Method.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">40% of the world’s population</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> lives within 60 miles of the coast. This means that there is a ready supply of water for much of the human population if only the salt can be removed.</span>

[caption id="attachment_1881669" align="alignnone" width="1024"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1881669" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/1-1024x650.jpg" alt="workers at desalination plant" width="1024" height="650" /> <a title="via Wikimedia Commons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reuven_Rivlin_in_a_visit_at_IDE_-_Sorek_Desalination_Plant_(0097).jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mark Neyman</a> / <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY-SA</a>[/caption]
<h2>Desalination Is Already Occurring</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Presently, desalination is somewhat common throughout the world. About </span><a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/as-water-scarcity-increases-desalination-plants-are-on-the-rise#:~:text=Globally%2C%20more%20than%20300%20million,turn%20sea%20water%20into%20fresh." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">300 million people</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> depend on desalination (de-sal) as their primary source of water every day. In the US, the largest de-sal plant is located just north of San Diego. The </span><span style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.carlsbaddesal.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Carlsbad de-sal plant</a></span><span style="font-weight: 400;"> takes in roughly 100 million gallons of saltwater a day and pumps out 50 million gallons of fresh water each night. This is enough water for about 10% of the 3.1 million residents. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Globally, the daily de-sal capacity has been growing since the mid-20th century. In 2020, the daily global capacity is roughly 90 billion gallons per day. Not bad considering that is double the capacity of just 15 years ago. De-sal plants are vital to some regions around the world. Melbourne, Australia, for example, receives only </span><a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_086071.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">25 inches of rain per year</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. During <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severe-drought-australia-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">drought years</a>, annual rainfall can hover around 10 inches. In response, Melbourne built a $3.5 billion dollar de-sal plant in 2017. It now provides ⅓ of the city’s residents – 1.5 million people – their drinking water. </span>
<h2>Types of Desalination</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The process of desalination has evolved since its inception in the 1960s. As technology progresses, the cost per gallon continues to decrease. Today, there are two main methods of de-sal used throughout the world: thermal and reverse osmosis.</span>
<h3>Thermal Distillation</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Thermal distillation is </span><a href="https://www.usbr.gov/research/dwpr/reportpdfs/report144.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">generally considered</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> the cheaper method of de-sal. At its heart, thermal de-sal works by turning saltwater into vapor. The vaporization process separates the pure water from the dissolved salts. The pure water then moves on to other steps in the de-sal process.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">While thermal de-sal is cheaper, it has its drawbacks. Namely, the energy consumption can be extremely high. Because the process requires vaporization, every gallon of water must be boiled. This process is extremely energy-intensive. Secondly, thermal de-sal typically produces lower-quality water (i.e. higher salt content) than other methods. For purposes other than drinking (e.g. industrial), this may be more than enough.</span>

[caption id="attachment_1881667" align="alignnone" width="768"]<img class="size-large wp-image-1881667" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/lkj-768x1024.jpeg" alt="reverse osmosis desalination" width="768" height="1024" /> <a title="via Wikimedia Commons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reverse_osmosis_desalination_plant.JPG" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">James Grellier</a> / <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">CC BY-SA</a>[/caption]
<h3>Reverse Osmosis</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">De-sal via </span><a href="http://www.oas.org/DSD/publications/Unit/oea59e/ch20.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">reverse osmosis</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> (RO) works in a </span><a href="https://www.carlsbaddesal.com/how-it-works.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">very different manner</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. In the basic sense, saltwater is forced through a semi-permeable membrane that contains extremely small pores. These pores are large enough for water molecules to pass through but too small for salt atoms to squeeze by. RO de-sal generally follows four basic steps.</span>
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Pretreatment.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> The water that comes directly from the ocean is not ready to be desalinated. It will contain organisms, trash, and other particulate matter. Removal of these solutes is the first step.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Pressurization.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> The water must actually be pushed through the membranes that perform the separation. In order to accomplish this, electric pumps apply a force to the water, pressurizing it before desalination. </span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Separation.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> This is where the salt is actually removed from the water. As the seawater passes through the membrane, the freshwater and waste product, brine water, are separated into two different vessels.</span></li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><b>Stabilization.</b><span style="font-weight: 400;"> Although the water is now at an acceptable salinity, other things need to be done to make it drinkable. Typically, the pH of the water is slightly acidic and needs to be altered. </span></li>
</ol>
<h2>Environmental Concerns</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Although desalination is likely the drinking water of the future, it is not a process without concern. The first issue is energy consumption. The burning of fossil fuels is a necessary part of thermal de-sal. Experts worry that this may create a </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364032116304919" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">positive feedback loop</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> of sorts. As global climate change affects the ability of fresh surface water, more desalination will likely be required. If this desalination uses large amounts of fossil fuels, that will only serve to increase the need for desalination.</span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The second concern is wastewater. As the seawater is desalinated, the excess salt becomes more and more concentrated in the wastewater - referred to as “</span><a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/desalination-plants-produce-twice-as-much-waste-brine-as-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">brine</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.” This brine can be difficult to dispose of properly, and this problem will only be exacerbated by increases in global demand for desalination. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">What are your thoughts on desalination? Do you live in a region that turns saltwater into drinking water? Let us know in the comments!</span>

Cover photo by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/Mariamichelle-165491/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=685303" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Michelle Maria</a> from <a href="https://pixabay.com/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=685303" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Pixabay</a>

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How Does Desalination Work?

