Sockeye,Salmon,Spawning,In,River,,British,Columbia,,Canada

In northern California, rivers feed people, wildlife, and culture. But what fuels these river waters? Scientists found that a partnership between microscopic algae and specialized bacteria feeds the food web from the ground up. It is not fertilizer, not runoff, but life itself that is keeping rivers alive.



Along the Eel river, this unexpected algae partnership benefits the health of the ecosystem and supports the salmon populations. 



Salmon are at the center of it all - they are food, heritage and a sign of healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-earths-bending-rivers-could-help-us-find-water-on-other-planets/">waters</a>. When salmon run strong, rivers thrive. When they struggle, entire communities feel the loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-and-bacteria-work-together">Algae and bacteria work together</h2>



The study shows how tiny algae and bacteria work as one. Together they create a clean nitrogen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rivers-split-a-century-old-mystery-has-finally-been-solved/">source</a> that acts as a natural engine, powering the food chain without pollution. 



The key player is a diatom named&nbsp;Epithemia, that carries inside it bacterial partners called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37066385/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diazoplasts</a>.



“This is nature’s version of a clean nutrient pipeline, from sunlight to fish, without the runoff that creates harmful algal blooms,” said Jane Marks, biology professor at <a href="https://nau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>, and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-epithemia-works">How Epithemia works</h2>



The diatom captures sunlight and turns it into sugar. The diazoplast eats that sugar and uses the energy to pull nitrogen from the air. In return, it hands nitrogen back to the diatom. 



The diatom then keeps making more sugar. The loop is tight, efficient, and endlessly productive.



“It’s like a handshake deal: both sides benefit, and the entire river thrives,” said Mike Zampini, a postdoctoral researcher at NAU and isotope tracing lead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmon-thrive-on-epithemia">Salmon thrive on Epithemia</h2>



In spring, Cladophora algae grow long and green, using runoff <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meandering-rivers-shaped-early-landscapes-before-plants-arrived/">nutrients</a>. By summer, nutrients run low. Epithemia takes over. 



It covers Cladophora until the mats turn rusty red. At this stage, almost 90 percent of new nitrogen in the food web comes from Epithemia.



“Healthy rivers don’t just happen - they’re maintained by ecological interactions, like this partnership,” said Mary Power, co-author of the study and faculty director of <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>’s Angelo Coast Range Reserve.



Insects such as caddisflies feed on the mats. Young salmon eat the insects. A chain begins with invisible microbes and ends with one of the most important fish in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-feed-river-insects">Algae feed river insects</h2>



Caddisflies grazing on algae thick with Epithemia&nbsp;gain far more energy than those feeding on plain green algae. They take in ten times more carbon. Nitrogen transfer reaches over half of what the diatoms fix. 



Insects also prefer diatoms because they are easier to digest. Their thin silica shells crack open more easily than the walls of green algae.



Diatoms are richer too. They carry fatty acids, carotenoids, and even thiamine. This last nutrient matters for salmon. 



Without enough thiamine, hatchlings often fail. By supplying insects with thiamine-rich cells, Epithemia helps salmon indirectly, but crucially.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-roles-in-summer">Changing roles in summer</h2>



Cladophora&nbsp;begins the season as the main producer. But as&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;spreads, the green algae fade. They stop making much food themselves. Instead, they serve as scaffolding, a support structure for diatom growth. 



Even in this weakened state, Cladophora matters. Its filaments stretch across rocks, providing space for billions of microbes to attach.



This switch shows how ecosystems adapt. One species starts the chain. Another takes over when conditions change. Together they keep the food web running, even during lean months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epithemia-dominate-healthy-rivers">Epithemia dominate healthy rivers</h2>



Not all microbes fix nitrogen equally. Many free-living bacteria can do it, but diazoplasts dominate in the Eel River. By late summer, they fix nearly 90 percent of all new nitrogen. 



Their close tie with&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;gives diazoplasts the edge. While free-living bacteria must split their effort between different jobs, diazoplasts specialize in one: fixing nitrogen.



That specialization makes them fast, efficient, and critical to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-are-releasing-a-massive-amount-of-carbon-dioxide-into-the-air/">ecosystem</a>. Their size also matters. Even when they are few, they make up most of the biomass of nitrogen fixers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-nitrogen-production">Fuel for nitrogen production </h2>



This is not a small-scale effect. Field surveys show that mats of red&nbsp;Cladophora&nbsp;cover nearly a quarter of some streambeds. Despite covering less ground than other algae, they produce over half the nitrogen in the system. 



When scaled across the river network, the contribution is huge. Scientists estimate that about 90 percent of midsummer nitrogen comes from&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;and its diazoplasts.



That rivals the productivity of massive cyanobacteria blooms seen elsewhere. Yet here, the same force is carried by a diatom the size of a hair’s width.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-partnerships-are-found-worldwide">Algae partnerships are found worldwide</h2>



Diatom-bacteria partnerships like this are not unique to the Eel River. They appear in lakes, rivers, and oceans around the world, especially in places where nitrogen is scarce. They may quietly boost food webs far more than scientists realized.



This has human implications too. If crops or biofuels could mimic the same process, farmers might cut costs and reduce pollution. Instead of spreading chemical fertilizers, plants could feed themselves using microbial help.



