<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sex-impacts-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sexual dimorphism</a>, which is the observable difference in appearance between male and female members of a species, occurs widely across the animal kingdom, including in humans. An interesting variation of this is sex-limited polymorphism, where one sex exhibits more variation in a certain trait compared to the other. 



An international team of scientists has explored this concept by examining the genetic basis for color polymorphism in adult female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuckoos-are-unable-to-change-their-migrations-in-response-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cuckoos</a> of the genus Cuculus, which are known for their brood parasitic behavior. The research provides insights into the evolutionary development and practical implications of this trait variation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-basis-of-female-cuckoo-colors">Genetic basis of female cuckoo colors</h2>



The scientists examined why adult female cuckoos, unlike their uniformly gray male counterparts, may exhibit either gray or rufous (reddish-brown) plumage. This variability is not only evident across different cuckoo species but also within populations of the same species.



Using genome-wide association analysis on nuclear DNA from both Common and Oriental cuckoos, the researchers aimed to pinpoint the genetic factors behind the females' diverse plumage in an attempt to understand the underlying pigmentation mechanisms and the evolutionary history of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-wonder-evolutionary-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/untold-story-of-bird-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, unlike in mammals, it is the females that are heterogametic (ZW), differing from the homogametic males (ZZ). This led researchers to speculate that the observed color variation in female cuckoos might be linked to genes on the W chromosome. 



“We found that, instead of a single gene or set of genes, nearly all variations in the gray or rufous coloration were associated with the full length of the female-limited W chromosome,” said co-author Mark Haber, the executive director of the <a href="https://asrc.gc.cuny.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CUNY Advanced Science Research Center</a> (CUNY ASRC) and a psychology professor at the <a href="https://www.gc.cuny.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CUNY Graduate Center</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biochemical-processes-of-cuckoo-colors">Biochemical processes of cuckoo colors</h2>



The scientists also examined the biochemical processes of coloration, revealing that both the Common and Oriental cuckoos use two forms of melanin-based pigmentation - similar to that in human skin - to produce their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-songbirds-bright-colors-are-a-blessing-and-a-curse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color</a> variations. 



Further genomic analysis of these species traced the origin of the color polymorphism in female cuckoos to a mutation that occurred over one million years ago, long before these species diverged around 140,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-advantages-of-female-cuckoo-coloration-nbsp">Potential advantages of female cuckoo coloration&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of these color variations are profound. For instance, female cuckoos with the rarer rufous plumage might benefit from mimicking juvenile cuckoos to avoid male harassment during mating seasons.&nbsp;



Moreover, as brood parasites who lay their eggs in the nests of other bird species, rufous females could potentially escape detection by host species better than their gray counterparts, which might reduce the risk of being attacked by host parents.



“The fascinating idea that many other sex-specific traits, which are harder to study, might also be genetically determined in the matrilinear genome, similar to the color polymorphism in female cuckoos,” concluded senior author Jochen Wolf, an expert in evolutionary biology at LMU Munich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-cuckoo-birds">More about cuckoo birds</h2>



Cuckoo birds are known for their distinctive calls and unique breeding behavior, particularly their practice of brood parasitism. This involves laying their eggs in the nests of other bird species, leaving the unsuspecting host birds to raise the cuckoo's offspring.&nbsp;



As a result, the host species may inadvertently neglect their own young due to the demanding nature of the cuckoo chick, which often grows larger than its foster siblings.



Cuckoos are found across the world and are highly adaptable to various environments. The family Cuculidae, to which they belong, includes both brood-parasitic cuckoos as well as species that raise their own young. Their diet varies from insects to caterpillars, and some species also consume fruits and seeds.



The cuckoo's call, which gives them their name, is emblematic in culture and often signals the arrival of spring. The most commonly recognized call is that of the common cuckoo in Europe, famously captured in the phrase "cuck-oo." 



This sound has not only embedded them in folklore but also inspired the creation of the cuckoo clock, where the bird's call marks the passing hours.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adl5255" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Female cuckoo colors provide evolutionary advantages

Sexual dimorphism, which is the observable difference in appearance between male and female members of a species, occurs widely across the animal kingdom, including in humans. An interesting variation of this is sex-limited polymorphism, where one sex exhibits more variation in a certain trait compared to the other.  An international team of scientists has explored this concept by examining the genetic basis for color polymorphism in adult female cuckoos of the genus Cuculus, which are known for their brood parasitic behavior. The research provides insights into the...

