Sockeye,Salmon,Spawning,In,River,,British,Columbia,,Canada

In northern California, rivers feed people, wildlife, and culture. But what fuels these river waters? Scientists found that a partnership between microscopic algae and specialized bacteria feeds the food web from the ground up. It is not fertilizer, not runoff, but life itself that is keeping rivers alive.



Along the Eel river, this unexpected algae partnership benefits the health of the ecosystem and supports the salmon populations. 



Salmon are at the center of it all - they are food, heritage and a sign of healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-earths-bending-rivers-could-help-us-find-water-on-other-planets/">waters</a>. When salmon run strong, rivers thrive. When they struggle, entire communities feel the loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-and-bacteria-work-together">Algae and bacteria work together</h2>



The study shows how tiny algae and bacteria work as one. Together they create a clean nitrogen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rivers-split-a-century-old-mystery-has-finally-been-solved/">source</a> that acts as a natural engine, powering the food chain without pollution. 



The key player is a diatom named&nbsp;Epithemia, that carries inside it bacterial partners called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37066385/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diazoplasts</a>.



“This is nature’s version of a clean nutrient pipeline, from sunlight to fish, without the runoff that creates harmful algal blooms,” said Jane Marks, biology professor at <a href="https://nau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>, and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-epithemia-works">How Epithemia works</h2>



The diatom captures sunlight and turns it into sugar. The diazoplast eats that sugar and uses the energy to pull nitrogen from the air. In return, it hands nitrogen back to the diatom. 



The diatom then keeps making more sugar. The loop is tight, efficient, and endlessly productive.



“It’s like a handshake deal: both sides benefit, and the entire river thrives,” said Mike Zampini, a postdoctoral researcher at NAU and isotope tracing lead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmon-thrive-on-epithemia">Salmon thrive on Epithemia</h2>



In spring, Cladophora algae grow long and green, using runoff <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meandering-rivers-shaped-early-landscapes-before-plants-arrived/">nutrients</a>. By summer, nutrients run low. Epithemia takes over. 



It covers Cladophora until the mats turn rusty red. At this stage, almost 90 percent of new nitrogen in the food web comes from Epithemia.



“Healthy rivers don’t just happen - they’re maintained by ecological interactions, like this partnership,” said Mary Power, co-author of the study and faculty director of <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>’s Angelo Coast Range Reserve.



Insects such as caddisflies feed on the mats. Young salmon eat the insects. A chain begins with invisible microbes and ends with one of the most important fish in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-feed-river-insects">Algae feed river insects</h2>



Caddisflies grazing on algae thick with Epithemia&nbsp;gain far more energy than those feeding on plain green algae. They take in ten times more carbon. Nitrogen transfer reaches over half of what the diatoms fix. 



Insects also prefer diatoms because they are easier to digest. Their thin silica shells crack open more easily than the walls of green algae.



Diatoms are richer too. They carry fatty acids, carotenoids, and even thiamine. This last nutrient matters for salmon. 



Without enough thiamine, hatchlings often fail. By supplying insects with thiamine-rich cells, Epithemia helps salmon indirectly, but crucially.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-roles-in-summer">Changing roles in summer</h2>



Cladophora&nbsp;begins the season as the main producer. But as&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;spreads, the green algae fade. They stop making much food themselves. Instead, they serve as scaffolding, a support structure for diatom growth. 



Even in this weakened state, Cladophora matters. Its filaments stretch across rocks, providing space for billions of microbes to attach.



This switch shows how ecosystems adapt. One species starts the chain. Another takes over when conditions change. Together they keep the food web running, even during lean months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epithemia-dominate-healthy-rivers">Epithemia dominate healthy rivers</h2>



Not all microbes fix nitrogen equally. Many free-living bacteria can do it, but diazoplasts dominate in the Eel River. By late summer, they fix nearly 90 percent of all new nitrogen. 



Their close tie with&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;gives diazoplasts the edge. While free-living bacteria must split their effort between different jobs, diazoplasts specialize in one: fixing nitrogen.



That specialization makes them fast, efficient, and critical to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-are-releasing-a-massive-amount-of-carbon-dioxide-into-the-air/">ecosystem</a>. Their size also matters. Even when they are few, they make up most of the biomass of nitrogen fixers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-nitrogen-production">Fuel for nitrogen production </h2>



This is not a small-scale effect. Field surveys show that mats of red&nbsp;Cladophora&nbsp;cover nearly a quarter of some streambeds. Despite covering less ground than other algae, they produce over half the nitrogen in the system. 



When scaled across the river network, the contribution is huge. Scientists estimate that about 90 percent of midsummer nitrogen comes from&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;and its diazoplasts.



That rivals the productivity of massive cyanobacteria blooms seen elsewhere. Yet here, the same force is carried by a diatom the size of a hair’s width.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-partnerships-are-found-worldwide">Algae partnerships are found worldwide</h2>



Diatom-bacteria partnerships like this are not unique to the Eel River. They appear in lakes, rivers, and oceans around the world, especially in places where nitrogen is scarce. They may quietly boost food webs far more than scientists realized.



This has human implications too. If crops or biofuels could mimic the same process, farmers might cut costs and reduce pollution. Instead of spreading chemical fertilizers, plants could feed themselves using microbial help.