Earth is a watery planet. Roughly 71% of the surface...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Ginger is a beloved plant and trusted ally in any healer or chef’s toolkit. A flowering plant native to China, ginger has been used in traditional medicine for thousands of years. It is packed with powerful compounds and nutrients that help </span><a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/11-proven-benefits-of-ginger" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">both your body and your brain.</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> </span>
<h2></h2>
<h2>What Is It About Ginger?</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Responsible for much of ginger’s medicinal properties is gingerol, a bioactive compound found in the root that makes ginger a </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25230520" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory herb</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11710709" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">In a controlled study of 247 people</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> experiencing osteoporosis of the knee, the people who took ginger extract experienced less pain and needed less pain medication. There are also studies that showed when ginger was applied as a topical ointment, it helped to </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22308653" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">reduce pain and stiffness</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> in osteoporosis patients. <strong>Ginger is also a folk remedy for upset stomach, nausea, vertigo, and motion sickness. </strong></span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4818021/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">There is scientific evidence</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> that supports this inherited knowledge as well. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">So, how can you start using it at home?</span>

<img class="alignnone wp-image-1881486 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/ginger-1191945_1280-1024x678.jpg" alt="ginger root spices" width="1024" height="678" />
<h2></h2>
<h2>Ginger Root Tea</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Start easy. Head to your local market or grocery store and pick up some ginger root. It is often found in the fresh produce section. When you’re home, chop off  ½ inch chunks (3 or 4 should do the trick), put ‘em in your favorite mug, and then pour in some boiling water. By the time the water is cool enough to drink, you’ll have ginger tea. Yes, it is that simple. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Some tricks: you can cover your cup to retain heat better and steep the roots longer - this will give it an even spicier, strong taste. You can also add a squeeze of lemon and a spoonful of honey to your cup when you have those ingredients available to add sweetness and dimensionality to the flavor. On a hot summer day, you can brew this tea and stick it in the fridge for later, too. Pour it over ice after a couple of hours and bask in the crisp goodness of ginger root magic. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">This tea is deliciously zingy every day but is particularly helpful on days when you are experiencing nausea, vomiting, indigestion, or morning sickness. It is generally light on the stomach but can provide gentle support as you heal up. </span>
<h2></h2>
<h2>Add It To Your Smoothie</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">If smoothies aren’t already part of your weekly (or daily) routine, you may want to rethink that. It’s a luxurious treat that doesn’t have to be pricey if you’re savvy. Keep an eye out for when frozen fruit is on sale at your grocery store and experiment with combinations to find what suits you best. When adding ginger, a cheese grater can be a helpful tool - it saves time and will keep your smoothie from getting stringy with the root fibers. Use as much as you’d like and tap into those anti-inflammatory properties that this root so generously provides. </span>
<h2></h2>
<h2>Ginger Marinade</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Ginger can also be used in more meaty kitchen experiments. Particularly prevalent in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/introduction-to-using-chinese-herbs/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">cooking cultures of Asia</a>, there are a plethora of options to consult on the internet. </span><a href="https://ohsweetbasil.com/asian-ginger-marinade-for-grilled-chicken-recipe/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Ginger grilled chicken</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, </span><a href="https://damndelicious.net/2013/11/13/sesame-ginger-salmon/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">sesame ginger salmon</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, soy-ginger marinade for steak - the list goes on. Is your mouth watering yet? The only limits are your imagination and your taste buds. </span>
<h2></h2>
<h2>Ginger Snap Cookies</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Many people in North America may associate the taste of ginger snap with yule-tide celebrations, snow on the ground, and grandma. All of these things are true, but why contain it to just one season of the year? </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">With evidence pointing to the </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4818021/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">digestive and stomach-aid properties of ginger</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, snap cookies can have a double purpose: appease that sweet tooth for dessert and give your stomach some extra help as it works through the meal you just devoured. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1881487" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/baking-4651363_1280-1024x686.jpg" alt="gingerbread cookies" width="1024" height="686" />
<h2></h2>
<h2>Fermented Beverages</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Perhaps like many people in the world, you’ve found yourself at home, sheltering-in-place. While the rest of the popular culture is finally trying their hand at sourdough bread, why not give some fermented beverages a try? Often, these recipes are quite easy and can save you tons of money. Plus, it’s rewarding to brew concoctions like a modern-day hedgewitch to share with your friends and family. Ginger can be a powerful additive to homebrew experiments like kombucha or mead. It adds to the complexity of flavor, <strong>while still providing the healing and preventative support to your body.</strong></span>
<h2></h2>
<h2>Ginger Soup</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Soup is a great way to use ginger root, especially when you are recovering from a violent case of the flu or easing back into the world of solid sustenance after a bout of food poisoning. It is a gentle, </span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFPMXhvJZC0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">warm broth</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> that settles your stomach as you slurp it down. You may come to crave ginger soup even when your healthy, seeing as it is so delicious.  </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">How have you used ginger at home? What are some ways to incorporate this powerful root into your daily routine?</span>

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Ginger Root Uses

Ginger is a beloved plant and trusted ally in any...