Earlier this year, Dr. Michael Pittman of the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">University of Hong Kong</a> reported that powered flight evolved at least three separate times: twice in feathered dinosaurs and once in early birds. The research also revealed that many ancestors of birds came close to having the wing loading and specific lift thresholds that are indicative of the potential for powered flight.

In collaboration with Dr. Thomas Dececchi, Dr. Pittman has expanded his flight origins investigation to include Scansoriopterygids, an unusual group of theropods that used bat-like wings for gliding.

The rare dinosaurs lived around 160 million years ago in what is now northern China. It is believed that Scansoriopterygids weighed about one kilogram and ate insects, seeds, and other plants. 

Testing the theory of gliding ability among Scansoriopterygids is important for understanding how flight evolved among theropod dinosaurs. If confirmed, this bat-winged lifestyle would have been unique to Scansoriopterygids, and would also make them the most distantly related dinosaurs to birds that glide. 

The team used mathematical models to predict how Scansoriopterygids may have flown, while accounting for many different variables such as weight, wingspan, and muscle placement. The experts found that Scansoriopterygids did not have powered flight potential but were capable of clumsy gliding. 

"They could glide, but they weren't very good at it. If I were them I would have been particularly worried about predators!" said Dr. Pittman. Their poor gliding abilities may have contributed to the brief existence of Scansoriopterygids.

"The two Scansoriopterygid species we studied were so poorly capable of being in the air that they just got squeezed out," said Dr. Thomas Dececchi. "Maybe you can survive a few million years underperforming, but with birds, pterosaurs, gliding mammals all around, Scansoriopterygids were simply squeezed out until they disappeared."

Since gliding is only a strategy that can be used from certain heights, it is not an efficient form of flight. However, it did help to keep Scansoriopterygids out of danger. 

"If an animal needs to travel long distances, gliding costs a bit more energy at the start, but it's faster. It can also be used as an escape hatch. It's not a great thing to do, but sometimes it's a choice between losing a bit of energy and being eaten," said Dr. Dececchi. 

"Once Scansoriopterygids were put under pressure, they just lost their space. They couldn't win on the ground. They couldn't win in the air. They were done." 

The findings provide new evidence to support the idea that dinosaurs evolved flight in several different ways before modern birds emerged. 

"Our team continues to uncover a greater sense of the breadth of experimentation involved in getting dinosaurs into the air," said Dr. Pittman. "We plan to reveal even more details moving forward, particularly the different routes taken by dinosaurs to occupy the skies."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare dinosaurs used bat-like wings for gliding

Earlier this year, Dr. Michael Pittman of the University of...

<a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard</a> researchers have found that, like humans, chimpanzees become very selective about who they socialize with later in life. As people get older, they begin to favor smaller social circles, focusing on friendships that are already established rather than seeking out new ones. Chimpanzees are surprisingly similar, and gravitate toward more meaningful relationships in their older age, according to the study.

When it comes to people, adults tend to steer clear of drama and conflict and lean toward positive relationships - a preference known as a positivity bias. Prior to this study, however, there was no evidence to suggest that nonhuman animals actively select who they socialize with during aging.

A team of psychologists and primatologists analyzed the social interactions of 21 male chimpanzees between the ages of 15 and 58 years old in the Kibale National Park in Uganda. The study was based on 78,000 hours of observations from more than two decades. 

The researchers focused on male chimpanzees because they exhibit stronger social bonds and have more frequent social interactions compared to female chimps.

The team recognized much of the same behavior in aging chimpanzees that is seen in aging humans. For example, the older chimpanzees preferred grooming and spending time with chimps they had developed mutual bonds with over the years. Meanwhile, the younger chimps engaged in many one-sided relationships where grooming was not always returned. 

The males spent more time alone when they were older, but also made time for their important social partners, such as aging mutual friends. Just like older humans who seek out peace and quiet, there was a noticeable shift among chimpanzees from negative interactions to more positive ones as they got older.

"The really cool thing is that we found that chimpanzees are showing these patterns that mirror those of humans," said Professor Alexandra Rosati. She said that future research may help to determine if these behaviors constitute the normal or successful course that aging should take. "There's really a pressing need to understand the biology of aging. More humans are living longer than in the past, which can change the dynamics of aging."

When friendships were categorized as mutual, chimps preferred sitting close to those who preferred sitting close to them, as was most often observed among the older individuals. In the one-sided friendships, one chimp preferred to sit close to a chimp that did not share that preference.

The study revealed that 15-year-old chimps had an average of 2 one-sided friendships and just one mutual friend. On the other hand, 40-year-old chimps hardly even bothered with one-side relationships and had an average of 3 mutual friendships.