"When nature engineers solutions this elegant, it reminds us what’s possible when people, places and discovery come together," said Professor Marks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epithemia-and-future-salmon-survival">Epithemia and future salmon survival</h2>



The lesson is clear. Salmon survival depends on far more than the obvious. It rests on unseen alliances between algae and bacteria, locked in a trade of sugar and nitrogen. 



By following these links, we see how even the smallest Epithemia cells can shape an entire river ecosystem.



Using stable isotope tracing and advanced imaging, the researchers followed carbon and nitrogen from single cells to entire watersheds. 



They showed how invisible interactions scale up into forces that sustain fish, rivers, and even human culture.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503108122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Salmon have their own 'secret superfood' in rivers that helps them survive and thrive

In northern California, rivers feed people, wildlife, and culture. But what fuels these river waters? Scientists found that a partnership between microscopic algae and specialized bacteria feeds the food web from the ground up. It is not fertilizer, not runoff, but life itself that is keeping rivers alive. Along the Eel river, this unexpected algae partnership benefits the health of the ecosystem and supports the salmon populations. Salmon are at the center of it all - they are food, heritage and a sign of healthy waters. When...

The Wind River Reservation is a 1.7 million-plus acre home to the Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho tribes. The reservation was established in 1864 by the Bridger-Teton treaty with the US government. As with most reservations, this one had been stripped of its <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bison-american-survival-story/">bison</a> herds, leaving the Native American residents on the land more dependent on food from the federal government and farming than they were traditionally. 

A paper in The <a href="https://history.msu.edu/hst321/files/2010/07/smits-on-bison.pdf">Western Historical Quarterly</a> reports how US military leaders in the late 1800s encouraged the slaughter of bison and often saw such destruction as a way of subjugating and defeating Native Americans. Because of this and the importance of the bison to the physical and spiritual cultures of many western Native American groups, bison remain a potent symbol of indigenous identity. 

Like much of the ecological landscape of North America, The Wind River Reservation’s ecology is a broken remnant of its pre-Colombian glory. Jason Baldes, Tribal Bison Coordinator for the National Wildlife Federation and Wind River Reservation tribal member, told me that after the bison, pronghorn antelope and bighorn sheep were extirpated from the Wind River Reservation prior to 1984. Baldes compared the American prairie that once was to an unspoiled Africa.

"I took a trip to East Africa with my dad in the late 90s and witnessed the wildebeest migration,” Baldes said. “It was incredible to see, but what was more unfathomable was that the 1.5 million wildebeest is less than 5% of what the bison population was here, less than 200 years ago. My dad is a retired wildlife biologist, and I grew up understanding the intrinsic value of wildlife as part of our cultural ties and subsistence lifestyle, it is what we eat."

[caption id="attachment_1874604" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/bison.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874604" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/bison.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="419" /></a> Image Credit: Jacob Byk[/caption]

The basic fact of Native American groups eating bison and other wild animals shows the importance of these creatures. Wild animals are not simply animals to enjoy looking at, they are life itself. One could argue for entire tribal groups, bison and other wild game were independence as well. 

This is why Jason Baldes has been working with the National Wildlife Federation to move bison that would otherwise be culled, off of federal land and reintroduced to Native American land, including the Wind River Reservation. To Baldes, the work is important for the healing of his people from past atrocities and the preservation of cultural identity.

"The importance of buffalo to our people cannot be understated, it is our relative,” Baldes said. “The Eastern Shoshone are the gweechoon deka, the buffalo eaters. We have had ties to the animal for millennia, but have been separated for 130+ years.  Buffalo is part of us, and is central to our ceremonies and spiritual belief ways, and is important for our diet. Even though they haven’t been in our community for a long time, we are still tied to them. Having our relative home, helps us to heal from the atrocities of the past...Bringing buffalo home to the Shoshone people is healing. The buffalo are most important for our young people, so they can know who they are, and be proud of being Shoshone."

The <a href="https://www.nwf.org/">National Wildlife Federation</a> has been working with tribal and the federal government to promote reintroduction of wildlife including bison to Native American lands. Recently, with the involvement of the National Wildlife Federation, an agreement was made between the Fort Peck Tribes and the Eastern Shoshone of the Wind River Reservation. The Fort Peck Reservation already has a large and healthy bison population, descendants of bison from Yellowstone National Park. 

[caption id="attachment_1874605" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/reservation.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874605" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/reservation.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="423" /></a> Image Credit: Jacob Byk[/caption]

The population is healthy enough to support hunting, a small step towards returning bison to the center of life again. Now, the Fort Peck Tribes have agreed to exchange bison with the Wind River Reservation. Initially, five male bison were set to be released on June 23 during a powwow. Unfortunately, bad weather delayed capturing bison on the Fort Peck Reservation and moving them to their new home at the Wind River Reservation. The good news is that after a delay, the bison were released on the evening of the 26th. Jason Baldes told me this was an important step for bison conservation but also as a display of tribal sovereignty.

"This release is important because it brings together Tribes of the Buffalo nation,” Baldes said. “The Government to Government agreement between the Fort Peck Tribes of Montana and the Eastern Shoshone Tribe demonstrates the importance of the buffalo to our communities. Fort Peck has led the way in Yellowstone Bison conservation and restoration, and they want to help other tribes ‘bring the buffalo home.’ This will be the first Tribe to Tribe interstate transfer of Yellowstone Buffalo. This exercise in sovereignty among Tribes, strengthens buffalo conservation and cultural revitalization in our communities and sets the pace for other Tribes to do the same." 