"When nature engineers solutions this elegant, it reminds us what’s possible when people, places and discovery come together," said Professor Marks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epithemia-and-future-salmon-survival">Epithemia and future salmon survival</h2>



The lesson is clear. Salmon survival depends on far more than the obvious. It rests on unseen alliances between algae and bacteria, locked in a trade of sugar and nitrogen. 



By following these links, we see how even the smallest Epithemia cells can shape an entire river ecosystem.



Using stable isotope tracing and advanced imaging, the researchers followed carbon and nitrogen from single cells to entire watersheds. 



They showed how invisible interactions scale up into forces that sustain fish, rivers, and even human culture.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503108122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Salmon have their own 'secret superfood' in rivers that helps them survive and thrive

In northern California, rivers feed people, wildlife, and culture. But what fuels these river waters? Scientists found that a partnership between microscopic algae and specialized bacteria feeds the food web from the ground up. It is not fertilizer, not runoff, but life itself that is keeping rivers alive. Along the Eel river, this unexpected algae partnership benefits the health of the ecosystem and supports the salmon populations. Salmon are at the center of it all - they are food, heritage and a sign of healthy waters. When...

Right whales have large, distinctive heads that can help identify them and also hold baleen to filter tiny food such as plankton from the ocean. They are impressive animals, weighing as much as 100 tons and living at least 70 year life spans. The only way these whales are obscured is by living in remote, wild and open parts of the ocean much more massive than even they are. Still, whales have played an important role in culture and unfortunately have tangled in human economics.  

The right whale in particular has a long relationship with humans, especially from being hunted. Indeed, even the name ‘right whale’ was given to the unfortunate mammal by whalers who dubbed it the ‘right whale’ to kill, according to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/group/right-whales/">National Geographic</a>. The whales were viable prey for whalers because they swim slowly and float after death. 

Despite international law, the USSR and Russia hunted North Pacific right whales from 1965 to 1999, a time when only 82 of the whale sightings were reported in the eastern portion of the North Pacific. Due largely to whaling, right whales have been on the Endangered Species List since 1970, according to <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/north-pacific-right-whale">NOAA</a>. Historically, the whales were found throughout oceans from temperate waters to the subpolar Bering Sea. Today, with a population much reduced, knowing the full extent of the North Pacific right whale’s range is complicated by the smaller chance of seeing the whale anywhere.      

Including the North Pacific right whale, there are three right whale species, left in minuscule numbers from the damage of whaling.

<a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/north-atlantic-right-whale">NOAA</a> estimates that there are approximately 400 <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/six-north-atlantic-right-whales-dead/">North Atlantic right whales</a> left in the world. The organization has no data on the Southern right whale found in foreign waters of the Southern Hemisphere but lists the whale as endangered. Probably the most endangered right whale, and one of the most endangered of all marine mammals, is the North Pacific right whale. The North Pacific right whale has approximately 40 individuals left, <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/north-pacific-right-whale">NOAA</a> estimated. 

The threat of whaling is over for right whales but humans are still the largest threat to them. Entanglement in fishing equipment, being struck by boats, and climate change seem to be the largest threats to North Pacific right whales. 

Populations of right whales grow slowly, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/group/right-whales/">National Geographic</a> reports, because the whales are sexually mature only after 10 years and females give birth to a single calf after a year of pregnancy. However, <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/north-pacific-right-whale">NOAA</a> notes that there are no accurate estimations of the population or population trends. It’s part of the complication of studying a whale that lives in remote, cold waters near Alaska, as it makes research challenging. Despite these challenges, the North Pacific right whale and NOAA researchers recently made big news. 

<a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/first-recording-north-pacific-right-whale-song">NOAA</a> reported on June 19, 2019 that researchers for the first time recorded North Pacific right whales singing. The confirmation comes after it was suspected as far back as 2010, when researchers thought they might have heard right whales singing. But it was only this year that scientists were able to verify that the singing was coming from North Pacific right whales. 

Interestingly, all known singing whales are male. This points to possibilities but no one is exactly sure the purpose of singing in whales in general and especially not in the North Pacific right whales. There is no evidence that the other right whales sing, but this recent discovery makes it seem more likely. 

As for research on the North Pacific right whales and why they sing, that will be slow going. Most sightings of North Pacific right whales are of individual whales, making it very unlikely that singing will be observed in a lone whale. The population where singing was discovered was less than 30 individual right whales, the majority or perhaps all of the North Pacific right whales left in the world. With so few individuals, it’s hard to make general observations of singing among different animals in different circumstances. 

This is especially true for research carried out in the large, remote and challenging Bering Sea. For the North Pacific right whales in the singing population, there is about a 2 to 1 ratio of males to females. With such odds in such a small population, finding mates must be very challenging for the males. It seems likely that the singing has to do with an attempt to find mates in the vast, lonely ocean but it’s not entirely certain.

Whale songs in general have been reported since the beginning of whaling, so it’s surprising to discover a new species singing this recently. This new discovery of such a large animal, with such a long history of interactions with humans, highlights how large the world is and how small human knowledge of it is. This is true most in the oceans, the environment most foreign to us and most vast – an open place devoid of human habitation where we only visit in our boats. 