"We see individuals having these more lopsided friendships and then as they age they start really spending time with individuals that reciprocate," said Professor Machanda. "When you have this kind of mutual friendship, you actually groom that individual more, so these older chimps have these mutual friendships and they're actually grooming those individuals quite a bit. They're really invested in these relationships."

A prevailing theory as to why people prioritize close, positive relationships during aging is known as socioemotional selectivity. This theory proposes that the central process driving social selection during aging results from people becoming aware that their time is running out and wanting to make the best of that time. The findings from the Harvard study, however, suggest there is more to understand.

"Even though chimps are very smart, they do not understand they're going to die," said Professor Zarin Machanda. "Much more likely something else is going on in chimps to explain why their relationships become more positive as they get older, and then the question is what applies to chimps the same as what applies to humans."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chimpanzees are picky about friendships when they get older

Harvard researchers have found that, like humans, chimpanzees become very...

In early 2020, south Florida experienced its coldest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-report-an-unprecedented-rise-in-ocean-temperatures/">temperature</a> in 10 years at just under 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis </a> seized the opportunity to investigate how tropical lizards are affected by extreme climates. 

When temperatures exceed a certain threshold, sleeping lizards can actually lose their grip and fall out of trees. The experts previously established that various types of lizards in Miami can tolerate low temperatures ranging from about 46 to 52 degrees Fahrenheit before they are shocked by cold.

The researchers examined lizards that had survived the record cold night in Miami, and were surprised to find that all of the species could tolerate cold temperatures down to about 42 degrees - regardless of their previous threshold.

"Prior to this, and for a different study, we had measured the lowest temperatures that six lizard species in south Florida could tolerate," said study co-author James Stroud. "We realized after the 2020 cold event that these data were now extremely valuable - we had the opportunity to re-measure the same lizard populations to observe if their physiological limits had changed; in other words, could these species now tolerate lower temperatures?"

To investigate further, the team collected as many different types of lizards as possible in the local region, including lizards that are nocturnal. Next, the experts set out to analyze how various specimens responded to cold.

"A major unexpected result of this study was that all species converged on the same new, lower level of thermal tolerance," said Stroud. "While there was great variation in temperature tolerance before the cold event - some, like the large-bodied brown basilisk, were very intolerant of low temperatures, while others like the Puerto Rican crested anole were more robust - we observed that all species could now tolerate, on average, the same lowest temperature."

Stroud said that given the differences in the body size, ecology, and physiology of the lizards, the results were unexpected. The researchers noted that only one of the species examined for the study was native to the area, while the rest have been introduced to Florida over the past century.

"The shifts to tolerate significantly lower temperatures that we observed were so large that we found it unclear whether natural selection was responsible," said Stroud. "And so in our paper we discuss other alternative processes which may also have led to this pattern."

The findings provide brand new evidence that tropical, cold-blooded creatures, which are typically not thought to be able to adapt to rapidly changing climates, can sometimes endure conditions that exceed their established limits. 

"The results of this study are surprising and unexpected. Who would have thought that tropical lizards from places like Puerto Rico and Central America could withstand temperatures near freezing?" said study co-author Professor Jonathan Losos.

"What we now need to find out is how this was accomplished. Is this evidence of natural selection, with those lizards that just happened to have a lower cold tolerance surviving and others freezing to death, or was it an example of physiological adjustment - termed 'acclimation'- in which exposure to lower temperatures changes a lizard's physiology so that it is capable of withstanding lower temperatures?"

Regardless, the study provides critically important insight for understanding the impacts of climate change.

"It is widely thought that tropical and subtropical species are going to be especially vulnerable to changes in temperature -- particularly extreme spikes of heat or cold -- as tropical areas do not typically have strong seasons," said Stroud. "Unlike temperate species, which are adapted to summer highs and winter lows, tropical species have typically evolved in very thermally stable environments.

"While there is no doubt that climate change represents a major threat to species and ecosystems around the world, and deserves as much research attention as possible, this study provides fascinating insight and a glimpse of hope. Perhaps tropical and subtropical species can withstand more extreme climatic conditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical lizards are surprisingly adaptable to climate extremes

In early 2020, south Florida experienced its coldest temperature in...

Ironclad beetles can survive getting run over by a car, and engineers at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> have solved the mystery of how this is even possible. The study may ultimately inspire the development of materials with unprecedented <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rituals-can-strengthen-commitment-among-couples-who-are-dating/">strength</a>. 