Currently, the Wind River bison herd is modest. Before the release, the reservation was home to 27 bison, including four recent calves. The new bison bring the total to 32, but Jason Baldes seems optimistic about the future. Work is ongoing to secure a larger range for the small bison herd and grow it larger.

“There is potential, on the Wind River Reservation, to manage buffalo on hundreds of thousands of acres if people are willing to do it,” Baldes said. “A benchmark for conservation populations is a minimum of 1000 animals, in order to maintain genetic heterogeneity and variability. Two to three times that benchmark are foreseeable. Hunting by tribal members will be the primary mode of management.”

The reservation has already come a long way towards restoring their native wildlife. 7 of 7 native ungulate species are on the Wind River Reservation, with six of them living in populations large enough to support tribal hunting. Bison are currently not on the Wind River Reservation in numbers large enough to support hunting. The history of the bison is perhaps unique in American history, often treated as a Native American cow rather than a wild animal in its own right. Jason Baldes told me that to create a better future for the bison, respect is needed.

“For some reason, people feel the need to treat buffalo like cattle, through roundups, ear-tagging, vaccinations etc,” he said. “No other wildlife species go through that treatment. We need a paradigm shift to one that respects the intrinsic value the animal has. Buffalo is a keystone species, benefitting a host of others as it utilizes the landscape. We shouldn’t measure the value of buffalo on the landscape in terms of money.”

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Main Image Credit: Jacob Byk

Wind River Reservation welcomes bison in historic exchange between tribes

The Wind River Reservation is a 1.7 million-plus acre home...

Jellyfish kill more people than sharks due to their evolved toxin genes. A research team led by Joseph Ryan at the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> has analyzed the genomes of three very different types of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-break-free-seafloor/">jellyfish</a> with toxicity levels ranging from harmless to deadly. The study pinpointed a variety of venom-related genes, and will provide a basis for discovering how these toxic genes evolved among jellyfish. 

The research was focused on the genome sequencing of the deadly winged box jellyfish, the upside-down jellyfish, and the stalked jellyfish. As a result of this research, there are now genome sequences for all five lineages of the Medusozoa.Jellyfish kill more people than sharks due to their evolved toxin genes

"With these new genomes, for the first time, we were able to compare gene content of all 5 classes of cnidarians (Anthozoa, Hydrozoa, Cubozoa, Staurozoa, Scyphozoa). This broad survey provides an important overview of genomic evolution in cnidarians," said Ryan.

Jellyfish kill more people than sharks, sea snakes, and stingrays combined. Approximately 100 people are killed each year by lethal box jellyfish stings, but the exact number is unknown and may be even higher. 

"Box jellyfish are among the most venomous animals on the planet and therefore their genomes are important resources for developing antivenoms as well as potential drugs," said Ryan. "Our survey included a focused assessment of venom-related genes, providing insight into the evolution of cnidarian venom."

Across all three species of jellyfish, the researchers identified 117 putative venom proteins, 9 of which were found to be unique to cnidarians. 

The winged box jellyfish genome was the only one that contained a toxin gene called CqTx. The CqTx protein creates pores in the membranes of cells which results in the destruction of red blood cells, known as hemolysis.

Some box jellyfish stings can stop the human heart within 5 minutes, so the identification of the CqTx toxin gene may shed new light on what makes these stings so deadly. 

The study also revealed that the loss and duplication of another toxin gene, CrTx, played a large role in the evolution of jellyfish. The upside-down jellyfish was found to contain one CrTx gene, the winged box jellyfish had five copies of the gene, and the stalked jellyfish had none.

"Gene loss is an important driver of evolutionary change," explained Ryan. "Having draft genomes allows for accurate inferences of gene loss and for understanding the phenotypic contribution of gene loss in these animals. Furthermore, these genomes provide information about the order of genes in the genome, which in some cases allow for independent verification of the identification of hard-to-classify genes."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/gigascience">GigaScience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Shahar Shabtai

Jellyfish kill more people than sharks due to their evolved toxin genes

Jellyfish kill more people than sharks due to their evolved...

The smallest forms of life are essential for the health of the entire marine food web, including many of the fish that are in the greatest commercial demand. A new study suggests that focusing on individual fish populations is not an effective strategy to protect ecosystems from the damage and insecurity associated with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/older-fish-disappearing/">overfishing</a>. 

"In simple terms, to successfully manage fisheries in an ecosystem, the rate of removal for all fishes combined must be equal to or less than the rate of renewal for all those fish,"said study co-author Jason Link, who is the senior scientist for ecosystem management at <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/">NOAA Fisheries</a>.

The researchers propose that three particular indices could be monitored, using widely available catch and satellite data, to determine when ecosystem overfishing is occurring. These factors include: when the total catch of all fish is declining, the total catch rate or fishing effort required to get that catch is declining, and the total landings relative to the production in that ecosystem exceed suitable limits.

"Detecting overfishing at an ecosystem level will help to avoid many of the impacts we have seen when managing fished species on a population-by-population basis, and holds promise for detecting major shifts in ecosystem and fisheries productivity much more quickly," said Link.

The suggested thresholds for each index are based on the known limits of the productivity of any given part of the ocean. 

"We know that climate change is shifting many fish populations toward the poles, yet the fishing fleets and associated industries are not shifting with them," said Link. "That already has had serious economic and cultural impacts." 