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Many of us interact with bacteria on a daily basis. If you eat yogurt or cheese you can thank bacteria! They are so common that there are </span><a href="https://www.nature.com/news/scientists-bust-myth-that-our-bodies-have-more-bacteria-than-human-cells-1.19136" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">about as many bacterial cells</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> as human cells in your body. Their diversity is also stunning. Recent estimates found that there are </span><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3160642/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">over one billion</span></a> different types of bacterial species<span style="font-weight: 400;">. Even though bacteria may seem wildly different than humans, we all do have at least one thing in common: we all undergo reproduction. Bacteria definitely don't reproduce like humans or other animals, so exactly how do bacteria reproduce?</span>
<h1>Domains of Life</h1>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Before we talk about how bacteria reproduce, we need to understand their place in biology. All life on earth evolved about 3.5 billion years ago. Scientists think we all </span><a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/5/100513-science-evolution-darwin-single-ancestor/#close" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">came from one common ancestor</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Since then, living organisms have changed greatly. T</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">he first way to distinguish one organism from another is by classifying what domain it falls into. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Current classification uses three domains: eukarya, archaea, and bacteria. Bacteria are then grouped into five major categories: proteobacteria, cyanobacteria, chlamydiae, spirochetes, and firmicutes.</span>
<h1>Bacterial Uses</h1>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Bacteria are all around us. From our bodies to our food. From the </span><a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/desert-microbes" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">hottest deserts</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to the </span><span style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2010/01/26/tundra-microbes-and-world-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">coldest tundras</a>. Between </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">the </span><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11434-007-0360-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">highest mountains</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> to the </span><a href="https://divediscover.whoi.edu/hot-topics/bacteria-at-hydrothermal-vents/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">deepest oceans</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, bacteria live everywhere. Over the last several thousand years, we humans have learned to use bacteria to our benefit. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Let’s take a look at some of the unique ways we use bacteria.</span>
<h2>Cheese</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Cheesemaking brings together everybody’s favorite ingredients: milk, salt, and bacteria. A necessary step in almost all cheese production is the separation of the two products of curdling: curds and whey. This process is accomplished by acidifying the pre-cheese mixture. While this can be accomplished by adding acid directly, more often, various types of </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780750615136500111" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">starter cultures</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> are used. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The starter bacteria accomplish two things. First, they digest the milk sugars and turn them into lactic acid. Second, they help to develop the flavor protein of the cheese. Different bacteria are used for different cheeses. Interestingly, certain strains of bacteria even help to give some cheese their </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/video/what-makes-some-cheese-smell-so-bad/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">awful smell</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span>
<h2><img class="alignnone wp-image-1878671 size-large" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/compost-419261_1280-1024x682.jpg" alt="compost garden" width="1024" height="682" /></h2>
<h2>Composting</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Composting is a method of using bacteria and air to break down organic solids. In other words, it can be an </span><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/composting-eco-friendly-decisions/"><span style="font-weight: 400;">easy, at-home</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> way to sustainably get rid of your food waste. Typically, it will involve a large, covered container that stores the waste. First, it needs to be placed in the sun and given the room to ventilate. After that, the composter becomes the perfect home for billions of bacteria. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">The bacteria come from many places. Whereas some come from the surfaces of the waste or our hands, others exist in the ambient environment. They slowly break down the scraps and waste into organic fertilizer. Alternatively, it can now be safely disposed of in a much more environmentally friendly manner.</span>
<h2>Bioremediation</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Bioremediation is the process of using living organisms to </span><span style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.intechopen.com/books/advances-in-bioremediation-of-wastewater-and-polluted-soil/bioremediation-of-polluted-waters-using-microorganisms" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">clean up a polluted area</a></span><span style="font-weight: 400;">. Bacteria are capable of utilizing dangerous heavy metals, like lead, and transforming them into other compounds that are no longer dangerous. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">What's more, recent studies have made significant headway into showing the possible uses of bioremediation technology. Scientists are hopeful that these processes can help with mining accidents and even </span><a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-microbes-clean-up-oil-spills/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">oil spills</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span>