Without more time spent observing North Pacific right whales, the best that can be done is educated speculation based on what we know about other whale songs. As a rule, whale songs change over time throughout the singing season, according to a report in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(08)01541-8.pdf">Cell</a>. Different populations of whales have different songs, which also change year to year. Interestingly, a group of whales encountering another group will sometimes adopt the other groups song. 

It’s hard to say how much of these generalizations is true for right whales and we may never know. It’s comforting to learn that there are secret things animals have shared among themselves without the knowledge or interference of humans. It’s exciting to catch a new glimpse at the inner life of a different creature but it’s good to acknowledge the awe of mystery as well. Nowhere on Earth is as mysterious as our oceans.     

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com </a>Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Brenda Rone, NOAA

Right whales have been recorded singing for the first time

Right whales have large, distinctive heads that can help identify...

A study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has revealed that chameleon prawns can change color to coincide with seasonal changes in the surrounding seaweed. This camouflaging strategy is much different from <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/material-mimics-chameleons/">chameleons</a> or cuttlefish, which rapidly change their colors. Instead, chameleon prawns take weeks to alter their appearance. 

Commonly found in UK rock pools, chameleon prawns are very colorful, ranging from bright block colors to varying degrees of transparency.

The new research shows that the camouflaging abilities of chameleon prawns are suited for the longer seasonal changes taking place around them. As for the short-term background changes, the researchers found that the prawns compensate for their lack of color-changing speed with their behavior by seeking out the seaweed that best matches their coloration.

"Our study shows that these prawns exhibit impressive levels of camouflage on the seaweeds in which they live," said co-author Sam Green. "We measured the camouflage of prawns to the vision of their predators and recorded color change in the lab, and found the prawns can improve camouflage against their new backgrounds over a number of weeks."

"Seaweeds vary seasonally in UK rockpools and this ability probably enables prawns to maintain camouflage throughout the year. However, as the rock pool environment consists of a variety of different colored seaweed patches, our behavioral experiments show that the prawns also select backgrounds that match their existing appearance."

"This helps maintain camouflage in the short term, helping prawns to deal with the challenges of rock pool life. For example, a wave could dislodge a prawn from its chosen perch. This demonstrates how color change and behavior combine to facilitate camouflage in varying environments over different timescales."

Professor Martin Stevens noted that the rock pool environment is incredibly challenging because it is constantly changing every day and over the seasons. The combination of behavior and camouflaging ability helps the prawns survive in this dynamic habitat.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Martin Stevens

Chameleon prawns change colors based on the season

A study led by the University of Exeter has revealed...

Six endangered North Atlantic right whales found dead in the past month. Severely endangered North Atlantic right whales have been dealt another dangerous blow to their numbers as this past month, half a dozen right whale deaths have been reported in the Gulf of St. Lawrence off the coast of Canada. 

Three of the deaths have been attributed to collisions with ships, and some of the whales have been identified as females, which is especially troubling given that only 100 reproductive females remain. 

There are about 400 remaining North Atlantic right whales left, and if these deaths foretell a trend, it could lead to disastrous population declines. 

Governmental officials and scientists, as well as conservationists, are on high-alert. 

2017 saw an unusually large number of dead stranded whales (17), and in recent years there have been few new calves. 

One reason that more whales are getting stranded and colliding with ships is that ocean warming and food availability are driving the whales to move to unprotected areas, according to researchers from the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a> in Maine. 

“Animals like whales that have to figure out where their food is, they have to figure out a new environment as they go,” Nick Redor from the Bigelow Laboratory told the Associated Press. “You can almost think of the whales like climate migration.”

Right whales were hunted to near extinction and have been on a rocky road to recovery with numbers as low as 270 in 1990 and as high as 480 in 2010. 

The recent deaths are alarming for researchers who worry that the species may soon be on the brink of extinction again. 

To help protect the whales, a speed restriction is in place where the right whales have been hit, and the <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/index-eng.htm">Fisheries and Oceans Canada</a> is monitoring the area and increasing surveillance. 

The <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Marine Fisheries</a> division has called for a meeting with the Canadian Government to ensure that there are no more unnecessary whale deaths and protect the whales in vulnerable areas. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Steve Meese

Six endangered North Atlantic right whales found dead in the past month

Six endangered North Atlantic right whales found dead in the...

A new report from the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/">Washington Post</a> describes how the harvesting of black soldier fly larvae has the potential to "revolutionize the way we feed the world." One acre of these larvae can produce more protein from organic waste than 3,000 acres of cattle. 

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-population-10-9-billion/">global population</a> is expected to reach nearly 10 billion by mid-century, which is an increase of three billion people from 2010. As we approach this population explosion, experts are looking for sustainable ways to feed the world. 

One of the biggest targets is a major shift away from animal proteins by finding meat substitutes. Insect protein is high-quality protein, and there are more than 1,700 types of insects that have been identified by scientists as being edible. 

Jeff Tomberlin, a professor of entomology at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a>, told the Washington Post that the black soldier fly larvae industry could “save lives, stabilize economies, create jobs, and protect the environment.”

A single soldier fly colony can transform a ton of waste, including food waste or manure, into 100 pounds of high-quality protein and 400 pounds of compost.