The study authors noted that these shifts can be followed over time to see how they can exacerbate or even contribute to ecosystem overfishing. The three proposed indices represent a potential international standard for tracking the status of global fisheries ecosystems.

"They are easy to estimate and interpret, are based on widely repeated and available data, and are a practical way to identify when an ecosystem would be experiencing overfishing based on well understood and well-accepted primary production and food web limitations," said Link. 

"It would eliminate a lot of the debate about whether or not ecosystem overfishing is happening and instead focus attention on solutions. But until we can define and identify what ecosystem overfishing is, we cannot begin to address it."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Stanislav Simonyan

Three indicators could help protect marine ecosystems from overfishing

The smallest forms of life are essential for the health...

In May, the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/">United Nations</a> (UN) released a devastating <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/">report</a> detailing the unprecedented loss of biodiversity that our planet is currently facing. Now, UN experts are warning of the effects mass <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/decreases-biodiversity-habitat-loss/">biodiversity loss</a> can also have on human rights.

The UN biodiversity report, published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, found that over one million species are currently at risk of extinction. Researchers found that human activities threaten species more than at any other time in the planet’s history. 

The results are incredibly grim. The authors note that we will continue on this downwards spiral unless we implement transformative change.

Plants and animals are not the only victims of the current state of the planet. UN experts caution that biodiversity loss threatens human rights for current and future generations.

“The loss of global biodiversity is having and will continue to have devastating effects on a wide range of human rights for decades to come. This report is a stark reminder that we can simply not enjoy our basic human rights to life, health, food and safe water without a healthy environment,” David Boyd, a UN expert on human rights and the environment, said in a <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=24738&amp;LangID=E">news release</a>.

Biodiversity provides humans with food, medicine and livelihoods. Plant and animal species also ensure our ecosystems function properly which, in turn, helps to clean our air, water and soil. Ecosystems such as coral reefs can protect humans from the effects of extreme weather, which is believed to increase as a result of climate change.

A 2015 <a href="https://www.who.int/globalchange/publications/phe-pr.pdf?ua=1">report</a> by the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> and the Convention on Biological Diversity found that biodiversity loss is impacting human health worldwide. 

A decline in natural resources throughout the world could exacerbate tensions between people and countries, resulting in armed conflict.

The loss of pollinators alone threatens $577 billion in annual global crops. Additionally, an estimated 100-300 million people are at an increased risk of floods and hurricanes as a result of the decline in coastal ecosystems, the UN biodiversity <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment">report</a> found.

Communities throughout the world rely on healthy and functional ecosystems for survival. As United Nations experts state, poor communities including indigenous peoples, farmers and fishermen are particularly vulnerable to the effects of biodiversity loss. 

The UN biodiversity report helped wake up the collective conscience of humanity. While many people may not yet see the effects of biodiversity loss on their personal livelihoods, that could change in the coming years. The key to gaining buy-in for transformative change may just be the threat it poses to us personally.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Maciej Olszewski

UN experts warn that biodiversity loss can be a human rights issue

In May, the United Nations (UN) released a devastating report...

You may think of the Caribbean as a physically beautiful location to lay on the beach and sip on cocktails. Many experience the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/economic-coral-bleaching-caribbean/">Caribbean</a> this way, superficially as a backdrop to a nice vacation, but the Caribbean also has much more to offer.

Located at the southern edge of North America, in a zone of transition to the tropics of Central and South America, it’s no surprise that the Caribbean is a hotspot for biodiversity. With <a href="https://www.tripsavvy.com/number-of-islands-in-the-caribbean-1487691">7,000 individual islands</a> scattered through the sea, it’s also no surprise that the region has some fascinating endemic species. Species like Jamaica’s <a href="https://jis.gov.jm/information/symbols/jamaican-national-bird-the-doctor-bird/">SwallowTail Hummingbird</a> (Trochilus Polytmus) or Cuba’s <a href="https://prehistoric-fauna.com/Ornimegalonyx">giant, flightless owl</a> show just a glimpse of the fascinating wildlife found (or once found) in the Caribbean. 

<a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/valuing-and-protecting-biodiversity-caribbean">UN Environment</a> reports that the Caribbean is home to 11,000 plant species, around 72 of which are only found in the region. Meanwhile, Caribbean Sea itself is just as impressive as the islands it fosters.   

There are at least 12,046 <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011916">marine species</a> of 37 different taxa in the Caribbean region. Of this biodiversity, there are more than <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301864386_Coral_Reef_Fishes_Common_Fish_of_the_Caribbean">400 species of reef fish</a> in the Caribbean alone. Some of these fish naturally are more common than others. 

<a href="https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/201706/overfishing-reef-decline-threaten-greater-caribbean-and-pacific-island-fisheries-%E2%80%93-iucn-reports">Overfishing and reef decline</a> are leading to a historic decline of fish populations throughout the Caribbean. When I visited Jamaica years ago as part of a team documenting overfishing, the lack of options for fishermen was palpable. People with little money and little education turn to the only work they know to feed themselves. Throughout much of the Caribbean, all some people know is fishing, a way of life that has supplied abundant nutrition that may be coming to an end due to human overreach. This sad situation has led to many programs focusing on protecting marine species and working towards sustainable fisheries. For some fish, the situation is considerably more urgent than for others. 