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1878670" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/bacteria-808158_1280-1024x731.jpg" alt="bacteria" width="1024" height="731" />
<h1>Reproduction</h1>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Now that we understand where bacteria fit and what they’re used for, let’s take a look at how they reproduce.</span>
<h2>Binary Fission</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">The most common way for bacteria to reproduce is through binary fission. The basics of the process are simple. First, the cell grows to approximately double its normal size. Next, it makes a copy of all of its genetic material. This is through a process called DNA replication. Last, the cell actually splits down the middle into two identical ‘daughter’ cells. </span><span style="font-weight: 400;">This process is roughly the same as how our body cells reproduce. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Specifically, binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction because there is no exchange of genetic material at the time of the split.</span>
<h2>Baeocyte Production</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Baeocyte production is very different from binary fission. Contrary to binary fission which copies genetic information once, some types of bacteria will copy their DNA dozens and dozens of times. After the copying is complete, the ‘parent’ cell will rapidly divide dozens or hundreds of times. As a result, dozens or even hundreds of new baeocytes form. This is a common process found in </span><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01283581"><span style="font-weight: 400;">cyanobacteria</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">.</span>
<h2>Budding</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Budding is a reproductive strategy that is more commonly seen in eukaryotic single-celled organisms, like yeast. Essentially, the bacteria stretch out into large, thin cells with a set of ‘arms’ around the center. Each of these arms is the site of a ‘budding’ event, whereby new buds can break off. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Each of these buds can go on to be a fully functioning adult bacteria. These bacteria, themselves, will undergo budding. While less common, this process takes place for many different bacteria across the whole domain of bacteria. Indeed, you can find the process of budding in almost all major types of bacteria.</span>
<h1>Wide World of Bacteria</h1>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">We’ve now seen that bacteria can live almost anywhere, and their diversity of uses is paralleled by their unique strategies of reproduction. Next time you’re eating a cultured food think about the fact that bacteria helped create it!</span>

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How Do Bacteria Reproduce

Many of us interact with bacteria on a daily basis....

Are Dolphins Smart? How Are Dolphins Intelligent? We humans tend to arrogantly assume our intelligence is leaps and bounds beyond that of any animal. However, other animals, including dolphins, show many signs of intelligence and complex thought.
<h2>Defining Intelligence</h2>
It is obvious that human intelligence has had a huge impact on our planet. Our use of tools and communication has created complex cultures and technologies. Human intelligence has enabled many amazing (and terrible) things.

Though humans are undeniably highly intelligent animals, it is difficult to pin down the traits that distinguish our intelligence from that of other animals. Other animals can use tools, communicate, and even experience complex emotions.

A better question than whether dolphins are smart or not may be <strong>HOW</strong> are dolphins intelligent? Understanding the areas in which these creatures excel may help us understand intelligence in general.
<h3>Intelligent Behavior</h3>
A popular test of intelligence is the “mirror test,” which tests whether animals acknowledge their reflection. This test demonstrates self-awareness. Though self-awareness is one important element of human intelligence, it is just one piece of the puzzle.

Other behaviors such as communication and the use of tools are signs of intelligence. Social behaviors and complex emotions are also considered signs of intelligence.

Defining intelligence in animals is difficult. A species’ problem-solving techniques vary greatly based on the situations they encounter. It wouldn’t do a dolphin much good to know tons about how to climb trees. However, that certainly doesn’t mean they are less intelligent than squirrels.
<h3>Dolphins</h3>
<strong>Dolphins have many intelligent behaviors.</strong> They are extremely social animals with complex communication and relationships. Dolphins are able to pass information between generations, teaching skills to their extended family!
<h3>Are Big Brains Better?</h3>
Another popular indicator of intelligence is based on the size of the brain. The ratio of the mass of the body to the brain is a common indicator of intelligence.

This ratio <a href="http://pages.ucsd.edu/~jmoore/courses/allometry/allometry.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">is called the “encephalization quotient” (EQ) and is measured in a number of different ways</a>. It often accurately indicates species that humans deem “intelligent,” but it is far from perfect. It is difficult to compare the EQ of distantly related species like humans and dolphins.

Dolphins are <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05PpTqtGhGU" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">second only to humans</a> in EQ! Though this doesn’t tell us how smart dolphins are, it does support the observations of their intelligence.
<h2>Dolphin Intelligence</h2>
<strong>Dolphins and whales show many signs of intelligence and complex thought.</strong> This group of aquatic mammals (the Cetaceans) use tools, communicate, and even have funerals! In captivity, these species can be trained to perform complex tasks and even recognize symbols.

Dolphins can understand how the order of words changes their meaning. When taught to recognize symbols, they can differentiate between the phrases “ball to the hoop” or “hoop to the ball.” Dolphins have also been trained for complex tasks such as hunting mines in the ocean.