“There’s no reason why we shouldn’t be doing this at some scale throughout the world,” said Tomberlin.

A company called Symton BSF harvests the larvae of black soldier flies and sells it as food for reptiles and exotic pets. The larvae are fed a proprietary grain blend that will provide the optimal nutrition for the animals that will feed on them. The soldier fly is also very high in calcium, containing 50 times more per gram than crickets or mealworms

Beyond their value as food, soldier flies are also great at eliminating food waste, consuming twice their weight in food in a single day. The maggots could be used to help eliminate a portion of the millions of tons of CO2 that is released from rotting food waste. 

“There’s been a lot of effort put into cricket flour or mealworms for protein ingredients for everything from pasta to cookies to chips,” Tomberlin told the Post, adding that soldier fly protein will likely follow. "When you walk in these facilities in the next 10 years, we’ll look back at this era and say we were just getting started."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Namsom1988

Black soldier fly larvae could help feed a booming global population

A new report from the Washington Post describes how the...

Experts question the morality of creating human-monkey ‘chimeras’. Earlier this year, scientists at the Kunming Institute of Zoology of the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> announced they had inserted a human gene into embryos that would become rhesus macaques, monkeys that share about 93 percent of their DNA with humans. The research, which was designed to give experts a better understanding of human brain development, has sparked controversy over whether this type of experimentation is ethical.

Some scientists believe that it is time to use human-monkey animals to pursue new insights into the progression of diseases such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-quality-alzheimers/">Alzheimer's</a>. These genetically modified monkeys are referred to as chimeras, which are named after a mythical animal that consists of parts taken from various animals.

A resource guide on the science and ethics of chimeras written by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> researchers suggests that it is time to "cautiously" explore the creation of human-monkey chimeras.

“The search for a better animal model to stimulate human disease has been a ‘holy grail’ of biomedical research for decades,” the Yale team wrote in Chimera Research: Ethics and Protocols. "Realizing the promise of human-monkey chimera research in an ethically and scientifically appropriate manner will require a coordinated approach.”

A team of experts led by Dr. Douglas Munoz of <a href="https://www.queensu.ca/">Queen’s University</a> has been studying the onset of Alzheimer's disease in monkeys by using injections of beta-amyloid. The accumulation of this protein in the brain is believed to kill nerve cells and initiate the degenerative process.

Even though Dr. Munoz leads his own experiments with monkeys, the prospect of humanizing animal brains is disturbing to him. "To be honest, it just really ethically scares me,” Dr. Munoz told the <a href="https://nationalpost.com/">National Post</a>. "For us to start to manipulate life functions in this kind of way without fully knowing how to turn it off, or stop it if something goes awry really scares me.”

The Yale experts behind the new book, including visiting researcher Dr.Alejandro De Los Angeles, expressed their own concerns about the enhanced capacity for suffering among humanized monkeys. "Whether chimerism in portions of the monkey brain would affect cognition or emotion is unknown,” they wrote.

“The issue is complicated by the fact that no human-monkey chimera can have any chance at life at all, except as a research subject; it may be that, if the chimera has a life that is not too burdensome, there may be fewer objections to its having been created in a lab.”

According to the National Post, the book authors recommend a step-by-step approach to creating human-monkey ‘chimeras’. The creation of monkey-ape chimeras, for example, may provide scientists with an opportunity to ensure such experimentation complies with animal welfare standards. 

Bing Su of Kunming, who was involved in the research at the Kunming Institute of Zoology, told <a href="https://www.nbc.com/">NBC</a> in an email that the study was approved by the institute’s ethics board. "In theory and in reality, there is no ‘humanness’ observed in the MCPH1 transgenic monkeys, since only one gene was changed among tens of millions of genetic differences between humans and monkeys," he said.

However, there are others who argue that the research is not only unethical but is also unnecessary. 

"Alzheimer's disease is a human-specific condition, and genetic engineering and the creation of human-monkey 'chimeras' are unethical, curiosity-driven Frankenscience," Julia Baines of  PETA told <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">MailOnline</a>. "Inserting human genes into the genome of sentient monkeys in a vain attempt to 'humanize' them will serve only to intensify animal suffering."

"To achieve the ultimate goal of curing Alzheimer's disease - and to alleviate the suffering of millions of patients around the globe - PETA is calling for further funding, development, and use of humane, human-relevant techniques. Such research methods offer real, tangible solutions, not ones based in fantasy."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Zzvet

Experts question the morality of creating human-monkey ‘chimeras’

Experts question the morality of creating human-monkey ‘chimeras’. Earlier this...

Dairy cows contain the same group of microbes, and these microorganisms control methane emissions produced by digestion, new research shows. 

Understanding how cow microbiomes are linked could help researchers manipulate microbes and digestion in the rumen of the cow to help reduce emissions and pave the way for more sustainable and eco-friendly agriculture.

In humans, the importance of the gut microbiome cannot be understated. Our unique flora of microbes and bacteria aids in digestion and helps strengthen the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/link-gut-microbiome-fight-cancer/">immune response.</a> 

Some of our gut microbiome is inherited through genetics, and researchers have wondered about the links between the cow microbiome and genetics. 

