Eels move in ways that seem to ignore the rules most vertebrates live by. They swim with flowing body waves, they can scoot across wet ground, and they often keep going even when the spinal cord is cut. 



According to a new paper, two simple body signals, stretch and pressure, help explain how that is possible.



Those signals are not fancy. Stretch tells the body how much each segment bends, and pressure reports forces on the skin from water or from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-eel-species-with-fang-like-teeth/">objects</a>. 



When these signals are fed into the spinal circuits that set a basic rhythm for movement, the eel’s whole body keeps time without micromanagement from the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-eel-movement">Secrets of eel movement</h2>



Kotaro Yasui is an assistant professor at Tohoku University’s Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science (<a href="https://www.fris.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FRIS</a>) and lead author of the study



“Our findings will help design highly adaptive robots capable of navigating complex and unpredictable environments,” noted Professor Yasui.



Most vertebrates walk or swim thanks to networks in the spinal cord called central pattern generator <a href="https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/introneuroscience1/chapter/central-pattern-generators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circuits</a>. 



These circuits can produce rhythmic muscle commands on their own, then shape that rhythm using feedback from the body. That is why the same overall plan can show up in animals as different as fish, salamanders, and mice.



Eels add a twist by leaning hard on two kinds of sensory input. Proprioception is internal sensing of stretch that tells a segment where it is in the cycle. Exteroception is sensing from outside the body, including water pressure on the sides of the fish or contact with a surface. 



Stretch sensitive neurons like the classic lamprey edge cells have long shown how such bending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">signals</a> can tune the spinal rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-robot-mimics-eel-movement">Flexible robot mimics eel movement </h2>



Yasui’s team built a mathematical model in which each body segment has a small local oscillator that produces a timing signal. They wired in two feedback loops, one for stretch and one for pressure, so the oscillators would be tugged into step by what the body feels.



The researchers tested the controller in two settings. First, they used computer simulations that generated body movements and force patterns. Then, they tried it on a physical eel-like robot made of flexible segments and equipped with skin-level sensors.



The same controller worked in both settings, and it produced stable swimming quickly, without central commands to lock the segments together.



The stretch loop had a special job. It sped up the time it took for a smooth traveling wave to appear from random starting positions. It also helped the body hold a strong stride once the pattern settled, even though that gain could cost a little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">energy</a> because the joints work harder during sharper turns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spinal-rhythm-and-sensory-feedback">Spinal rhythm and sensory feedback</h2>



The team asked a simple question. If the controller swims well, can it also crawl on land when the ground is dotted with obstacles? They ran the robot through a peg field where pushing and bracing matter more than glide.



Stretch feedback made the difference. With stretch only, the robot found traction on the pegs and made steady headway. 



Pressure alone did not help in that setting, which fits earlier <a href="https://jan.ucc.nau.edu/acg/publications/Pace_%26_Gibb_2011.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> showing that elongated fishes such as ropefish change their kinematics across water and land in specific ways, with long, slow, high amplitude body waves on land.



The results suggest continuity rather than a clean break between swimming and crawling in these fishes. 



The same spinal rhythm and sensory feedback can drive both swimming and crawling, as long as the environment provides the right reaction forces. The fish doesn’t need a separate land-based neural controller to move



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-spinal-injuries-teach-us">What spinal injuries teach us</h2>



The most striking tests involved spinal cord transection. The group measured swimming in live American eels before and after a complete cut around the middle of the body, then matched those tests with simulation and robot runs using the same controller.&nbsp;



The movement behind the injury kept a similar frequency and phase as the movement in front of it, which echoes decades old <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11744256/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> that eels can recover coordinated swimming after transection as regrowth advances.



In the model, that coordination did not need signals from the brain. It emerged when the local oscillators had some built-in tendency to tick on their own, and when stretch and pressure loops were strong enough. 



The body above the cut tugged the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/">body</a> below the cut into the same rhythm through passive motion and local sensing.



That simple recipe explains why eels can move immediately after injury while many amphibians and mammals cannot. If the posterior spinal cord cannot oscillate on its own, or if the feedback pathways are too weak, the two halves fall out of step and the body stalls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eel-movement-robots-and-evolution">Eel movement, robots, and evolution</h2>



Robots that move without legs need to live with uncertainty. Water currents change, floors are cluttered, and obstacles shift. Prior <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abf6354" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> has shown that proprioceptive feedback can entrain undulatory robots into reliable patterns despite turbulence and noise.



This study adds pressure sensing on the skin to that recipe and shows how a simple stretch rule helps robots use clutter for propulsion. That means eel-like machines could search pipes, navigate earthquake rubble, or inspect tanks without complex top down control.