[caption id="attachment_1878628" align="aligncenter" width="830"]<img class="wp-image-1878628 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/NMMP_dolphin_with_locator.jpg" alt="A dolphin with a device on its flipper jumping out of the water by a man in camo." width="830" height="997" /> K-Dog is a Bottlenose dolphin trained to find mines. He is wearing a "pinger" that helps handlers keep track of him.[/caption]

Dolphins and other cetaceans have complex social lives. They live in family groups and form strong bonds with each other. These groups communicate with each other, and <a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/how-do-dolphins-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">even likely give each other unique “names.”</a>

Dolphins also communicate through their interactions. They are able to teach each other complex behaviors. A group of dolphins near Australia has learned to <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/07/why-dolphins-wear-sponges" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">wear sponges on their beaks to protect them while fishing</a>. Another group of dolphins in <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2018/07/dolphin-animal-marine-mammal-hunting-video-news/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Florida has learned to create “nets” of mud</a> that they use to herd their prey.
<h3>Empathy as a Sign of Dolphin Intelligence</h3>
Another example of dolphin intelligence is empathy. For example, dolphins mourn the loss of members of their families. In addition, their empathy extends beyond their own species. There are many stories of dolphins coming to the aid of drowning people, carrying them to the surface for air.

These complex behaviors obviously show that dolphins are intelligent. Their social behaviors, communication, empathy, and use of tools reveal their intelligence. Though defining or measuring their intelligence is difficult, it is obvious that these creatures have a lot on their minds!
<h2>Dolphins Deserve Respect</h2>
[caption id="attachment_1878629" align="aligncenter" width="1024"]<img class="size-full wp-image-1878629" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Parc_Asterix_22.jpg" alt="A dolphin in a tank underwater." width="1024" height="768" /> Dolphins in captivity are limited to less than <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/02/dolphin-person" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">one one-thousandth of 1% of their natural range.</a>[/caption]

With our understanding of Cetacean intelligence comes a responsibility to respect these animals. The lived experience of a dolphin may not be that different from our own. If these animals can empathize with us, it seems we should be able to empathize in return.

We should all do what we can to protect dolphins from hunting, sonar, and abuse. Protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-does-the-bottom-of-the-ocean-look-like/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">their habitat</a> is also essential. The oceans are filled with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-trash-gulf-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">man-made garbage</a> that kills animals and throws off the <a href="http://earth.com/news/clean-ocean-plastic-threaten-species/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ocean’s delicate ecology</a>.
<h2>Other Brainiacs of the Animal Kingdom</h2>
Dolphins aren’t the only animals that have surprised humans with their intelligence. A number of species have proven to be quite clever.
<ul>
 	<li>Crows <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/crows-are-so-smart-they-can-make-compound-tools-out-of-multiple-parts" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">can build tools out of useless parts</a>. They show an understanding of cause and effect and can make complex plans for the future. They can combine learned experience to <a href="https://www.cnet.com/news/watch-a-wild-crow-tackle-a-complex-eight-step-puzzle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">independently solve complex puzzles</a>. These birds also recognize individual human faces, making friends and holding grudges.</li>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-octopuses-smart/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cephalopods (such as octopuses) are another group of clever aquatic animals</a>. These species can solve mazes, plan daring escapes, use tools, open jars and recognize people! They are more closely related to a clam than a human but have independently evolved a complex nervous system. Their brains are distributed throughout their bodies, clustering in their many legs.</li>
 	<li>Many primates other than humans show advanced intelligence. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-communicate-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Chimpanzees and other great apes use language</a> and have complex social lives. They can be trained to communicate with humans using signs. <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-can-chimpanzee-calls-tell-us-about-origins-human-language-180969027/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Like dolphins, different groups of chimpanzees </a>have different ‘dialects.’</li>
</ul>
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Are Dolphins Smart? How Are Dolphins Intelligent?

Are Dolphins Smart? How Are Dolphins Intelligent? We humans tend...

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&nbsp;

To understand science, one must understand facts. Facts are different than opinions.

The City University of New York writes that a fact is a statement that can be proven true or false, but an opinion is an expression of a person’s feelings that cannot be proven. Facts are determined through observing and experimenting. Some statements appear to be facts, but are actually opinion. Proper science is based on facts.

For example, let us consider the question "does gravity exist?" If we drop our pencil, it will fall towards the earth. It is a fact that the earth's gravity pulls objects toward it. Gravity can be shown to exist over and over again both in observation and testing. It is a fact that gravity exists.

But what about the question "is gravity fun?". The answer to this will vary. The answer will therefore not be fact but only be opinion because the term 'fun' is subjective and means different things to different people at different times. Sometimes gravity is fun and useful, but sometimes it causes problems. Whether or not gravity is "fun" can not be proven.

Science is a process of discovery and the collection of that discovery based on facts. The University of Georgia writes that 'science is the effort to better understand the history of the natural world and how the natural world works, with observable physical facts as the basis of that understanding.' The University of California at Berkeley continues by saying 'science is continually refining and expanding our knowledge of the universe, and as it does, it leads to new questions for future investigation. Science will never be 'finished.'"