Robert John Wallace, a professor at the <a href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/">University of Aberdeen</a>, along with a team of colleagues, studied the genotypes of 1,000 Holstein and Nordic Red dairy cows from the UK, Italy, Sweden, and Finland looking for genetic variations. 

The researchers discovered that at least 50 percent of the cows studied contained the same core group of microbes. 

Next, the researchers used machine learning to try and predict milk output, metabolism, and methane emissions based on the microbes present in this core microbiome. 

The results, published in the journal Science Advances, showed that inherited genes produce microbes that control methane emissions.

If breeders can selectively breed cows to produce less methane, it could help lessen the burden of emissions produced by the meat and dairy industry. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/J R Patterson

Dairy cow microbiome could yield the key to eco-friendly agriculture

Dairy cows contain the same group of microbes, and these...

Researchers at the <a href="http://www.aecom.yu.edu/">Albert Einstein College of Medicine</a> have assembled the first complete wiring diagram of the nervous system of an animal. The study was focused on the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, and reveals some significant differences between the male and female specimens.

The achievement marks a major milestone in the field of "connectomics," the production of comprehensive maps of the brain or nervous system to identify the specific <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/medical-marijuana-chronic-nerve-pain/">nerve connections</a> responsible for various behaviors.

Study lead author Dr. Scott Emmons is a professor of Genetics in the Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience.

"Structure is always central in biology," said Dr. Emmons. "The structure of DNA revealed how genes work, and the structure of proteins revealed how enzymes function. Now, the structure of the nervous system is revealing how animals behave and how neural connections go wrong to cause disease."

Experts theorize that some neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism, are problems caused by faulty connections. 

"This hypothesis is strengthened by the finding that several mental disorders are associated with mutations in genes that are thought to determine connectivity," said Dr. Emmons. "Connectomics has the potential to help us understand the basis of some mental illnesses, possibly suggesting avenues for therapy."

An adult C. elegans grows to just one millimeter in length and contains about 1,000 cells that make up a simple nervous system with a few hundred neurons. This makes the roundworm one of the best animal models for understanding the human brain, which is billions of times more complex.

The laboratory of the late British biologist Dr. Sydney Brenner published the first map of the C. elegans nervous system in 1986, after analyzing thousands of electron micrographs of the roundworm. 

Using specially developed software, Dr. Emmons' team combined new roundworm electron micrographs with the ones used by Dr. Brenner to create complete wiring diagrams of entire adult animals of both C. elegans sexes. The diagrams include all connections between individual neurons, connections from neurons to the worm's muscles and other tissues, and synapses between the muscle cells.

"While the synaptic pathways in the two sexes are substantially similar, a number of the synapses differ in strength, providing a basis for understanding sex-specific behaviors," explained Dr. Emmons. 

"These connected networks serve as starting points for deciphering the neural control of C. elegans behavior. Since the roundworm nervous system contains many of the same molecules as the human nervous system, what we learn about the former can help us understand the latter."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Giovanni Cancemi

Scientists assemble the first full diagram of an animal’s nervous system

Researchers at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine have assembled...

New Deputy Secretary of the Interior has an alarming environmental record. Since the departure of former Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke, it’s worth asking whether anything has improved in the leadership of the department. 

After Zinke <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ryan-zinkes-departure-environment/">left the Department of the Interior</a> in disgrace, assistant Secretary David Bernhardt stepped up to fill his place and seemingly carry on his legacy of environmental destruction and indifference. <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/04/16/trumps-new-interior-secretary-is-now-under-investigation.html">CNBC</a> reported that just days after Bernhardt was confirmed in his new office, the Department of the Interior’s inspector general office confirmed they were investigating him for ethics violations. The violations seem to mainly stem from his own time as Deputy Secretary of the Interior. <a href="https://www.outsideonline.com/2390596/david-bernhardt-scandal-tracker">Outside Online</a> reported that Bernhardt has been involved in at least 17 scandals so far. 

Until recently, Bernhardt’s promotion left the position of Deputy Secretary of the Interior open. On June 24, 2019, Susan Combs was confirmed as the new Deputy Secretary of the Interior, under Bernhardt. Before this recent promotion, Combs worked in the Department of the Interior as the temporary assistant secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, a position she was initially nominated for by Ryan Zinke. 

Combs was responsible for overseeing the Endangered Species Act, a responsibility she largely saw to by trying to roll back wildlife protections. Trump’s Department of the Interior even suggested a full revision of the Endangered Species Act, <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/51.11/latest-interior-combatant-confirmed-to-department">High Country News</a> reported. There is no surprise about Combs’ distaste for wildlife protections if you look further back in her history. 

Before her time in the Department of the Interior, Combs worked as comptroller of Texas, where she is a native. As Texas Land Commissioner, Combs argued that protections for the Golden-Cheeked Warbler negatively impacted military readiness in central Texas. The argument was that because of the warbler, the military base operated under training restrictions, an opinion that was contradicted by officials at the military base. In fact at that time, there were no training restrictions because of the Golden-Cheeked Warbler. After the contradiction became apparent, Anne Idsal, George W. Bush’s chief aide, reached out to the staff of the three star general operating the base and within hours, their official story changed, claiming the bird was negatively impacting their training. 