The <a href="https://www.aqua.org/Experience/Animal-Index/largetooth-sawfish">Largetooth Sawfish</a>, (Pristis pristis) is just one fish of many species living in the Caribbean but it is a rather bizarre specimen. True to its name, the fish has a long protrusion on its snout lined with teeth, making it appear like a saw. Interestingly, the sawfish uses this appendage to find fish and attack them for food. Tiny sensors line the ‘saw’ allowing the fish a 6th sense which can detect the tiny electrical currents created by living animals. With this sense, the sawfish can find prey fish even in dark or muddy waters and attack the prey, securing a meal. 

Sawfish may look completely bizarre, but they have shark-like bodies and are rays. Sawfish interestingly can live in varying levels of salinity from fresh water to open ocean but are most common in estuaries and shallow bays. Often, sawfish are found in seagrasses or mangrove habitats. 

Strangely, there is even a population of the fish in <a href="https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/10/19/From-the-depths-of-Lake-Nicaragua-comes-a-fish/6851719467200/">Lake Nicaragua</a>. These fish are quite large, with an agreed maximum size of 19.7 feet long but some reports claiming fish of 23 feet in length. In fact, the largetooth sawfish is among the world’s largest fish. Unfortunately, the fish is also extremely endangered.

The sawfish was once widespread throughout the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. A different species, the smalltooth sawfish, was the first marine fish to be placed on the endangered species list in 2003. In fact, all sawfish species are endangered, according to the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/pristis-pristis/">Florida Museum</a>. The largetooth sawfish itself was listed on the endangered species list in the US in 2011. The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/43508845/43508869">IUCN Red List</a> lists largetooth sawfish as critically endangered.

Sawfish have historically been caught as impressive sport trophies and have been used for traditional medicine and for religion. In parts of Africa, the saws are used for tools or the teeth are attached to roosters legs for cock fights. Direct fishing but also the decline of the oceans lead to the decline of the largetooth sawfish as well. Sawfish are also often killed as bycatch, becoming entangled in fishing gear intended for other species. 

But recently, the Caribbean boosted protection for the rare fish. <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/06/caribbean-nations-boost-protection-for-extremely-rare-largetooth-sawfish/">Mongabay</a> reports that on June 5, Caribbean nations agreed to add the sawfish to Annex II of the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) Protocol under the Cartagena Convention. Protection for the closely related Smalltooth Sawfish have yet to be put into place under SPAW. 

Annexes I and II are the highest levels of protection for a species under the Cartagena Convention. This means that owning, trading and killing the largetooth sawfish is now illegal in the Caribbean. The Cartagena Convention was originally a protocol for cooperation in case of oil spills, agreed upon between Caribbean nations under the <a href="http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention">UN</a> in 1983 and put into force in 1986. Later the convention was expanded to protect special areas and species as well as create land based marine pollution controls. Much more research is still needed to understand the biology of such a unique fish, but strict protection is a good place to start.

Sawfish have been found previously near Florida and more recently in reasonable numbers near Costa Rica and Nicaragua as well. Largetooth sawfish haven’t been seen off the coast of Florida for decades, according to <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/five-facts-sawfishes-in-florida/">Florida Museum</a>, but those waters are still habitat. The Caribbean is a large portion of the area still occupied by largetooth sawfish as well as the smalltooth sawfish. The smalltooth sawfish is now found only in waters off the coast of Florida. 

Caribbean nations agreeing to protect the largetooth sawfish is a step towards securing their future in the world’s oceans. However, protection for the smalltooth sawfish would be very helpful as well. Globally, there are five species of sawfish and all of them are endangered. Greater protection for all of these fish would be welcome. But to truly secure their future existence, the world’s fisheries would need to be sustainable as well, a tall order for the tragedy of the commons that has become our oceans.              

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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner,</a> <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Simon Fraser University

Endangered largetooth sawfish gain greater protections in the Caribbean

You may think of the Caribbean as a physically beautiful...

Based on the detailed analysis of tooth remains, researchers have discovered that some ancient crocodilians were herbivores. The study findings suggest that the carnivorous preferences of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cultures-crocodiles-worshipped/">crocodiles</a> were replaced with plants at least three times among the distant relatives of modern crocodilians.

"The most interesting thing we discovered was how frequently it seems extinct crocodyliforms ate plants," said study author Keegan Melstrom of the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a>. "Complex teeth, which we infer to indicate herbivory, appear in the extinct relatives of crocodiles at least three times and maybe as many as six in our dataset alone."

As semiaquatic generalist carnivores, all modern-day crocodilians have relatively simple and consistent teeth. The extinct species examined for the study clearly showed a different pattern, including many specializations that are not seen today. One feature that was found among the fossils was the primitive characteristic of heterodonty, or teeth of different shapes and sizes. 

"Carnivores possess simple teeth whereas herbivores have much more complex teeth," explained Melstrom. "Omnivores, organisms that eat both plant and animal material, fall somewhere in between. Part of my earlier research showed that this pattern holds in living reptiles that have teeth, such as crocodilians and lizards. So these results told us that the basic pattern between diet and teeth is found in both mammals and reptiles, despite very different tooth shapes, and is applicable to extinct reptiles."

The researchers compared the tooth complexity of prehistoric crocodyliforms with those of living animals to reconstruct their diets. Overall, they measured 146 erupted teeth from 16 different taxa of extinct crocodyliforms.