Science will continue to progress and continue to operate solely based on fact.

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What Is Science?

&nbsp; To understand science, one must understand facts. Facts are...

<p></p>
<div>
<div id="58e3ebce955a315103d39bd1" class="vdb_player vdb_58e3ebce955a315103d39bd158d96b98cd4fed198a0d2a49"><script src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" type="text/javascript"></script></div>
<p>What Is Matter? In simple terms, matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Solids, liquids and gases are all made up of matter. Basically, matter is everything around you.</p>
</div>
<p>But how is matter created? Matter is made up of atoms. What is the tiniest thing that you can think of? Chances are whatever you think of will be way bigger than atoms.</p>
<p>An atom is the smallest particle that exists which can’t be seen with the naked eye. It is made up of positively charged protons, negatively charged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-linked-to-electrons-traveling-at-millions-of-miles-per-hour/">electrons</a>, and neutrally charged neutrons.</p>
<p>The core of an atom is called the nucleus. Atoms are the smallest piece of an element that contain the same properties of that element. For example, if you cut a piece of aluminum into pieces, the smallest piece will be the atom.</p>
<p>What Is Matter? Molecules are formed when two or more atoms join together. This fusion creates a molecule. It does not matter if the atoms are the same or different from each other.</p>
<p>Examples of molecules include H2O (water) or N2 (Nitrogen). It is important to remember that molecules are only formed when two or more atoms are joined. For example, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=oxygen&amp;cvid=3f5e305e913541728ef383e89cea6d39&amp;aqs=edge.0.0l7.1433j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Oxygen</a> (O) alone is not a molecule – but, when oxygen joins with other elements like Hydrogen (H2), it forms a water molecule H20.<br>
Compounds are molecules that are made up of more than one element. Compounds and molecules are held together by forces known as chemical bonds. Compounds can only be formed when two or more elements join together. A single element cannot form a compound.</p>
<p>Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is a good example of a compound. It is made up of one molecule of sodium (Na) and one molecule of chlorine (Cl).</p>
<p>Now you know all about the building blocks that make up everything – from air to water to you, yourself!</p>


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What Is Matter?

What Is Matter? In simple terms, matter is anything that...

Not many people can say first-hand what the bottom of the ocean looks like. Fewer people have been to the deepest part of the ocean than have walked on the surface of the moon. Our maps of the floor of the ocean are far less detailed than those of the surface of the moon. Despite covering 71% of the surface of our planet, and being the likely birthplace of all life, we know surprisingly little about our oceans.

The bottom of the ocean is filled with rare and unique species seen nowhere else. Many of these look otherworldly, and some of the species that live here are still completely unknown to science. However, despite knowing so little, what we have learned, seen, and photographed is incredible.
<h2>Uncharted Territory</h2>
<img class="alignnone wp-image-1877222 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/1280px-Elevation.jpg" alt="A map of the elevation of the earth including the bottom of the ocean." width="1280" height="640" />
The ocean floor is huge and covers <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/seafloor/just-how-big-ocean" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">360 million square kilometers</a> of the earth’s surface. Though we have detailed topographical maps of the rest of the earth’s surface, this is harder to do for the ocean. The satellite radar techniques used to chart the topography on land don’t work well through water. This leaves us with only low-resolution maps of the ocean floor. Each pixel of these maps represents a 5km by 5km square. This only gives a vague idea of the geology and geography of our oceans. However, more advanced sonar methods provide a 10 fold improvement or greater!
<h3>Mapping the Ocean Floor with Sonar</h3>
The ocean poses particular technical challenges, which is why so little is known. The process of creating high-resolution maps of the ocean floor is time-consuming and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/map-ocean-floor/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">expensive</a>. In order to map the ocean floor, <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">specially equipped ships move directly over the area</a>. This process is slow and difficult. Therefore, only <a href="https://dosits.org/people-and-sound/examine-the-earth/map-the-sea-floor/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">10-15% of the ocean floor has been mapped</a> directly with sonar.
<h3>Malaysia Airline MH370</h3>
Interestingly, some of the highest quality broad seafloor maps we have came from <a href="https://geoscience-au.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=038a72439bfa4d28b3dde81cc6ff3214" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">the search for the missing airplane, MH370, </a>in March of 2014. The plane was believed to have crashed into the Indian Ocean along the path of the last satellite with which it communicated. In hopes of finding the aircraft, 710,000 square kilometers of the ocean floor were mapped in detail. These maps have 15 times more detail than previous maps of the area. This included maps of regions of the seafloor over 40 million years old. This area is covered with 300 meters of sediment. This would be enough muck to bury the entire Eiffel Tower. This search also revealed details of the Broken Ridge and Diamantina Trench. These features are a result of the tectonic shifts that occurred 40 million years ago.