There is also a story about evolution here. If a swimming controller can produce useful crawling when the environment offers something to push against, early vertebrates may have needed adjustments more than a full rewrite to move onto land. Flexible circuits and strong local feedback could have carried a lot of that load.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Biologists can now test specific predictions in the lab. For example, they can look for descending stretch pathways that echo the model’s anterior to posterior copy rule, and they can probe how pressure sensors along the skin tune rhythm in moving fish.



Engineers can search for energy savings by blending stretch rules that boost stride with rules that prevent excessive bending. They can also explore how to route around damaged links in a robot by letting neighboring segments pull each other back into rhythm.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422248122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Spinal secrets: What eels reveal about the origins of movement

Eels move in ways that seem to ignore the rules most vertebrates live by. They swim with flowing body waves, they can scoot across wet ground, and they often keep going even when the spinal cord is cut. According to a new paper, two simple body signals, stretch and pressure, help explain how that is possible. Those signals are not fancy. Stretch tells the body how much each segment bends, and pressure reports forces on the skin from water or from objects. When these signals are fed...

Sea lampreys are a parasitic fish that could help scientists develop new treatments targeting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-tumor-severity-sex/">brain tumors</a>, brain trauma, and even dementia, according to a new study. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> and the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin </a>found a way to turn sea lamprey molecules into drug delivery mechanisms that directly reach brain tumors, succeeding where many other cancer treatments fail. 

Sea lamprey immune systems, although similar to humans, produce small molecules called VLRS in place of antibodies. 

It was these VLRS molecules that the researchers used to deliver drug treatments to the brain. The team first vaccinated lampreys to find the VLRS that service the extracellular matrix of the brain. 

Having a way to target the brain specifically is key. Most medicines and drugs target individual cells, but the lamprey molecules target the outside of the cell after bypassing the blood-brain barrier. 

In healthy brains, the blood-brain barrier ensures that the brain and central nervous system are protected from toxins and pathogens. This defense mechanism is so effective that drugs and even the sea lamprey molecules cannot pass through the barrier to treat tumors in the brain. 

However, when the brain is damaged through stroke or cancer, the blood-brain barrier degrades and starts leaking near the tumor or disease site.

By taking advantage of the now permeable barrier, the researchers found a way to use the lamprey molecules to deliver a chemotherapy drug called doxorubicin to diseased cells in the brain. 

“This set of targeting molecules appears somewhat agnostic to the disease,” said Eric Shusta, a member of the research team. “We believe it could be applied as a platform technology across multiple conditions. Molecules like this normally couldn’t ferry cargo into the brain, but anywhere there’s a blood-brain barrier disruption, they can deliver drugs right to the site of pathology.”  

The researchers tested the molecule drug delivery system on mice that had glioblastoma, a fatal brain cancer, and the treatment led to longer lifespans. 

Sea lamprey molecules also ensure that only the diseased area is treated and healthy cells are unaffected. 

“I’m excited about trying this strategy in different disease model systems,” said John Kuo, a collaborator on the study. “There are several disease processes that disrupt the blood-brain barrier, and we could conceive of delivering a variety of different therapies with these molecules.”

The study detailing the sea lamprey molecules was published in the journal Science Advances. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea lampreys could help pave the way for new brain cancer treatments

Sea lampreys are a parasitic fish that could help scientists...

Captive chimpanzees can figure out how to use tools to dig for food. There are many examples of species using tools like sticks and leaves to get food in the animal kingdom. Perhaps most notable is the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-mothers-teach-their-children-how-to-use-tools/">tools among chimpanzees</a>, one of our closest relatives, who have worked out how to make a variety of tools and even weapons. 

Jane Goodall was one of the first to observe chimpanzees <a href="https://www.janegoodall.org.uk/chimpanzees/chimpanzee-central/15-chimpanzees/chimpanzee-central/19-toolmaking">making and using tools</a> for catching termites in the wild, after it had previously been assumed that tool use was a uniquely human adaptation. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uio.no/english/">University of Oslo</a> further explored tool use among captive chimpanzees to see how the behavior develops and if chimps can work out how to dig for food using tools without having any previous experience digging for food. 

Past studies have found that wild chimpanzees use tools to dig for plant roots and tubers, but the Oslo researchers focused on a colony of ten chimpanzees living in an island enclosure in Norway.

[caption id="attachment_1872720" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/tool-use.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872720" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/tool-use.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="450" /></a> Tool use among chimps, Image Credit: Motes-Rodrigo et al., 2019[/caption]

The researchers monitored the chimps, eight of which were born in captivity. None of the chimpanzees had dug for food or exhibited excavating behaviors. To start their experiment, the researchers dug five holes and put fruit in the open holes.Captive chimpanzees can figure out how to use tools to dig for food 

Leaving the holes open allowed the chimpanzees to become accustomed to the new food source. 

Next, the researchers filled the holes back up with dirt and provided the captive chimps with sticks and bark. The researchers also put fruit in covered holes but didn’t offer any tools in a later experiment. 