Combs has been critical of species protections throughout her career. The <a href="https://m.washingtontimes.com">Washington Times</a> reported in 2013 that as Texas Comptroller, Combs questioned the science behind the US Fish &amp; Wildlife’s decision-making on listing species under the Endangered Species Act. Combs led Texas in setting aside $5 million to fight what she viewed as spurious listings on the Endangered Species Act.

Susan Combs was primarily asking for independent scientific review of the research done by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> to determine eligibility for a species listing. In 2011, the <a href="https://m.washingtontimes.com">Washington Times</a> reported that there was a backlog of 251 species which the Department of the Interior had to decide to list for protection or not, a task that they agreed to complete in six years. Combs and other state politicians argued that the federal government didn’t have the capacity to scientifically make these decisions in that amount of time.

2011 was also an important year in Texas for endangered species. According to the <a href="https://www.statesman.com/news/20180409/how-texas-fights-endangered-species-protections-critter-by-critter">Austin American-Statesman</a>, that year the oversight of the Endangered Species Act in Texas was moved from Texas Parks and Wildlife where it had been managed for years. Instead, the Endangered Species Act was henceforth to be managed by the comptroller's office, a move that Combs supported. Texas is the only state in which the top financial official is in charge of overseeing protection of wildlife. 

Despite Comb’s call for more unbiased science used for endangered species protections, her own record shows a clear bias. Her own state’s research on the golden cheeked warbler is controversial, showing larger populations of the bird than previously suspected. The findings are also contradicted by <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> which says the warbler should remain on the Endangered Species Act. The researcher that carried out the study was also on the board (with Combs) of Texas Wildlife Association, a land rights organization that already supported delisting the warbler. 

Susan Combs has consistently been opposed to wildlife protections, even putting conservation and habitat conservation planning for the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard in the hands of the oil and gas industry working in the Permian Basin where the lizard lives, the <a href="https://www.texasobserver.org/trump-taps-texan-susan-combs-fierce-critic-of-endangered-species-act/">Texas Observer</a> reported. Combs is also a former visiting fellow of the Texas Public Policy Foundation, an organization funded by Koch Industries and oil companies, <a href="https://westernvaluesproject.org/senate-votes-to-confirm-conflicted-susan-combs-to-top-interior-position/">Western Values Project</a> reports. Combs also has investments in oil and gas that have earned her recently as much as $2.1 million.  

Obviously, Susan Combs has a track record that worries many environmentalists and those who care about the future of the Department of the Interior. Much like her boss and Ryan Zinke before him, Combs has ties to ranching and oil, interests she’s supposed to be working to manage against the weight of environmental and biological conservation. Still, Combs was confirmed, with a <a href="https://www.staugustine.com/news/20190608/congressional-votes-for-week-of-may-31-june-6-2019">congressional vote</a> of 57 yeas to 36 nays. It took almost two years of waiting, but Combs is officially the Deputy Secretary of the Interior.

It seems unlikely that Combs alone is more of a threat than others in the department or those who came before her, but there seems to be a shared vision of dismantling any protection for public lands or endangered species afforded under federal law. This is just part of the Trump administration’s continued <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-record-environment-2020/">history</a> pushing environmental regulations out of the way of profit. In the end, it won’t be the rich that suffer from this short-sighted strategy, it will be the poor and those non-humans with no power to protect themselves.                              

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>                       

Image Credit: Steve Maslowski/U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

New Deputy Secretary of the Interior has an alarming environmental record

New Deputy Secretary of the Interior has an alarming environmental...

The middle of the dog pack is a free-for-all fight up the social ladder, a new study has revealed.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and the Veterinary Service of the Local Health Unit Rome 3 in Italy studied a pack of 27 roaming mongrels in Rome to see how aggression played out within the dominance hierarchy. 

It was previously thought that the higher up the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-wild-dogs-sneezing/">canine social ladder</a> you went, the more aggression you would find as top dogs battle it out to defend their status.  

However, the researchers found that middle-dogs were more likely to assert their dominance in hopes of moving up and establishing a pecking order. 

“Our results reveal the unavoidable costs of climbing a dominance hierarchy,” said Dr. Matthew Silk, a member of the research team. “In the middle of the hierarchy - where it’s harder to predict which animal should be dominant - we see lots of aggression.”

Over the course of a year, the researchers observed the pack of dogs which depended on humans for food but roamed freely throughout the city suburbs and kept to themselves. 

[caption id="attachment_1874715" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/dog-pack.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874715" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/dog-pack.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="430" /></a> Wild dogs living on the outskirts of Rome. Image Credit: Simona Cafazzo[/caption]

The hierarchy was based on sex and age with older male dogs dominating younger dogs. Males were also dominant over females of the same age. 

“Fighting over food and mates uses energy and time and can lead to injuries, so hierarchies play an important role because animals know their place without needing to fight,” said Robbie McDonald, a fellow researcher.  

Because the middle of the pack consisted of mostly young males, aggression was more common.

If a dog displayed dominance, it was characterized by an upright posture, the tail and head high, and sometimes laying a paw on another dog’s back.  