The type of information collected during this search is very useful to oceanographers and geologists. The floor of the ocean contains many hints to our planets tectonic history. The ocean floor also has significant impacts on weather patterns. Understanding the <a href="https://www.popsci.com/bottom-ocean-looks-like-3d-maps/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">details of the seafloor’s topography</a> could help predict weather patterns. <a href="https://www.udel.edu/udaily/2016/june/redbird-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Researchers at the University of Delaware</a> have developed “fingerprint algorithms” that use high-resolution maps of the ocean floor to analyzed past storms in order to improve predictions.
<h2>The Abyssal Plains</h2>
The ocean contains amazing mountain ranges, volcanoes, incredibly deep trenches, and strange creatures. However, the majority of the ocean floor is far more boring. The <a href="https://www.reference.com/geography/bottom-ocean-look-like-4fc4d2ad9011a1d2" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">abyssal plains</a> cover the majority of the ocean. These vast, flat expanses cover over half of the Earth’s surface. They are mostly filled with featureless sediment stretching for immeasurable distances.

[caption id="attachment_1877224" align="alignnone" width="1280"]<img class="wp-image-1877224 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/1280px-BlackSmoker.jpg" alt="bottom of the ocean" width="1280" height="854" /> This "black smoker" is a hydrothermal vent that supports life in the deep sea.[/caption]

Occasionally, the carcass of a whale or a hydrothermal vent interrupts the vast emptiness of the abyssal plains. In those cases, isolated ecosystems thrive off of the rare pocket of energy. This expanse starts after the continental shelf, where the ocean drops off to an <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oceandepth.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">average depth of 3.7 km</a>.

Enormous trenches and mountain ranges also interrupt the vast abyssal plains. The trenches are the most remote places on the planet. <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-deep-is-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Challenger Deep is the deepest point in the ocean</a>, reaching 10.9 km (6.8 miles) below the surface. This is so deep that if Mt. Everest began at the bottom of the Challenger Deep, its peak would be in complete darkness, still 2 km (1.3 miles) below the ocean surface.

Only three people have ever been to the Challenger Deep, on two separate occasions. In 1960, French oceanographer Jacques Piccard and Navy Lt. Don Walsh descended to the deepest point on earth. In <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimclash/2017/05/04/what-does-the-deepest-point-on-the-planet-look-like/#587865a45e17" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">an interview with Jim Clash of Forbes</a>, Lt. Don Walsh described the appearance of the Challenger Deep:
<blockquote>“It was yellowish-white and didn't look quite like sediments we had seen before. It's diatomaceous ooze, the skeletons of diatoms. Because calcareous ooze is shells of small critters in the sea, and calcium-based, it dissolves at great depths. So we were left with bottom sediment inert to pressure -- just little balls of glass, if you look at them microscopically. To me, it was like being in a big bowl of milk.”</blockquote>
<h2>Litter in the Depths</h2>
Though the bottom of the ocean sounds like an untouched pristine environment, humans have left their marks here too. <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/tides-currents/ocean-trash-plaguing-our-sea" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Like the rest of the ocean</a>, <a href="https://www.upworthy.com/a-rover-dived-to-the-bottom-of-the-ocean-15-photos-show-what-it-found-there" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">human trash litters the remote ocean floor</a>. Shopping bags, beer cans, microplastics, and <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/44552519/Anthropogenic_Litter_and_macrophyte_detr20160408-23751-1gm948l.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">even missiles</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deepest-ocean-dive-garbage/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> are found in these newly explored areas</a>. Without knowing much about these ecosystems, it is hard to know what the impacts of this trash are. Some seem to provide new habitats for some species. However, these <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2015.00003/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">may disturb the ecosystem in irreversible ways long before we understand these systems</a>.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-ocean-plastic-threaten-species/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Decreasing human trash</a>, particularly plastics, is the most important step we can take to protect these and many other ecosystems.

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<span style="font-weight: 400;">Walking down the water aisle in the grocery store, there are hundreds of selections. “pure water,” “spring water,” and “pH-balanced water” are just a few of the available options. Sitting below all of these, usually existing as one of the cheapest selections, lies distilled water. Today, let’s take a look at this humble type of H</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">2</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">O and better understand: what is distilled water?</span>
<h2>Chemistry of Distilled Water</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">First, let’s dive into the chemical and theoretical definitions of distilled water. This will help us to better understand how to make this water. And, it will allow us to examine several practical uses. </span>
<h3>Molecular Structure of Distilled Water</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Distilled water is still water. The basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-compounds-stick-together/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">molecular formula</a> and structure is the same for all different types of water. Let's remember back to chemistry class in high school. Water is simply an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms. See below.</span>