According to the researchers, the new materials would be stiff but ductile like a paper clip, which would improve the safety and durability of aircraft gas turbines and other machinery.

The experts found that the secret of the diabolical ironclad beetle's strength is in its two hardened sheaths, or elytra, that meet at a line that runs along the length of the abdomen called a suture. 

The elytra serve as hard cases that protect the wings of flying beetles. In the diabolical ironclad beetle, which does not have wings, the elytra and connective suture help to distribute an applied force more evenly throughout its body.

"The suture kind of acts like a jigsaw puzzle. It connects various exoskeletal blades - puzzle pieces - in the abdomen under the elytra," explained Professor Pablo Zavattieri. He said the jigsaw puzzle comes to the rescue in several different ways depending on the amount of force applied.

To investigate, the researchers used CT scans to characterize the various structural components and analyze the limits of the beetle's exoskeleton. Experiments with compressive steel plates revealed that the diabolical ironclad beetle can endure an applied force that is at least 39,000 times its body weight before the exoskeleton begins to fracture.

This amount of force is equal to about 150 newtons, which is remarkable considering that a car would apply an estimated force of 100 newtons if its tire ran over a diabolical ironclad beetle on a dirt surface.

The experts determined that the beetle has two lines of defense to protect it from an enormous compressive load. The interconnecting blades lock in place so that they are not pulled out of the suture. Then,  the suture and blades divide, or delaminate, to avoid catastrophic failure of the exoskeleton. But steps help to dissolve energy that would otherwise cause a fatal impact at the beetle's neck. 

When the maximum force was applied to the beetle's exoskeleton, the researchers found that delamination allows the interconnecting blades to pull out from the suture more gently so that energy is dissipated and not released.

The team has not yet determined whether the diabolical ironclad beetle has a way to heal itself after surviving the compression load of a car, but the new findings are already enough to improve various kinds of machinery.

"This work shows that we may be able to shift from using strong, brittle materials to ones that can be both strong and tough by dissipating energy as they break. That's what nature has enabled the diabolical ironclad beetle to do," said Professor Zavattieri.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The diabolical ironclad beetle can survive being run over by a car

Ironclad beetles can survive getting run over by a car,...

Scientists have discovered a bioluminescent gene that may give sea pickles, or pyrosomes, the ability to emit blue-green light. This is possibly the first time that a bioluminescent gene has ever been found in a member of the chordate group, which is predominantly made up of true <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-could-wipe-out-billions-of-years-of-evolution-among-vertebrates/">vertebrates</a>, such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Study co-author Professor Michael Tessler conducted the research while he was a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>.

 "We know that throughout the tree of life, there are many hundreds of organisms that can produce light and that they do it for a variety of reasons," said Professor Tessler. "Our work suggests that there is a common gene shared among at least some animals that, with a few small changes, could be responsible for this bioluminescence. A baseline gene like this could help explain how many of these very different organisms, like a brittle star and the sea pickle, ended up with the same ability to glow."

In 2017, study co-author David Gruber was off the coast of Brazil testing a new tool for safely capturing delicate marine animals. During this expedition, the team collected sausage-sized pyrosomes.

A pyrosome is a free-floating colony made up of hundreds of tiny zooids that work together to move, eat, and breathe. Unlike many other bioluminescent animals, the displays of pyrosomes can be triggered by light. 

Even though these gelatinous colonies have been described for centuries, there is much about their bioluminescence that remains a mystery.

"Understanding the biochemical pathway for pyrosome bioluminescence is of particular interest because as a chordate, these animals are much more closely related to vertebrates--and to us as humans--than many of the more traditional bioluminescent creatures that might come to mind, things like jellyfish or fireflies," said Gruber.

Bioluminescent light is triggered by a chemical reaction between the substrate luciferin and the gene luciferase. 

The researchers found that mixing a common type of luciferin with pyrosomes resulted in bioluminescence. To investigate further, the team sequenced the RNA of pyrosomes collected in Brazil and near Vancouver Island in Canada.

The analysis revealed the existence of a gene that matches a luciferase that is found in relatives of jellyfish, anemones, and corals known as sea pansies. The researchers confirmed that the gene produces light in pyrosomes.

"Being a part of this study felt like being a part of a century-old mystery novel as to how the pyrosome glows in the dark," said study co-author Professor Jean Gaffney. "I have never worked with a species that was seemingly so alien, but as a chordate is strikingly similar to us."