“Although fights within a social group of free-roaming dogs are usually characterized by low-intensity aggression, the middle of the hierarchy is occupied by young males of similar size and age, among whom nothing is definitive and for whom the challenge is to gain rank,” said Dr. Simona Cafazzo, of the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna.

The researchers published their findings in a new study in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 

-

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Simona Cafazzo

The middle of the pack is a dog-eat-dog fight for dominance

The middle of the dog pack is a free-for-all fight...

Hidden in plain sight are a group of insects that, for all of their cryptic inclinations, like to dance. Many of the 3,000 species of the order Phasmatodea—commonly known as stick and leaf insects—add to their already spectacular camouflage by swaying to mimic the movement of vegetation in the breeze. 

There have been reports of multiple insects swaying together in a silent disco of sorts, like rejected backup booty from the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ViftZTfRSt8">dance scene</a> in Labyrinth. Far from a leisure activity, this entomological choreography likely assists them in blending in with their leafy homes and avoiding predation, a theory corroborated by a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/27/1/83/1742619">2016 study</a>.

It’s been a successful strategy: these enigmatic creatures have adapted to forests and grasslands on all continents but Antarctica, though they are most abundant in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hunting-decline-mammals-tropical-forests/">tropics</a>. From the massive two-foot long Phryganistria chinensis Zhao, the longest insect in the world, to the tiny, half-inch long Timema cristinae, they are a remarkably diverse group. 

Some are flattened and foliage-like, even sporting blemishes and holes that mirror the imperfections of real leaves. Others are whip-thin and stick-like. While most are shades of green and brown, a few, such as the Malagasy species <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2019.00105/full">discovered in 2019</a>, are brilliantly colored. Flight capabilities vary as well: there are winged species and species that are wingless and earthbound. 

[caption id="attachment_1874620" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Epidares-nolimetangere.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874620" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Epidares-nolimetangere.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="485" /></a> Epidares nolimetangere, Image Credit: Bernard Dupont[/caption]

While their visual dissimulation and largely nocturnal habits are enough to protect them from most predators, their juicy bodies make them prime prey. Sometimes blending into the background just isn’t enough. Luckily, they have other tricks up their skinny sleeves. Many will drop to the ground when threatened, blending in with dead vegetation, sometimes after having startled their antagonist with a flash of spectacularly patterned wings. 

Most are autotomous—capable of shedding limbs—leaving attackers to content themselves with a chitinous and unappetizing leg. Individuals that have not yet fully matured can regrow them with the next molt, though they are smaller. Occasionally, adults that would not otherwise molt do so in order to regenerate a limb as well. And many can slime their enemies with pungent hemolymph—blood—ejected from specialized orifices in their joints or spray them with a chemical deterrent. 

Their reproductive habits may also contribute to their ubiquity. A number of species are parthenogenetic—that is, females can produce offspring without mating. Some let their eggs drop randomly, allowing them to be found by foraging ants. Because the eggs possess a fatty nodule that the ants can eat, they are transported back to their nests. Once the greasy treat has been consumed, the eggs themselves are discarded in the ants’ refuse pile—an unlikely place for most creatures to find a meal. There, they safely incubate and eventually hatch. And because phasmid eggs are uniquely strong due to the high content of calcium oxalate in the shells, some are able to hatch even if an egg-bearing female is eaten by a bird. 

When their poor mother has been digested and excreted, a small proportion of the eggs <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecy.2230?referrer_access_token=AHoc2bmmuqznmdvtQ518pE4keas67K9QMdWULTWMo8PwtGssas92l20oN0sKhYZlQ0spXwMeLtuGwLobAQUiBckf1MH3SyA-1QYwY66m2oMcxXr6q7lxi5OzxgZlh8pa8-U7PxgNw6JbTohoPFxL7Q%3D%3D">survive and hatch</a>. The parthenogenetic component of this process is important here. Many insects fertilize their eggs as they are being laid, making use of the sperm packet that they stored during mating. However, because some stick insects are capable of laying fertile eggs without mating, this process is unnecessary and even eggs that have not yet been laid make it through the digestive process. This unique adaptation may have facilitated their spread across the globe—like the seeds they resemble, the eggs are transported far and wide in avian bellies. 

It is their appeal to avian predators that led to the rediscovery of the Lord Howe Island stick insect (Dryococelus australis), thought to be relegated to an island off of Australia. This massive, black phasmid was believed to have been wiped out soon after a shipwreck introduced rats to its home in 1918. Rats, being generalist predators, have ravaged the wildlife of numerous islands and Lord Howe was no exception. However, in 1964, climbers found a dead specimen on Balls Pyramid, a precipitous volcanic islet southeast of Lord Howe. Several years later, more dead ones were found at the peak. They are thought to have been deposited there by seabirds. 

[caption id="attachment_1874621" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Aschiphasma-annulipes.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874621" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Aschiphasma-annulipes.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="399" /></a> Aschiphasma annulipes, Image Credit: Bernard Dupont[/caption]

It was not <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nicholas_Carlile/publication/230017970_The_recovery_programme_for_the_Lord_Howe_Island_Phasmid_Dryococelus_australis_following_its_rediscovery/links/5c203f0392851c22a341d399/The-recovery-programme-for-the-Lord-Howe-Island-Phasmid-Dryococelus-australis-following-its-rediscovery.pdf">until 2001</a>, however, that living stick insects were discovered on the remote volcanic peak. Due to slight morphological differences between these specimens and preserved ones from the original Lord Howe Island population, it was suspected that these might be another species. However, <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(17)31098-9">genetic analysis</a> proved that they were likely the same. Thought to be among the rarest animals on Earth, they are now being reared in zoos.