Nine of the ten chimps learned to excavate for the fruit and eight of the ten chimps preferred using tools rather than digging up the fruit with their hands. 

After being presented with the same scenario but not having any tools, the chimpanzees went to make their own tools using sticks and vegetation in their enclosure. 

The study, published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0215644">PLOS ONE</a>, sheds light on how some great apes quickly adapt and learn to use tools to more efficiently find food. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Captive chimpanzees can figure out how to use tools to dig for food

Captive chimpanzees can figure out how to use tools to...

M-44 devices, often known as “cyanide bombs,” are a controversial tool used by government officials to control predation on livestock and endangered species. These tools are placed into the ground near areas where coyotes, foxes and other predator species roam. When the device is set off by passing wildlife, it sprays sodium cyanide, killing the predator.

Environmentalists and animal advocates have long called for the end of their use. With the recent ban on the use of M-44s for predator control in Oregon, groups are one step closer to this goal.

M-44s have been used by the elusive Wildlife Services within the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> beginning in the late 1960s. Their use was suspended by the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> in 1972 before being allowed again in 1975.

M-44s are often criticized for being indiscriminate killers that cause undue pain and suffering to its victims. In 2017 alone, Wildlife Services killed<a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2018/wildlife-services-04-23-2018.php"> 2.3 million</a> animals, including non-target and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dogs-domesticated-america-10000-years/">domesticated species</a>.

[caption id="attachment_1872650" align="aligncenter" width="329"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/m44.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1872650" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/m44.jpg" alt="" width="329" height="285" /></a> M44 cyanide device, Image Credit: Guy Connolly, U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Wildlife Research[/caption]

The devices not only pose a threat to animals but humans as well. In<a href="https://www.idahostatesman.com/news/local/environment/article217956755.html"> March 2017</a>, a boy and his pet dog made national news when they encountered a M-44 device just 350 yards from their Idaho home. The boy had noticed the device, which looks like a pipe or water sprinkler, and tried to pick it up. The device then sprayed sodium cyanide onto the boy and his dog. The boy survived the incident but suffered from nausea and headaches. The family dog died in front of the young boy.

That’s one of the problems with the devices. To the untrained eye, M-44s look unassuming. Without proper signage, a person could easily accidentally set the device off. Even with displayed warnings, domesticated dogs risk setting the device off.

The agency mandates that warning signs are placed in all areas containing M-44 devices. Yet, the nonprofit group Predator Defense<a href="https://www.predatordefense.org/m44s.htm#stats"> says</a> they have repeatedly found a lack of warning signs in their investigations.

According to a U.S. Department of Agriculture <a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/wildlife_damage/fs-m44-device.pdf">document</a>, “Wildlife Services certified applicators cannot place M-44s within 0.5 mile of occupied residences. A variance reducing that distance to 0.25 mile may be approved in instances where features of the property and landscape are such that potential for human or pet exposure to an M-44 is not probable. Wildlife Services notifies residents within 0.5 mile of M-44 locations.”

The family affected by the M-44 device in March 2017 say that they were never notified by Wildlife Services about the placement of the device.

Wildlife Services has been scrutinized for other shortcomings including the covering up of non-target killings.

An<a href="https://www.sacbee.com/news/investigations/wildlife-investigation/article2574599.html"> investigation</a> by the Sacramento Bee details an incident where an employee found a deceased golden eagle, a federally protected species, caught in a neck snare. The employee called his supervisor who then informed him to “go get a shovel and bury it and don't say nothing to anybody.”

Environmentalists and animal advocates warn that Wildlife Services has been operating with little oversight for years.

The ban on M-44s in Oregon is an important step towards ending the use of the devices and reining in Wildlife Services. The bill passed with almost unanimous support and <a href="https://myemail.constantcontact.com/FOR-IMMEDIATE-RELEASE--Oregon-has-banned-M-44--cyanide-bombs--.html?soid=1114995572448&amp;aid=wkPM0OOhFwg">environmentalists hope</a> the passage will encourage the 13 other states that currently use M-44s to ban their use.

At the federal level, attempts have been made to ban M-44s. In 2017, Representative Peter DeFazio introduced legislation to ban the use of sodium cyanide and Compound 1080 for predator control. Although the bill did not pass, similar legislation has since been<a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/2471/text?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22Chemical+Poisons+Reduction+Act%22%5D%7D&amp;r=1&amp;s=1"> reintroduced</a>.

Also in 2017, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/carnivore_conservation/pdfs/EPA-2017-Petition-Response-11-16-18.pdf"> denied a petition</a> to cancel the registrations of M-44s.

Despite the lack of governmental action, there is growing opposition to M-44s among the public. A<a href="https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/public-overwhelmingly-wants-ban-on-cyanide-bombs-2019-05-08/"> recent analysis</a> of public comments received by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on a proposal to renew M-44 device registrations found that over 99.9% of the 22,400 commenters supported a ban on the devices.