"This study advances the debate about pyrosome bioluminescence," said Professor Tessler. "We provide justification for the idea that this animal produces its own light and it might be able to do so because of a pattern of evolution that is repeated throughout the animal tree of life."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bioluminescent gene identified that makes sea pickles glow

Scientists have discovered a bioluminescent gene that may give sea...

Losing the ability to fly made ants much stronger, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a> (OIST). When the researchers created 3D models to analyze the muscles and internal skeletons of ants, they confirmed the theory that the loss of <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/exploring-the-incredible-flight-control-techniques-of-fruit-flies/">flight</a> in worker ants is directly linked to the evolution of greater strength.

"Worker ants evolved from flying insects," said Professor Evan Economo. "We've always assumed that losing flight helped to optimize their bodies for working on the ground, but we have much to learn about how this is achieved."

Among flying insects, the wing muscles often occupy more than half of the thorax, which places major constraints on the muscles used to support the rest of the body. The experts speculated that once the constraints of flight were removed in worker ants, the remaining muscles in the thorax were free to expand and reorganize.

While previous studies on flight loss focused on the external structure of worker ants, the OIST researchers constructed a detailed picture of the inside of the thorax.

The researchers conducted a detailed analysis of two distantly related ant species, including both the wingless workers and the flying queens. They also confirmed the findings based on a broader sample of species.

Using advanced X-ray technology to scan the internal and external anatomy of the ants, the team confirmed that the loss of flight had allowed for the reorganization of the thorax.

"Within the worker ant's thorax, everything is integrated beautifully in a tiny space," said study lead author Dr. Christian Peeters. "The three muscle groups have all expanded in volume, giving the worker ants more strength and power. There has also been a change in the geometry of the neck muscles, which support and move the head. And the internal attachment of muscles has been modified."

When the researchers studied the loss of flight among wasps, they found that the bees had responded in a completely different way. Wingless wasps are solitary and consume food on their own, while ants work in teams as part of a colony. The teams scavenge for food and carry it back to the nest for the queen and younger ants working within the nest.

Going forward, the scientists plan to develop more detailed biomechanical models of how different muscle groups function, conduct similar research on the mandible and legs, and compare the diversity among different ant species.

"We're interested in what makes an ant an ant and understanding the key innovations behind their success," explained Professor Economo. "We know that one factor is the social structure, but this individual strength is another essential factor."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/">Frontiers in Zoology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Worker ants had a lot to gain by losing the ability to fly

Losing the ability to fly made ants much stronger, according...

In the late spring and summer, mature Chinook <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/why-are-alaskas-wild-salmon-getting-smaller/">salmon</a> return from the sea to the Columbia River and make their treacherous journey upstream to spawn. A new study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> has revealed that when the salmon venture back to the river too early in the season, there are hungry California sea lions waiting for them. 

In collaboration with experts at NOAA Fisheries, the researchers found that sea lions have the largest negative effect on Chinook salmon that arrive early in the lower Columbia River. The sea lions have discovered that by swimming as far as 145 miles upstream, they can feast on migrating salmon.

Study lead author Mark Sorel is a doctoral student at the UW School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences.

"We investigated whether mortality rates varied depending on the specific threatened Chinook salmon population, determined by when they arrive in the river," said Sorel. "We found that, based on their individual return timing and the abundance of sea lions in the river when they return, individual populations experience different levels of sea lion-associated mortality."

The researchers determined that the rate of mortality among the earliest arriving populations of Chinook salmon was 20 percent higher compared to previous years. In addition, the rate of mortality among later arriving populations increased by ten percent. 

The higher mortality rates were associated with increased sea lion abundance in the period of 2013 to 2015, compared to the period of 2010 to 2012.

At the mouth of the Columbia River, the largest abundance of California sea lions can be found in early spring, before they leave the region to head for their breeding grounds in southern California. 

The study also revealed that the earliest arriving salmon migrate through the lower part of the Columbia River more slowly than those arriving later in the season, which increases the threat of exposure to predators.

"This information on how different populations are affected by sea-lion associated mortality is key because recovery of endangered Chinook salmon requires multiple of the individual populations to be healthy," said Sorel.

The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 protected California sea lions from being killed, captured, or harassed. As a result, their numbers are quickly rebounding along the West Coast. The salmon populations that are hunted by the sea lions in the Columbia River are endangered, and experts warn that urgent action is needed. The hunting behaviors of sea lions are learned, which means the problem could continue to grow exponentially.

The National Marine Fisheries Service recently granted approval for Washington, Idaho, Oregon and several Pacific Northwest tribes to capture and euthanize problematic sea lions within a larger area of the lower Columbia and Willamette Rivers. This decision was made after non-lethal methods, such relocation, were not successful. 