Despite their cosmopolitan distribution and impressive size, little is known about the habits of many phasmid species—even diet and mating habits are obscure. Males of some species have never been seen. Their Delphic existence is, appropriately enough, reflected in their nomenclature, which derives from the Greek for “phantom.” In Māori mythology, the presence of stick insects—associated with the forest god Tāne indicated that one was traversing a holy site and when they landed on a woman, it was believed she was pregnant. Guillermo del Toro’s film Pan’s Labyrinth features a fairy who disguises itself in stick insect form. 

These numinous associations speak to the imaginative power of these strange and otherworldly beasts. The inanimate made animate, they are among the closest things we have to the fantastical inhabitants of fairy tales—talking clocks and flying carpets. The walking sticks and leaf insects, enchanting as they may be, are, however, utterly practical. Their dances and masterful disguises are the products of an evolutionary arms race, a desperate bid to avoid being devoured.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Main Image Credit: Michael Whitehead

&nbsp;

Fantastic phasmids: The mysterious lives of stick insects

Hidden in plain sight are a group of insects that,...

What makes some species prosocial and others solitary and aggressive towards members of their own kind? 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.cnrs.fr/en/cnrs">National Centre for Scientific Research</a> in France studied spiders to see why young spiderlings who have a high level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-social-spiders-groups/">social tolerance</a> later disperse to live in solitary isolation. 

This dispersion coincides with a major decrease in social tolerance in adult spiders with some even eating other members of their species. 

It is not well understood why prosocial behaviors are so sporadic or temporary for some species or why isolation leads to social intolerance. 

The researchers monitored spiderlings that belonged the labyrinth spider species (Agelena labyrinthica), which are solitary. 

Behavioral and chemical modeling were used to determine what underlying mechanisms drive the transition from prosocial to antisocial and eventual isolating dispersal. 

The researchers found that as a spiderling matures, it naturally gains more mobility and freedom to wander. This increased mobility leads to the spider dispersing away from its siblings. After five days, the researchers saw that the spiderlings dispersed without any changes in social behavior. 

However, once away from the pack, an isolated spider started exhibiting aggressiveness, and social isolation changed the way the spider perceived other members of the same species. 

Spiderlings that were socially isolated were aggressive to their siblings who had spent more time in close proximity. 

Dispersion doesn’t directly cause aggression, but it’s a consequence of being socially isolated, the researchers found. 

“We are now exploring the mechanisms explaining why spiderlings exposed to social isolation behave aggressively,” said Raphael Jeanson, the leader of the study. “Our favorite hypothesis, currently under testing, is that isolation leads spiderlings to forget the social cues emitted by siblings.” 

The study, published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000319">PLOS Biology</a>, could help researchers understand prosocial behaviors and dispersion in other species of solitary spiders. 

“We believe that our findings open interesting perspectives to understand how permanent sociality, which characterizes about 30 out of the almost 50,000 species of spiders described thus far, has evolved,” said Jeanson. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Jean-Jacques MILAN

Solitude and isolation makes spiders aggressive

What makes some species prosocial and others solitary and aggressive...

Experts in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> have developed a technique to significantly increase the toughness of glass. The research, led by Professor François Barthelat, was inspired by mollusk shells and the impact-resistant material that is found in their inner layer.

"Mollusk shells are made up of about 95 percent chalk, which is very brittle in its pure form," said Professor Barthelat. "But nacre, or mother-of-pearl, which coats the inner shells, is made up of microscopic tablets that are a bit like miniature Lego building blocks, is known to be extremely strong and tough, which is why people have been studying its structure for the past twenty years."

Professor Barthelat noted that whether glass is used in a car or a smartphone, its components are "always the weakest links and the most fragile in the entire system." 

To imitate the "building blocks" of nacre, the researchers used an ultraviolet laser beam to carve square or hexagonal patterns onto tiny borosilicate glass sheets. The plates were then covered with thin layers of plastic and separated into individual tiles about one to four millimeters wide.

"Any glass scientist will tell you that shooting a powerful laser into a piece of glass is a bad idea because it will create defects and decrease strength," said Professor Barthelat. "However, our glass is a nice example where material removal and seemingly weakening processes actually makes the material much better!"

The modified glass was found to be two to three times stronger than tempered or laminated glass and 15 to 24 times stronger than plain <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/discarded-glass-concrete/">glass</a>. 

"The fabrication method we developed is relatively easy and scalable - one could make industrial volumes of this material very easily and at a reasonable cost," explained Professor Barthelat. 

The research team plans to experiment with a variety of designs using the new glass, such as thin sheets for touch screens. "We also want to develop versions of our nacre-glass that are bendable - a thin plate of this glass would flex to large deformations, and then recover without damage," said Professor Barthelat.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/otravva

A new type of glass was inspired by mollusk shells

Experts in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at McGill University...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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