“It is far past time to eliminate these cruel killing devices altogether,” said Kelly Nokes, Shared Earth wildlife attorney for the Western Environmental Law Center in a<a href="https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/public-overwhelmingly-wants-ban-on-cyanide-bombs-2019-05-08/"> press release</a>. “M-44s are an inhumane relic of the past and an unnecessary safety risk that have no place on our public landscape in 2019.”

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Oregon bans controversial ‘cyanide bombs’ used to kill wildlife

M-44 devices, often known as “cyanide bombs,” are a controversial...

<a href="https://www.fws.gov/refuge/aransas/">Aransas National Wildlife Refuge</a> doesn’t have very much national name recognition but it’s important to the history of conservation in the US, especially for the iconic Whooping Crane (Grus americana).

The Whooping Crane itself is an impressive bird.  It’s estimated that 1,400 individual whooping cranes lived in 1860.  Hunting for sport as well as to supply the hat trade with feathers devastated the population.  

In 1941, there was but one migrating flock of 15 individual whooping cranes left in the world. The last of the cranes were found wintering at what is now Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, a landscape of marsh- fresh water, brackish and marine located on the Gulf of Mexico in southern Texas.

This remnant flock of cranes spends its summers in <a href="https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/pn-np/nt/woodbuffalo">Wood Buffalo National Park</a> in Canada where it breeds.  Wood Buffalo National Park was itself established in 1922 to protect another rare animal – the last of northern Canada’s Bison, also known as the Wood Buffalo.  

Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, originally Aransas Migratory Waterfowl Refuge, was created on December 31, 1937, by Executive Order 7784 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.  

The original refuge, located on the Black Jack Peninsula of Texas (named after black jack oak), measured 47,261 acres, according to the <a href="https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/gka03">Texas State Historical Association</a>.  The refuge received its current name in 1939 and has grown to now include 115,670 acres of land, including islands.  

Today, part of the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge is open for the public to visit for hiking, kayaking, wildlife viewing, fishing and hunting.  But part of the refuge is closed to the public, including important bird nesting areas where protection is vital. 

The protected lands of Aransas National Wildlife Refuge and Wood Buffalo National Park are incredibly important in protecting whooping cranes, however it leaves a serious problem.  

A single population of any animals is vulnerable. A disease, a storm, a freak accident could have easily wiped out an entire flock of 15 individual birds. Even larger single populations can be vulnerable.    

To truly secure a long term future for whooping cranes, more than a single population is needed, as it isn’t wise to put all of your eggs in one basket when it comes to an entire species. 

According to the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/uploadedFiles/WHCR%20RP%20Final%207-21-2006.pdf">official management plan</a>, before whooping cranes can be removed from the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/national-parks-endangered-species/">endangered species list</a>, a major goal is to establish additional populations.  A minimum of 40 productive pairs in the original population plus 25 additional pairs in two different locations (populations) is called for by the management plan.  

There are other contingency plans if this fails, but the bottom line is that the current population is much more secure with additional populations.  If other populations aren’t established, the plan calls for a self-sustaining population of 1000 individual cranes (250 productive pairs), a high goal to achieve for a population that was down to a mere 15 birds.  

The goal of 250 productive pairs is based on genetics.  It’s estimated that a population in these numbers would then be gaining more genetic diversity than losing it, and there wouldn’t be significant inbreeding.  Even with a population this size, new migratory populations would help secure the species for the future. 

The Aransas population of whooping cranes is doing well on it’s way towards the management goal.  The Cornell Lab of Ornithology reports on it’s <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/whooping-crane-population-hits-historic-high-in-2018/">All About Birds</a> site that for the first time since the late 1800s there were more than 500 whooping cranes counted wintering at Aransas in 2018.  

Despite concerns that the crane population would be hurt by Hurricane Harvey, this amounts to a 17% population increase from the year before.  Of the cranes in the population, the <a href="https://blog.nwf.org/2018/01/a-wild-year-for-the-whooping-crane/">National Wildlife Federation</a> reported that there were 98 crane nests found in Wood Buffalo National Park during the summer of 2017, which is a new record for nests recorded.           

To assist with establishing additional migratory crane populations, <a href="http://operationmigration.org/the-whooping-crane.asp">Operation Migration</a> is working with wildlife officials to establish new migratory route for captive bred birds that have never migrated before.  

The basic idea is that a person in an ultralight aircraft actually leads the cranes on their migratory route. So far, the new migratory populations aren’t self sustaining, lacking the robust numbers of the Aransas population.  

The total population of whooping cranes is around 600, with most of them in the Aransas population, the rest of the birds are split among three reintroduced populations in the US and a few birds in captivity.  As of March, 2019 of the eastern cranes, 13 are in Illinois, 36 are in Indiana, 9 are in Kentucky, 3 are in Tennessee, 14 are in Alabama, 3 are in Georgia, 5 are in Florida and 1 is in Louisiana. 