<img class="alignnone size-full wp-image-1882253" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/water-molecule.png" alt="distilled water molecule" width="544" height="296" />
Image from <a href="https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Water_Molecule_Structure_.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">AbdullahAlturki99</a> via Wikipedia
<h3>Hard Water vs. Soft Water</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Most modern houses contain a “water softener.” What exactly does this contraption do? Water softeners function to take “<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/hard-rime/">hard water</a>”, water with dissolved minerals and salts, and turn it into “soft water,” or water with fewer minerals and salts. The exact levels of “soft” and “hard” water are relative. They somewhat depend on the machine and personal taste. In the United States, our water softeners work primarily to remove </span><a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/hard-water-and-soft-water#Whats-the-difference-between-hard-water-and-soft-water?" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">magnesium and calcium</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;"> from drinking water. </span>
<h3>What About Purified Water?</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">This one can be a little tricky. Distilled water is, by definition, purified H2O. The opposite is not true, though. Generally, water purification is a process that removes all “impurities” from the water. The definition of “impurities” is what can make this differ from distilled water. Bottled water from the store and tap water run through a filter, like a Brita filter, have been purified to remove any harmful impurities like bacteria, viruses, or any other pathogens. </span>
<h3>Distilled Water</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">This brings us to our final definition. According to </span><a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/distilled%20water" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">Merriam-Webster</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">, <strong>distilled water is “water that has been freed of dissolved or suspended solids and from organisms by distillation.”</strong> Thus, distilled water is not the same thing as purified water. Also, is it not the same thing as soft water. </span>
<h2>Distilled Water Is Safe</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">A myth that has been perpetuated by filter companies is that distilled water is “dangerous” to drink. The logic goes that because the water contains no dissolved solutes (particles like salts, sodium, magnesium, etc.) it is dangerous to your body because it can “leech” the nutrients from your cells. This actually could not be further from the truth. Distilled water is </span><a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/can-you-drink-distilled-water" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><span style="font-weight: 400;">absolutely safe to drink</span></a><span style="font-weight: 400;">. There is no significant evidence to suggest that it will deprive your body of valuable nutrients. Additionally, there is no significant evidence to suggest that drinking distilled water is dangerous in the long run. </span>
<h2><img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1882254" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/kettle-653673_1920-1024x683.jpg" alt="water kettle" width="1024" height="683" /></h2>
Image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/kboyd-680916/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">kboyd</a> via Pixabay
<h2>How to Make Distilled Water</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Now that we know what this water is, how exactly do we go about making it? First, distilled H2O is easily purchased at a grocery store. For this reason, we would not suggest attempting to make your own. But, the process that water producers follow to make distilled water is quite interesting. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-desalination-system-water-solutions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Distillation</a>, as a concept, is simply purification via heating and cooling. This same process (on a larger scale) is used in many industrial applications. Examples include oil and petroleum refining. </span>

<span style="font-weight: 400;">Water distillation is rather simple. </span>
<ol>
 	<li><span style="font-weight: 400;">First, take water in liquid form. </span></li>
 	<li><span style="font-weight: 400;">Next, heat it to turn into water vapor (a gas). </span></li>
 	<li><span style="font-weight: 400;">Last, condense that gas back into liquid water. </span></li>
</ol>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">During this process, the elimination of impurities occurs. As the water evaporates into steam, this process leaves out any dissolved impurities. The condensed water collects into a separate vessel. This vessel now contains pure, distilled water. </span>
<h2>Uses of Distilled Water</h2>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">This type of water is a common reagent in many processes. Let’s take a look at some of the most useful applications of this useful compound. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1882256" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/iron-1178062_1920-1024x749.jpg" alt="steam iron clothes" width="1024" height="749" />

Image from <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/ritae-19628/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">RitaE</a> via Pixabay
<h3>Steam Irons</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">Whether used in a home application, at a local laundromat, or in an industrial cleaning sphere, irons almost always use distilled water. The chemistry of this makes sense in the context of distilled water creation. Irons utilize the steam that is created to press irregularities and wrinkles out of clothing. If the water contained dissolved salts or other solutes, these would end up staining the clothing. </span>

<img class="alignnone size-large wp-image-1882257" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/fish-bowl-846060_1920-1024x682.jpg" alt="water aquarium" width="1024" height="682" />

Image from <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/free-photos-242387/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Free-Photos</a> via Pixabay
<h3>Aquariums</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">For non-saltwater aquariums, distilled water is a common base to start with. Fish owners can then adjust the pH, concentration, and other variables in the tank. This allows fish owners to replicate the native conditions of their fish as closely as possible.</span>
<h3>Science</h3>
<span style="font-weight: 400;">For closely controlled and monitored scientific experiments, anything less than distilled water won’t do. This is because the presence of certain minerals or solutes can affect results in unpredictable ways. Distilled water is the starting point for almost every chemical reaction, from applications like PCR to cell culture to gel electrophoresis.</span>

[Featured image by <a href="https://pixabay.com/users/life-of-pix-364018/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Life-Of-Pix</a> via Pixabay.]

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What Is Distilled Water

Walking down the water aisle in the grocery store, there...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



<p id="block-eff5dea3-a9bb-40b5-a923-e5a9978bc0e2">Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p id="block-43e218f4-0391-477c-8396-eb777c8c80a3">Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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