"This is often a challenging management problem as both sea lions and salmon are of strong interest to the public, and both are protected under federal statutes," said Sorel. "Management must consider multiple social values and operate within existing legal frameworks."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea lions have mastered the timing to prey on Chinook salmon

In the late spring and summer, mature Chinook salmon return...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have found that the number of sea turtles along the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/elephants-are-vanishing-from-the-ivory-coast/">coastlines</a> of Ireland and the United Kingdom has declined in recent years. After analyzing records that dated back more than a century, the scientists were able to clearly confirm a recent drop in sea turtle sightings. 

The team looked at records from 1910 to 2018 and found that citizen scientists and other witnesses had documented seeing nearly 2,000 sea turtles - some of which were stranded or captured. 

The study showed that sightings increased dramatically in the 1980s and 1990s, which was likely due to an increase in the public's interest in conservation, as well as improved methods of surveying and reporting. Since 2000, however, the population numbers have mysteriously dropped.

"Lots of factors could affect the changing of numbers of sea turtles sighted," said study co-author Zara Botterell. "Climate change, prey availability and environmental disasters such as the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill could all influence turtle numbers and behavior."

"However, sea turtle populations in the North Atlantic are largely stable or increasing, and the apparent decrease may represent reduced reporting rather than fewer turtles in our seas. One reason for this could be that fewer fishing boats are at sea now than in the past - and fishers are the most likely people to see and report turtles."

In Ireland and the UK, leatherbacks are the most common sea turtles. Leatherbacks made up 1,683 of the 1,997 sightings since 1910. They are thought to be the only sea turtle species that intentionally visits this region, arriving in summer in search of jellyfish.

Juvenile loggerheads and Kemp's ridley turtles are usually spotted in winter, after they are likely carried in on currents and stranded.

Overall, there are seven species of sea turtles, and most are rare in the UK and Ireland. For example, from 1980 to 2016, only 11 green turtles, one olive ridley, and one hawksbill were spotted in the region. 

The study was focused on information retrieved from the TURTLE database, which is operated by Marine Environmental Monitoring.

"We have been lucky to analyze this unique dataset that exists because Britain and Ireland are a real hotbed of engaged citizen science, where members of the public report their sightings in schemes supported by conservation charities and government bodies," said study co-author Professor Brendan Godley.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom">Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea turtles are mysteriously declining in Ireland and the UK

Researchers at the University of Exeter have found that the...

Mammals and birds became warm-blooded after surviving a mass extinction. Around 252 million years ago, a series of massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia triggered a mass <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-were-likely-driven-to-extinction-by-climate-change/">extinction</a> event that wiped out 95 percent of all life. According to a new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, the Permian extinction also changed the surviving animals forever. Professor Mike Benton has found evidence that the ancestors of both mammals and birds became warm-blooded 250 million years ago, just as Earth was recovering from the catastrophic event.

Ancestors of mammals and birds, as well as tetrapods like synapsids and archosaurs, were some of the only groups that survived the Permian extinction. Even then, the animals faced life-threatening conditions such as repeated global warming and ocean acidification disasters.

Paleontologists have previously noticed signs of warm-bloodedness in animals that descended from the Permian period into the Triassic era, including evidence of a diaphragm and possible whiskers in the synapsids.

Warm-blooded, or endothermic, animals have fur, feathers, or hair for insulation. The early origin of feathers in dinosaur and bird ancestors has been established, and it has been long suspected that mammals had hair at the beginning of the Triassic. The current study has produced a brand new theory that archosaurs had feathers from 250 million years ago.

In 2009, the Bristol scientists began to suspect that warm-bloodedness originated in both synapsids and archosaurs at exactly the time after the Permian extinction. They have now determined that birds and mammals transformed at this time as well. 

Looking at hundreds of fossilized paths, the researchers discovered that tetrapods, mammals, and birds all shifted from sprawling to erect posture during the Permian-Triassic boundary. The experts were surprised to see that this posture shift happened instantly, not over tens of millions of years, as had been suggested.

"Modern amphibians and reptiles are sprawlers, holding their limbs partly sideways," said Professor Benton. "Birds and mammals have erect postures, with the limbs immediately below their bodies. This allows them to run faster, and especially further."

"There are great advantages in erect posture and warm-bloodedness, but the cost is that endotherms have to eat much more than cold-blooded animals just to fuel their inner temperature control."