[caption id="attachment_1874479" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/crocodyliform-life-reconstructions.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874479" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/crocodyliform-life-reconstructions.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="1136" /></a> Crocodyliform life reconstructions. Image Credit: Jorge Gonzalez[/caption]

The study revealed that shortly after the end-Triassic mass extinction, plant-eating crocodilians emerged and persisted until the end-Cretaceous mass extinction. There was also evidence to suggest that a preference for plants appeared independently at least three times in Mesozoic crocodilians.

"Our work demonstrates that extinct crocodyliforms had an incredibly varied diet," said Melstrom. "Some were similar to living crocodilians and were primarily carnivorous, others were omnivores, and still others likely specialized in plants. The herbivores lived on different continents at different times, some alongside mammals and mammal relatives, and others did not. This suggests that an herbivorous crocodyliform was successful in a variety of environments!"

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/Ondrej Prosicky

Some ancient crocodile species were herbivores

Based on the detailed analysis of tooth remains, researchers have...

From vibrant reds, greens, yellows, and blues, birds have some of the most striking and distinct colorings compared to other animals.

Melanin pigment is the key to these vivid feathers, and it is responsible for black, reddish brown, and grey feathers as well as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-shiny-feathers-trees/">iridescence</a>. 

Luckily, melanin pigment can fossilize, whereas feathers, which are made of keratin, are not preserved in prehistoric fossils. 

Researchers can use the fossilized pigments to help determine the colors of ancient birds, but the color blue remained evasive, and it was not known if blue could be preserved like other pigments. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have identified blue color tones in prehistoric birds and discovered which birds were predominantly blue.

Birds use the melanin pigments to create both structural iridescent and non-iridescent colors. The melanin packages called melanosomes can look like small spheres to cylinders and measure less than one-thousandth of a millimeter. 

By examining the melanosomes in fossils, researchers can reconstruct the color of the feathers. 

But blue is a non-iridescent structural color and difficult to reconstruct. If a bird has blue coloring, its feathers contain an array of cavities that scatter blue light. The only way to determine a blue bird’s coloring is the dark melanin that absorbs unscattered light. 

The researchers discovered that the melanosomes in blue feathers are distinctly different from feathers that are black or brown, but similar to those found in grey feathers. 

After comparing modern birds and their feather colors to closely related fossil specimens, the researchers were able to determine that the prehistoric bird Eocoracias brachyptera was blue. 

“The overlap with grey colour may suggest some common mechanism in how melanosomes are involved in making grey colouration and how these structural blue colours are formed,” said Frane Barbarovic, the leader of the study. “Based on these results in our publication we have also hypothesized potential evolutionary transition between blue and grey colour.”

Blue, although a common color in the animal kingdom, is still somewhat of a mystery to biologists as far as what purpose it serves for some species. 

By having a better understanding of which ancient birds were blue, researchers may be able to piece together the evolutionary purpose and advantages blue coloring provides birds.

The results of the study were published in the journal Interface. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Reconstruction by Marta Zaher, PhD at the University of Bristol

Scientists identify blue tones in ancient fossilized feathers

From vibrant reds, greens, yellows, and blues, birds have some...

Fossil records dating as far back as the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-fossils-china/">Cambrian period</a> have shown significant ebbs and flows of evolution and extinction. However, rather than depicting a bell-shaped curve of rapid diversification and plummeting extinctions, the fossil record shows fat-tailed distribution, with outlier events occurring with higher-than-expected probability — a shape that scientists have had a hard time explaining.

Andy Rominger, a <a href="https://www.santafe.edu/">Santa Fe Institute</a> Omidyar Fellow, worked with colleagues Miguel Fuentes of <a href="http://www.uss.cl/">San Sebastián University</a>, and Pablo Marquet of <a href="http://eap.ucop.edu/OurPrograms/brazil/Pages/pontifical_catholic_univ.aspx">Pontifical Catholic University</a> to investigate the odd pattern. Their investigation is published in <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

Rather than looking at the big picture first, the team analyzed the fluctuations among clades, or groups of organisms that share a common lineage.

"Within a lineage of closely related organisms, there should be a conserved evolutionary dynamic. Between different lineages, that dynamic can change," Rominger explained.

Related organisms within clades often find an adaptive strategy and stick to it. But between the clade-specific fitness peaks, there are voids of seemingly empty space. "It turns out, just invoking that simple idea, with some very simple mathematics, described the patterns in the fossil record very well,” Rominger said.

In 2009, Fuentes used the same “simply mathematics” — called superstatistics — to explain the stock market’s ebbs and flows, which oddly enough, depicted a similar fat-tailed pattern.

"In biology, we see these crashes and explosions too, in terms of biodiversity," Rominger said. "We wondered if Fuentes' elegant approach could also describe the evolutionary dynamics we see in the fossil record."

Their findings will hopefully help other scientists better understand evolutionary processes that lead to extinction and evolution, and to interruptions that make way for new life forms.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Mesa Shumacher/Santa Fe Institute

Scientists finally understand the universal pattern in fossil record

Fossil records dating as far back as the Cambrian period...

Giant bird lived alongside early Europeans millions of years ago  birds, three times larger than an ostrich, lived alongside early Europeans around two million years ago. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.ras.ru/">Russian Academy of Sciences</a> recently unearthed a fossil belonging to a behemoth of a bird in a cave in Crimea. 