One female whooping crane has also been seen in Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge, where she is thought to be the last of a non-migratory population, according to the <a href="https://www.savingcranes.org/whooping-crane-eastern-population-update-march-2019/">International Crane Foundation</a>.  The long Wheeler bird may associate herself with the eastern migratory population but it’s uncertain. 

So far, there’s some hope for the whooping cranes, and the fact that the bird is alive at all shows some resilience on the species part.  

Unfortunately, despite advances, the crane has diminished federal support. The <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pwrc">Patuxent Wildlife Research Center</a>, a federal facility in Maryland that started with just 12 eggs in 1967 and grew to house more than 60 adult cranes, has officially ended their breeding program as of last October.  

The end to the program comes from a Trump administration cut that eliminated the $1.5 million annual budget of whooping crane breeding.  The <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/environment/bs-md-whooping-cranes-20181004-story.html">Baltimore Sun</a> reports that despite decades of dedicated work to understand the complicated breeding and reproductive behaviors of the birds by government scientists, the program will be taken over by zoos.  

The wildlife facility remains open with new research to focus on things like the West Nile virus and the impact of wind farms.

Concern is that the eastern migratory population, that summers in Florida and winters in Wisconsin could end because of the change in breeding programs.  Slight disturbances can stop the birds from successfully breeding and some worry that without support the eastern migratory population of whooping cranes will end.  

It would be tragic if the majestic travels of a bird that stretches from prehistory until now would be cut short by a political maneuver. As Robert Porter Allen, a wildlife biologist <a href="http://operationmigration.org/the-whooping-crane.asp">said</a>:

"For the Whooping crane there is no freedom but that of unbounded wilderness, no life except its own. Without meekness, without a sign of humility, it has refused to accept our idea of what the world should be like. If we succeed in preserving the wild remnant that still survives, it will be no credit to us; the glory will rest on this bird whose stubborn vigor has kept it alive in the face of increasing and seemingly hopeless odds."                                                 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Whooping crane comeback threatened after government funding is cut

Aransas National Wildlife Refuge doesn’t have very much national name...

Why giant beavers didn’t survive the last Ice Age. During the last Ice Age, megafauna like giant beavers, mastodons and woolly mammoths, dire wolves and giant ground sloths trampled across North America. 

These behemoths of the Ice Age have long since gone extinct, and researchers are starting to piece together the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-extinction-megafauna/">reasons for their demise</a>. 

One example of an extinct Ice Age giant is the North American beaver, which weighed anywhere between 25 and 75 pounds. These beavers could have measured as tall as an adult human and were three times larger than today’s beavers.

In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-43710-9">Scientific Reports</a>, researchers from <a href="https://www.uwo.ca/">Western University</a> offer a potential answer to why the giant beaver went extinct. 

The theory coincides with the discovery that unlike its modern counterpart, the giant beaver didn’t build dams or eat wood. Instead, the busy forager thrived on aquatic plants in wetland habitats. 

This restricted diet would have limited the beaver’s geographic range, and even though giant beavers and modern beavers lived side-by-side, only one group seemed to adapt to the changing environment at the end of the last Ice Age. 

For the study, the researchers analyzed isotopes in the fossil bones and teeth of giant beavers to figure out what the animals ate.

“We did not find any evidence that the giant beaver cut down trees or ate trees for food,” said Tessa Plint, the lead author of the study.  “Giant beavers were not ‘ecosystem-engineers’ the way that the North American beaver is.”

At the end of the Ice Age, glacial retreat and warmer temperatures dried up wetland habitats that giant beavers relied on.Why giant beavers didn’t survive the last Ice Age 

“The ability to build dams and lodges may have actually given beavers a competitive advantage over giant beavers because it could alter the landscape to create suitable wetland habitat where required. Giant beavers couldn’t do this,” said Fred Longstaffe, a co-author of the study. 

“When you look at the fossil record from the last million years, you repeatedly see regional giant beaver populations disappear with the onset of more arid climatic conditions.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Canadian Museum of Nature

Why giant beavers didn’t survive the last Ice Age

Why giant beavers didn’t survive the last Ice Age. During...

For years, ancient specimens trapped in amber have provided resin-covered snapshots of life on Earth millions of years ago. 

Most of the species and plants found encased in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-amber-eggs-hatch/">amber time-capsules</a> are terrestrial, meaning they lived predominantly on land. This makes sense when you think about the wide array of ancient insects that have been described after being discovered in amber samples. 

An unlucky ancient mosquito that perched on a resin-producing tree could easily have found itself stuck and before long completely entombed in amber, only to be unearthed by researchers centuries later. 

Rarely do scientists find marine species or aquatic plants trapped in tree resin, but researchers from <a href="http://english.nigpas.cas.cn/">Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> have discovered the first sea ammonite ever found in amber. 