Warm-blooded animals can live all over the planet, even in cold areas, and they remain active at night. The adaptations gave birds and mammals a new advantage over amphibians and reptiles that allowed them to dominate in more parts of the world. 

"The Triassic was a remarkable time in the history of life on Earth. You see birds and mammals everywhere on land today, whereas amphibians and reptiles are often quite hidden," said Professor Benton.

"This revolution in ecosystems was triggered by the independent origins of endothermy in birds and mammals, but until recently we didn't realise that these two events might have been coordinated."

"That happened because only a tiny number of species survived the Permian-Triassic mass extinction - who survived depended on intense competition in a tough world. Because a few of the survivors were already endothermic in a primitive way, all the others had to become endothermic to survive in the new fast-paced world."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/gondwana-research">Gondwana Research</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mammals and birds became warm-blooded after surviving a mass extinction

Mammals and birds became warm-blooded after surviving a mass extinction....

Giant animals vanished from Madagascar after humans arrived. About 500 to 1,500 years ago, Madagascar lost nearly all of its <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/marine-megafauna-extinctions-will-compromise-critical-ecosystem-services/">megafauna</a>, including giant tortoises, Dodo birds, lemurs the size of gorillas, and 10-foot-tall elephant birds that weighed half a ton. While the exact cause of these extinctions remains a mystery, a new  study from the <a href="https://www.uibk.ac.at/index.html.en">University of Innsbruck</a> reports that human activities likely compounded the impacts of climate change when Madagascar's giant animals simultaneously disappeared.

Previous theories suggest that populations of the oversized wildlife collapsed under the strain of overhunting by humans or crashed when the climate abruptly changed. 

The Mascarene islands east of Madagascar are of particular interest to scientists because they are among the last islands on earth to be colonized by humans. The islands' megafauna crashed in just a couple of centuries following human settlement. 

In the current study, the international team of experts led by Innsbruck determined that the extinction event was caused by a "double whammy" of heightened human activities combined with an intense period of dry spells and megadroughts. The researchers ruled out climate change as being the sole cause of the collapse of the giant creatures, and found that the impact of human colonization was a crucial contributor.

Study lead author Hanying Li of Xi'an Jiaotong University and colleagues reconstructed a detailed record of the region's climate fluctuations. The new paleoclimate record was preserved in stalagmites that were collected from a cave on the tiny Mascarene island of Rodrigues - approximately 1,600 kilometers east of Madagascar. According to Professor Gayatri Kathayat, the island of Rodrigues is so remote and small that it cannot be found on most schoolbook atlases. 

"Variations in the geochemical signatures provided the information needed to reconstruct the region's rainfall patterns over the last 8,000 years. To analyze the stalagmites we used the stable isotope method in our lab at Innsbruck," explained Professor Christoph Spötl.

Study senior author Hai Cheng noted that despite the distance between the two islands, the summer rainfall at Rodrigues and Madagascar is influenced by the same global-wide tropical rain belt that oscillates north and south with the seasons. "And when this belt falters and stays further north of Rodrigues, droughts can strike the whole region from Madagascar to Rodrigues," said Cheng.

The study revealed that the region experienced a series of drying trends throughout the last 8,000 years, which were characterized by frequent megadroughts that lasted for decades. The most recent of these extreme spells struck the islands about 1,500 years ago, just as human presence increased throughout the region. 

The research sheds new light on the decimation of wildlife on Mauritius and Rodrigues. "Both islands were rapidly stripped of endemic species of vertebrates within two centuries of the initial human colonization, including the well-known flightless 'Dodo' bird from Mauritius and the saddle-backed 'Rodrigues giant tortoise' endemic to Rodrigues," explained study co-author Aurele Anquetil André.

"While we cannot say with 100 percent certainty whether human activity, such as overhunting or habitat destruction, was the proverbial last straw that broke the camel's back, our paleoclimate records make a strong case that the megafauna had survived through all the previous episodes of even greater aridity," said study co-author Ashish Sinha. "This resilience to past climate swings suggests that an additional stressor contributed to the elimination of the region's megafauna."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant animals vanished from Madagascar after humans arrived

Giant animals vanished from Madagascar after humans arrived. About 500...

Social interactions are extremely important for maintaining positive mental <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/exercise-boosts-health-and-lifespan-regardless-of-intensity/">health</a>, and research shows that face-to-face encounters have a powerful effect on our happiness and sense of well-being. A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> has revealed that, like humans, cows prefer intimate communication with people. 