Although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-beavers-didnt-survive/">megafauna</a> were not strangers to the prehistoric era, it was thought that huge birds were isolated to Madagascar, New Zealand, and Australia. 

This newest fossil, though, indicates that birds similar in size to the Madagascan elephant bird lived in Europe, and it’s the first bird of its size ever discovered in the northern hemisphere. 

The researchers detailed the find in a study in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 

Found in the Taurida Cave in Crimea along the northern coast of the Black Sea, the researchers estimate that the bird measured a little over 11 feet tall.  Other fossils found in the cave helped date the bird to 1.5 to two million years old. 

It would have been flightless but very fast, as indicated by its thin femur bone, and may have been an important source of meat for humans. Giant bird lived alongside early Europeans millions of years ago

“When I first felt the weight of the bird whose thigh bone I was holding in my hand, I thought it must be a Malagasy elephant bird fossil because no birds of this size have ever been reported from Europe,” said Dr. Nikita Zelenkov, the lead author of the study. “However, the structure of the bone unexpectedly told a different story.” 

The researchers are not sure as to the species of the bird but say it’s related to the species Pachystruthio dmanisensis. 

“We don’t have enough data yet to say whether it was most closely related to ostriches or to other birds, but we estimate it weighed about 450kg,” said Zelenkov. “This formidable weight is nearly double the largest moa, three times the largest living bird, the common ostrich, and nearly as much as an adult polar bear.”

Alongside the bird, the researchers found fossils of giant cheetahs and saber-tooth cats. 

“The Taurida cave network was only discovered last summer when a new motorway was being built,” said Zelenkov. “Last year, mammoth remains were unearthed and there may be much more to that the site will teach us about Europe’s distant past.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit; Andrey Atuchin

Giant bird lived alongside early Europeans millions of years ago

Giant bird lived alongside early Europeans millions of years ago ...

A new study has revealed that honeybees from apiaries may be spreading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-vaccine-bee-colonies/">viral infections </a>to wild bumblebees.

Although it’s been over a decade since beekeepers first reported that thousands of hives were missing their bees due to colony collapse disorder, bees are still struggling. 

Without bees pollinating our plants and crops, agricultural worldwide is at risk. 

Colony collapse disorder impacts honeybee hives, but honeybees are not the only buzzing pollinators facing population declines.

A new study has linked viral pathogens causing current bumblebee declines to managed honeybees. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/">University of Vermont</a> discovered that honeybees from managed apiaries are spreading deadly RNA viruses and wild bumblebees become infected with these viruses when they visit the same flowers. 

The flowers serve as a bridge, allowing infections to spread. 

In the study, published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0217822">PLOS ONE</a>, the researchers focused on two RNA viruses, the deformed wing virus (DWV) and the black queen cell virus (BQCV). 

Both viruses were higher in bumblebees that were hovering near apiaries. DWV was not found in bumblebees that were collected near areas where honeybees or apiaries were not present. 

The viruses were discovered on 19 percent of flowers within apiaries. 

The study shows that viruses may be spreading from apiaries to wild bumblebees with flowers acting as the intermediary between the different bees. 

If flowers near apiaries serve as an important route for spreading disease, the researchers suggest implementing strategies to keep vulnerable bumblebees away from infected floral areas. 

“The study supports a widely accepted yet largely untested hypothesis: viruses are spilling over from managed honey bees into wild bumble bee species, and this is likely occurring through the shared use of flowers,” said Samantha Alger, the lead author of the study.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Samantha Alger 2019

Diseased honeybees are spreading infections to wild bumblebees

A new study has revealed that honeybees from apiaries may...

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/water-removal-colorado-river/">Colorado River</a> is in some ways is a product of its arid environment and the thirsty human communities that surround it. 

I always thought of the Colorado River as a large and iconic river, as it was always a presence nearby growing up in Grand Junction, a small city named for the junction of the Colorado and Gunnison Rivers. The Colorado carved the Grand Canyon and supplies thousands of farmers and communities with water, making it one of the pillars of the arid west. It wasn’t until I saw the Hudson River, a water way so much more massive than the Colorado, that I understood the river’s importance lies partially in where it’s situated. 

But I’ve also never seen the untamed Colorado River. For many the Colorado is the river, the source of drinking water, irrigation water, the source of water. Unfortunately, this means that wildlife species that evolved with the river as home or primary water source often have to compete with humans for the life-giving resource. 

The Colorado itself has been dammed 15 times for humans trying to chain a river that moves with seasonal snows to the steady necessity of a tap. <a href="http://savethecolorado.org/threats/dams-and-diversions/">Save the Colorado</a> reports that there are over 100 dams on the Colorado and its tributaries. The river also has had its share of invasive species introduced by anglers with a hankering for familiar quarry. These two threats have pushed some of the native species in the Colorado River to the point of being endangered. 

Because of damming, the natural flow of the Colorado River has obviously changed. The result of often lower than normal amounts of flow in the Colorado is a different stream bed. Gravel and sediment build up in ways that don’t provide the native fish of the Colorado River very good spawning substrates. Because of this problem for endangered fish, federal and state agencies in Colorado have partnered with NGOs and hydropower interests to create the Upper Colorado River Endangered Fish Recovery Program in 1988. 