The find was described in a study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

Trapped among mites, beetles, wasps, and spiders in a piece of 99-million-year-old amber found in northern Myanmar are several marine species including an ammonite, sea snails, and sea slaters. 

Ammonites are ancient marine mollusks closely related to modern nautilus and squids. 

The amber containing this mix of land and sea animals is 33 millimeters long, and 29 millimeters high. Over 40 individual animals were identified in the amber.

[caption id="attachment_1872595" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Ammonite.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872595" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Ammonite.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="608" /></a> Different views of the ammonite, Image Credit: NIGPAS[/caption]

X-ray micro-computed tomography was used to create a high-resolution three-dimensional image of the ammonite. 

How exactly the snails and ammonite ended up in the amber represents a mystery. It’s possible that the ammonite and sea snails were located on a sandy beach near resin-producing trees. As the resin flowed down the tree to the ground, it collected all matter of land and beach organisms in its path. 

Regardless of how the ammonite ended up in the amber, the rare find is noteworthy and can help researchers better understand how ancient marine and terrestrial ecosystems interacted. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: NIGPAS

Ancient marine organisms found trapped in amber alongside bugs and snails

For years, ancient specimens trapped in amber have provided resin-covered...

A new study has found that being overly affectionate with our dogs may unwittingly lead to the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-wastewater/">antibiotic-resistant bugs</a>. 

Doggy kisses and cuddles may help strengthen the bonds we have with our pets, but researchers from the <a href="https://www.gcu.ac.uk/">Glasgow Caledonian University</a> warn that these displays could spread drug-resistant bacteria through saliva. 

Unfortunately, the researchers acknowledge that behaviors such as cuddling and allowing our dogs to lick our faces are a deeply ingrained part of pet ownership that people are unlikely to stop doing anytime soon. 

The study was published in the journal Behavioral Medicine.

“This close contact could potentially put adults, children and the pets themselves at risk of transferring bugs that are resistant to antibiotics through saliva,” said Adele Dickson, a psychologist who led the study. “I would also advise any open wounds be covered so there’s no risk of transferring anything from skin to skin.”

Dickinson and a team of researchers interviewed 35 dog owners. The dogs in the study had all been treated with antibiotics and many unnecessarily so. 

Vets may be too quick to hand out antibiotics and owners are asking for antibiotics even if their pet doesn’t need them. 

As with humans, misuse and overprescribing of antibiotics in pets can lead to antibiotic resistance which can spread to humans through contact. 

“The biggest take-home message to pet owners from this study is to think twice about whether your pet, you, your children or other family members actually need antibiotics,” said Dickinson. “Many pet owners told us they felt a sense of guardianship and protection towards their pet when it became ill and they would specifically ask for antibiotics to reassure themselves that they were helping but it’s actually doing more harm than good if they are not necessary.” 

To reduce the risk of spreading antibiotic resistance, the researchers recommend that pet owners and vets carefully consider using antibiotics and avoid coming in contact with their dog's saliva as much as possible.

Dickinson is quick to point out that the study results do not call for completely ceasing all contact with pets. 

“I know how important that affectionate relationship between the owner and their pet is to both mental and physical health and well-being,” Dickinson said. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Drug-resistant bugs could be spread through contact with pets

A new study has found that being overly affectionate with...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> and <a href="http://portsmouthnaturalhistory.co.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> have discovered that a species of rail was able to successfully colonize the Aldabra atoll in the Indian Ocean. This means that the species, at one point, went <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/robot-save-northern-white-rhino/">extinct</a> and then rose from the dead. 

The scientists explain that this occurred due to a process called “iterative evolution,” defined as the repeated evolution of similar or parallel species from a like ancestor but at different times.

These findings were published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.

On both occasions of colonization, which occurred tens of thousands of years apart, the white-throated rail, still present on Aldabra today, evolved to become flightless.

"We know of no other example in rails, or of birds in general, that demonstrates [iterative evolution] so evidently,” said coauthor Professor David Martill, from the university’s <a href="http://www2.port.ac.uk/school-of-earth-and-environmental-sciences/">School of Earth and Environmental Sciences</a>. 

The white-throated rail originated in Madagascar and attempted to migrate several times. However, the bird only successfully landed on remote islands such as Mauritius, Reunion and Aldabra in the Indian Ocean. Thanks to the lack of predators on Aldabra, the rails eventually evolved into flightless birds.

About 136,000 years ago, Aldabra was submerged under water, thus losing all of its major flora and fauna, including the rail.

Archaeologists discovered that flightless rails recolonized Aldabra when sea levels returned to normal after the subsequent ice age about 100,000 years ago. When comparing fossilized rails from before the inundation event to those that came after, scientists found that the latter species showed an advanced state of flightlessness, which means that the original rail species from Madagascar gave rise to two different flightless rail species on Aldabra within a few thousand years of each other.