"The quality of the animal-human relationship and, consequently, the welfare of animals can be improved by gentle interactions such as stroking and talking," wrote the study authors. "The perception of different stimuli during these interactions likely plays a key role in their emotional experience, but studies are scarce."

For the current study, the researchers set out to investigate whether cows respond differently to the sound of recorded voices compared to direct communication from humans. 

"Cattle like stroking in combination with gentle talking," said Annika Lange of the University of Veterinary Medicine in Vienna. "In scientific contexts, a recording of a human voice speaking gently could be used to relax the animals, because it can be difficult to repeat the same phrases in the same way during experiments."

The investigation revealed that the cows were substantially more relaxed when they were spoken to by a human face-to-face, rather than through a loudspeaker.

"Our study suggests that live talking is more relaxing for our animals than a recording of a human voice," said Lange. "Interactions may be less positive when they become artificial through standardization."

The research, which was focused on a herd of 28 cattle, compared the benefits of either stroking the animals while playing a recording of an experimenter's voice, or stroking while speaking to the animals directly. The team monitored the responses and found that heart rate variability was higher when cattle were spoken to directly, which indicates that they were enjoying themselves. 

The heart rates of the cows dropped lower after the direct interactions than after they listened to voice recordings, showing that they were more relaxed after face-to-face communication.

"When relaxed and enjoying the interaction, the animals will often stretch out their necks as they do when they groom each other," said Lange. "Additionally, it is thought that ear positions may indicate mood: hanging ears and low ear positions appear to be linked to relaxation."

The study authors noted that the welfare of animals is strongly influenced by their perception and evaluation of the surrounding environment. "Humans constitute a substantial part of their environment, especially in farm animals. The way animals perceive humans and the quality of their interactions has a strong impact on their welfare," wrote the researchers.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cows are relaxed by face-to-face interactions with people

Social interactions are extremely important for maintaining positive mental health,...

Dogs have personality traits that change over time at their own rate, following a distinct <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sleep-apnea-and-alzheimers-linked-to-identical-brain-damage/">age</a> trajectory, according to a study led by <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE). As humans get older, we become more emotionally stable, agreeable, and conscientious, while dogs have personalities that are not as well understood.

"Even though dog personality is a highly popular topic in the literature, there are still gaps about long-term stability, as well as about the dynamics of personality development," said study first author Borbála Turcsán. 

She explained that these dynamics include which personality traits remain consistent over several years, how much dogs actually change throughout their life, and at what age the most prominent personality changes occur.

To investigate, the researchers analyzed the personalities of more than 200 Border collies ranging from 6 months to 15 years old using a comprehensive test battery known as the Vienna Dog Personality Test (VIDOPET). Four years after the initial assessment, the experts tested many of the subjects again.

"Longitudinal studies covering multiple years and using the same method at both time points are very rare in dog literature," said study co-author Professor Friederike Range. "Following up the same dogs across ~4 years allowed us to address not only the question of personality stability, but also if there are individual differences in personality development, that is, if dogs with certain personality profiles change more than others."

The researchers found that dog personality has some stability, as the dogs ranked fairly consistently on all five personality traits across the study period. For example, the most active dogs remained the most active 4 years later. 

The study also showed that individuals with a more mature personality profile - including those that were less active, less curious, and more oriented to problems - did not exhibit changes in these traits compared to their peers.

To identify any age-related shifts in personality traits, the researchers compared dogs belonging to seven age groups. "We found that dogs' personality changes with age, and these changes occur unevenly during the dogs' life course, just like in humans," said study co-author Zsofia Viranyi.

"Crucially, however, the dynamics of change seem to be specific for each personality trait. For example, the problem orientation trait, which describes the dogs' attentiveness and ability to solve problems, changes largely during early life, increasing strongly until ~6 years of age, after which further changes became negligible."

"In contrast, the novelty seeking trait did not change markedly during the younger life stages, but ~3 years of age their curiosity about novel objects and situations started to decrease which continued until geriatric age."

The activity-independence of the dogs also decreased continuously over their lives, but the most pronounced shift in this trait occurred from puppyhood to adolescence. 

On the other hand, some traits did not noticeably evolve with age, such as the dogs' level of sociability or their tolerance for frustrating situations.

"By describing in detail the normative patterns of personality development throughout different life stages, our study can help in the identification of age-related impairments," said study co-author Eniko Kubinyi. "Dogs are already recognized as a natural model for human cognitive ageing, and our results suggest that similar rules govern the age-related changes in both human and dog personality."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dog personality traits change over time, but not at the same pace

Dogs have personality traits that change over time at their...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...