Michelle Garrison, Senior Water Resource Specialist of the Colorado Department of Natural Resources, explained it to me the partnership to me in an email:

“Its goal is to recover four species of endangered fish (Colorado pikeminnow, humpback chub, razorback sucker, bonytail) while allowing water use and development to continue in a manner consistent with Federal and State law.  One of the benefits to water users is streamlined Section 7 consultation. The Recovery Program focuses on several key categories of action to help recover the endangered fish: instream flows, habitat restoration, nonnative fish management, propagation and stocking of some endangered species, research and monitoring, information and education, and program management.”

Out of this partnership came a recent surge in water flow in the Colorado River, focused just above its juncture with the Gunnison in western Colorado. Hydrologist and Instream Flow Coordinator Don Anderson of the Upper Colorado Recovery Program told me he prefers the phrase, “high-flow augmentation” to “surge.” But either way, it means more water from dams released into the Colorado in a coordinated effort to benefit endangered fish species. 

The peak of this water was scheduled for June 14th, the result of five reservoirs releasing more water than usual. This water flow augmentation is made possible partially by the extra snow the Colorado high country received last winter, which is now melting into river water. This is a process that happens not every year but depends on how much water is available, coordinated so that reservoirs retain enough water but the river itself can ‘surge’ as well. 

Michelle Garrison explained this year’s flow augmentation to me:

“Depending on the amount of surplus water available and the timing and magnitude of high spring flows, the reservoir operators coordinate their bypasses for a period of 3-10 days to either put water on top of lower peaks, or extend the duration of higher peaks at levels that do not increase the risk of flooding in the region.  This year predicted peaks were near bankfull, so the operators chose to add water to the descending limb of the peaks so that they did not increase the peak itself, but slowed the decline of the high flows to allow for a longer duration of high flows that remained below bankfull. Extending the duration of flows above 12,000 cfs increases the amount of habitat improvement that occurs in the channel.”

“This was a very unusual year for weather and precipitation, and the snowpack lingered much longer than usual before melting,” Don Anderson added. “The peak flows more typically occur in late May or early June, but this year flows and reservoir inflows were both too low during that time period…Therefore reservoir operators delayed operations until the peak flows arrived, and timed their releases to add water to the river after the peak had started to recede to avoid flooding concerns.”

These high flow augmentations are carefully planned and coordinated between multiple agencies and organizations to not cause flooding or damage down stream but the important thing is that they also provide a benefit for endangered fish. 

“Spring runoff provides several important benefits to the native fish, including spawning cues for some native species, cleaning of cobble bars used as spawning habitat, and other in-channel habitat improvements,” Anderson explained. “Coordinating the bypasses from the reservoirs provides more in-channel habitat improvements than could be achieved if each reservoir operator made all their operational decisions separately.”

Interestingly, the efforts seem to be effective because fish native to the Colorado River have evolved for fast flowing, turbid river conditions, while most non-native fish haven’t. The flows do also typically benefit cold-water sport fish like trout, but these fish are upstream of the habitat of the native warm water species, like those found near Grand Junction. Don Anderson was quick to remind me that although these flow augmentation efforts benefit native fish, they’re not enough on their own.

Stocking native fish, controlling non-natives, and habitat restoration/creation are also essential to save Colorado Pikeminnow, Razorback Sucker, Humpback Chub and Boneytail, to say nothing of keeping other native fish species populations healthy.   

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/J Gillispie

Extra water released into the Colorado River to help benefit endangered fish

The Colorado River is in some ways is a product...

A construction site near a retirement community in Denver, Colorado is now the new site of the paleontological dig around a large adult triceratops. Back in May, builders discovered the collection of bones while digging through a rock layer in Highland Ranch that dates back 65 million to 68 million years.

Upon unearthing the prehistoric bones, experts were brought in from the <a href="https://www.dmns.org/">Denver Museum of Nature and Science</a> in order to study the bones further. They can now report that they have confirmed the partial skeleton found at the site includes a limb bone and several ribs belonging to a triceratops. Currently, construction crews are using heavy equipment to dig a deep trench searching for other dinosaur fossils in the same area. 

[caption id="attachment_1874426" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Richard-M-Wicker.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874426" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Richard-M-Wicker.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="857" /></a> Image Credit: Richard M Wicker[/caption]

The state of Colorado has been the birthplace of many fossil finds, with thousands of dinosaur bones found in the state. The Denver Museum of Nature and Science alone has almost 115,000 dinosaur, plant, and mammal fossils in its possession. There is even a location along the front range of the Rocky Mountains named “Dinosaur Ridge,” where many famous Jurassic dinosaur bones have been uncovered.

The triceratops also happens to be a popular find in Colorado, as triceratops bones are among the most common of all dinosaur bones discovered in the state. Additionally, bones belonging to a torosaurus –a relative of the triceratops – were discovered at another Denver construction site in 2017. But this doesn’t mean that dinosaur bones are growing on trees.

[caption id="attachment_1874427" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Richard-M-Wicker-dinosaur-bones.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874427" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Richard-M-Wicker-dinosaur-bones.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="912" /></a> Image Credit: Richard M Wicker[/caption]

“'It’s always exciting to get a call about possible fossils, and I can’t wait to share more details as we continue to dig,” says Dr. Tyler Lyson, curator of vertebrate paleontology at the museum. “Finds like this, while relatively rare, are a great reminder of how dynamic our planet is and how much more there is out there to discover.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Denver Museum of Nature and Science

Triceratops bones unearthed at Denver construction site

A construction site near a retirement community in Denver, Colorado...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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