"These unique fossils provide irrefutable evidence that a member of the rail family colonized the atoll, most likely from Madagascar, and became flightless independently on each occasion,” said lead researcher Dr. Julian Hume, an avian paleontologist and Research Associate at the Natural History Museum. “Fossil evidence presented here is unique for rails, and epitomizes the ability of these birds to successfully colonize isolated islands and evolve flightlessness on multiple occasions."

“Only on Aldabra, which has the oldest palaeontological record of any oceanic island within the Indian Ocean region, is fossil evidence available that demonstrates the effects of changing sea levels on extinction and recolonization events,” Professor Martill added. "Conditions were such on Aldabra, the most important being the absence of terrestrial predators and competing mammals, that a rail was able to evolve flightlessness independently on each occasion."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Charles J Sharp

How a previously extinct bird has come back to life

Researchers from the University of Portsmouth and Natural History Museum...

A fossil belonging to a newly discovered species of dinosaur dating back to the upper Jurassic period 136 million years ago is helping shed insight on the evolution of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-flapping-wings-fly/">dinosaurs</a> and birds. 

The fossil, classified as a theropod, was discovered in the Liaoning province in China, and the researchers behind the find say that the animal had thin bat-like membranous wings. 

This isn’t the first theropod fossil to be suspected of having bat-like qualities in China, but the find does help illustrate how dinosaurs experimented with different wing structures. 

“Whereas the early fossil records of pterosaurs and bats are sparse, mounting evidence (primarily from China) of feathered non-avian dinosaurs and stemward avians that derive primarily from the Middle–Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods has enabled the slow piecing together of the origins of avian flight,” the researchers wrote in a study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1137-z">Nature</a>. 

The new species was named Ambopteryx longibrachium and was a member of a group of tree climbing dinosaurs called scansoriopterygidae. 

The fossil is about the size of a magpie bird with long pointed wrist bones, and it’s this feature that suggests the bone was connected to a membranous wing, enabling it to fly or glide from tree to tree. 

Trees would have been where Ambopteryx longibrachium would have spent most of its time, although the bird-like reptile could have soared down to the ground to catch prey. 

Although it was previously believed that theropods only ate plants, the researchers say that it’s very likely that the new species was omnivorous and could have easily snatched up frogs and rats. 

The research helps shed light on the evolution of flight, and membranous wings may have represented a brief moment of evolutionary experimentation before the emergence of feathered wings. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Min Wang

Newly discovered species of dinosaur had bat-like wings

A fossil belonging to a newly discovered species of dinosaur...

Mosquitoes are less attracted to humans after they’ve eaten sugar. According to researchers Jessica Dittmer and Paolo Gabrieli from the <a href="http://www.unipv.eu/site/home.html">Università degli Studi di Pavia</a>, when mosquitoes are fed sugar, they are less attracted to humans. This response is regulated by a protein called vitellogenin, an egg yolk precursor protein. 

"In this context, our research team focused on the molecular mechanisms that control the mosquito host-seeking behaviour, that is the mechanisms that affect the attraction to human host," Dr. Gabrieli said. Mosquitoes are less attracted to humans after they’ve eaten sugar

Dittmer, Gabrieli, and their colleagues fed sugar solutions to young female tiger <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-mosquitoes-malaria/">mosquitoes</a> and realized it reduced their attraction to humans. Female mosquitoes usually need to feed on blood (or plant nectar/sap) to provide energy and nutrients to their young. However, by intentionally feeding female mosquitoes sugar solutions, the mosquitoes feel energized and do not need to find a host.

Via transcriptome sequencing, the researchers found a number of gene expression changes connected to the reduction in host-seeking behavior. One such gene to be affected (out of at least 23 genes) was the vitellogenin gene Vg-2, known to contribute to ovary development. When the team experimented with RNA interference to knock down the Vg-2 gene, expression was restored and the mosquitoes returned to seeking a host, thus confirming Vg-2’s role in regulating feeding behavior and attraction.

This new understanding of lessening attraction to humans could provide new strategies for diminishing and preventing mosquito-borne diseases. Manipulation of the Vg-2 gene could eradicate fatal diseases like Malaria, Dengue fever and Zika virus.

"If we can alter these pathways, reducing the motivation of the mosquitoes to bite humans, we would reduce the dimension of the mosquito population and, in turn, the transmission of the diseases,” Dr. Gabrieli concluded.

Their findings are published in<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/"> PLOS Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mosquitoes are less attracted to humans after they’ve eaten sugar

Mosquitoes are less attracted to humans after they’ve eaten sugar....

In the 33 years since the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant explosion, the exclusion zone that spans a little over 1,000 square miles has become a wildlife refuge home to bison, bears, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radioactive-chernobyl-wolves/">wolves</a> and dense vegetation. 

When the Chernobyl explosion occurred in 1986, the surrounding cities were immediately evacuated as clean up crews began their work. Chernobyl released more than 400 times more radiation than what was released during the Hiroshima atomic bomb drop, and over 350,000 people had to leave everything and evacuate. 

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/exposure-radiation-astronaut-lives/">radiation</a> levels were so high after the explosion that forests near the plant died, as did most of the surrounding wildlife. Human fatalities were also high, but there are no exact figures of how many people were killed or injured in the aftermath. 

It was long thought that the exclusion zone would remain a desolate and barren wasteland given how long it takes for radiation to decompose and break down. 

However, this has been far from the case. A recent feature in <a href="https://theconversation.com/chernobyl-has-become-a-refuge-for-wildlife-33-years-after-the-nuclear-accident-116303">The Conversation</a> examines not only the transformation of the exclusion zone from wasteland to wildlife refuge but also how important the region is for research. 

Germán Orizaola, one of the many researchers currently studying Chernobyl wildlife, explains in his article that the Chernobyl exclusion zone is home to home horses, bears, bison, wolves and more than 200 species of birds. 

In March of this year, Orizaola along with 33 other Chernobyl wildlife researchers met in England to discuss and present their work which highlights the rich biodiversity found in the exclusion zone. 

The researchers have also found few long-lasting negative impacts from the explosion and subsequent radiation exposure. Some insects have shorter lifespans and show a higher susceptibility to parasites but for the most part, animal populations are stable, according to the researchers.

[caption id="attachment_1872438" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/chernobyl.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872438" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/chernobyl.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="345" /></a> Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, Image Credit: Podorojniy/Shutterstock[/caption]

Orizaola personally studies the amphibians in the exclusion zone and has recorded large populations of frogs across the region, even in areas with higher amounts of radiation. 

“Furthermore, we have also found signs that could represent adaptive responses to life with radiation,” Orizaola writes. “For instance, frogs within the exclusion zone are darker than frogs living outside it, which is a possible defence against radiation.”

The lack of negative impacts indicates that wildlife may be more resistant to radiation or that animals in the area quickly adapted to their new environment. 

“Over the years, Chernobyl has also become an excellent natural laboratory for the study of evolutionary processes in extreme environments, something that could prove valuable given the rapid environmental changes experienced worldwide,” writes Orizaola. 

Orizaola also discusses the importance of preserving the wildlife refuge amidst growing interest in tourism and development in the Chernobyl exclusion zone. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chernobyl’s exclusion zone is now a wildlife refuge and biodiversity hotspot

In the 33 years since the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant...

Climate change has created the perfect conditions for a severe disease to quickly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tick-mosquito-borne-disease-spreading/">spread</a> and infect frogs in the UK. 

Frogs now face an increased risk of being infected with the Ranavirus, and the disease could soon spread well beyond its typical geographical range, according to a new study published in the journal Global Change Biology. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/">Zoological Society of London</a> (ZSL), <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London,</a> and <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University</a> conducted the study which illustrates how climate change is impacting local ecosystems. 

“Climate change isn’t something that’s just happening in faraway places - it’s something real and present that’s already had hard-to-predict impacts on wildlife in our own back gardens here in the UK,” said Dr. Stephen Price, the lead author of the study. 

For the study, the researchers analyzed cell cultures, examined live frog specimens, and reviewed data from temperature records and the <a href="https://frogdisease.weebly.com/blog/the-frog-mortality-dataset">Frog Mortality Project.</a>

Increases in temperatures over the years match an increase both the spread of the disease and mass mortality events. 

The researchers found that when temperatures reach 60 degrees Fahrenheit, the risk of infection significantly increases.

[caption id="attachment_1872446" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/frog-pond.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872446" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/frog-pond.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="576" /></a> Image Credit: Bob Clayden[/caption]

“A number of scientists have already alluded to the fact that climate change could increase the spread of disease, but this is one of the first studies that provides strong evidence of the impact of climate change on wildlife disease, and helps to explain how it may facilitate the spread of Ranavirus across the UK,” said Price. 

The results of the study explain why disease outbreaks are more common in the hot summer months, and if climate change trends continue, the researchers project an increase in outbreaks in the spring and fall. 

The team also warns that the virus could spread to other parts of the UK whereas now it is typically only found in England. 

If the frogs can keep cool during warm sunny days, the researchers say that the frogs may be able to cope better with the disease. 

“Many studies in amphibian disease cannot do much beyond saying ‘we have a problem,’” said  Professor Trenton Garner from the ZSL’s Institute of Zoology said: “This research offers a number of options for mitigation; however, this is only a short-term solution of course - if we don’t eventually slow and reverse human-driven climate change, we unfortunately can only expect things to get worse for our amphibians.”

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Main Image Credit: Greg Hitchock

Climate change is increasing the spread of infectious disease among frogs

Climate change has created the perfect conditions for a severe...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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