The oceans are heating. Scientists say surface waters could climb by 4°C in the next 75 years. Heat waves in the sea are also set to strike more often. Corals bleach and ecosystems collapse, but what happens to fish?



Their survival is less visible, yet just as critical. Shifting fish populations could reshape food webs, disrupt fisheries, and even threaten coastal communities that depend on reefs for protection and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-evolution-mystery-solved-by-surprising-swimming-behavior/">resources</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-survival-in-warming-seas">Clownfish survival in warming seas</h2>



Researchers at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.oist.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OIST</a>) set out to investigate whether clownfish could survive hotter seas. The team also wanted to know how the bodies of clownfish might bend or break under pressure.



"Ocean warming and marine heatwaves are predicted to have adverse impacts on marine organisms. Yet, knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that underpin successful or failed acclimation to increasing temperatures remains incomplete," wrote the researchers.



For the study, the team focused on the common clownfish, Amphiprion ocellaris. The fish is easy to breed in tanks and its life cycle is well understood, making every change easier to measure.



The team reported their findings in the journal iScience, revealing how young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-physically-shrink-their-bodies-to-survive-heatwaves/">fish</a> adapt - or struggle - when water gets hotter. 



Beyond tracking survival, the researchers analyzed tissues, genes, and energy systems. The results show where flexibility exists, where limits appear, and why some clownfish may cope while others fall behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-heat-stress-in-fish">Measuring heat stress in fish</h2>



The experiment was simple but clever. Freshly hatched clownfish grew in warm tanks at 31°C (about 88°F), while control groups stayed at 28°C (about 82°F). A third group faced early stress: 20 days at 31°C (88°F), then back to 28°C (82°F).



After two months, the team studied the fish tissues. They checked how the bodies managed energy. 



The researchers also measured metabolism to connect genes with performance. This revealed not just short-term reactions but slower, deeper adjustments. These changes exposed hidden strengths or weaknesses in how fish respond to heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-clownfish-respond-to-heat">How clownfish respond to heat</h2>



The results were clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-use-a-trick-to-live-safely-among-stinging-anemones/">Fish</a> exposed early in life adapted better. Their metabolism didn’t spike the same way under stress. Short bursts of heat caused sudden metabolic surges, but long-term heat shaped steady acclimation.



The researchers found that developmental timing mattered more than expected. Early exposure seemed to prepare fish for the future.



The biggest changes appeared in the liver and pancreas. The liver switched on oxidative phosphorylation, producing more energy from food. The pancreas cut down on insulin secretion. Together, these changes rewired how the fish handled energy. 



Other organs showed shifts too. The brain altered genes tied to nerve growth. Gills tweaked transport functions. The intestine changed contraction patterns and barrier strength. Each tissue told part of the story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-difference-in-size">No difference in size</h2>



Despite these changes, growth stayed the same. Fish in hot tanks weighed as much as those in cooler water. Earlier studies showed faster growth under heat, but not here. 



Researchers think social hierarchies in the wild may level size differences, since smaller individuals can still survive if they avoid conflict. 



Energy use, not size, carried the real story, with molecular shifts revealing deeper adjustments that never showed up on a scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-with-a-cost">Adaptation with a cost</h2>



The study revealed that adaption is associated with risks. The liver showed early signs of fibrosis. Changes in brain gene expression hinted at problems in nerve development.



The intestine appeared weaker, with barriers that might let harmful microbes in. Adaptation, it seems, carries a cost.



Study co-author Professor Timothy Ravasi is head of the Marine Climate Change Unit at OIST.



"While we've found mechanisms for heat acclimation, these biological changes may have other long-term negative impacts on fish health, so we need to expand our studies and do further testing to get a better idea on the future of our fish," said Professor Ravasi.



"But knowing that developmental exposure to these high temperatures can support heat acclimation, we can move forward with hope for the future of our tropical fish."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)01656-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



-----



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Clownfish reprogram their bodies to survive ocean warming

The oceans are heating. Scientists say surface waters could climb by 4°C in the next 75 years. Heat waves in the sea are also set to strike more often. Corals bleach and ecosystems collapse, but what happens to fish? Their survival is less visible, yet just as critical. Shifting fish populations could reshape food webs, disrupt fisheries, and even threaten coastal communities that depend on reefs for protection and resources. Clownfish survival in warming seas Researchers at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) set out...

Marine flatworms and sea slugs have more in common with kale than you might think. Both the plant and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-temperatures-can-alter-dna-in-marine-invertebrates/">invertebrates</a> have “frilly” surfaces and new research into the geometry of frills could help engineers develop flexible soft-body robots that move around with ease. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> used mathematics to study inflected nonsmooth surfaces which are the folds of a frilly surface like those found on corals. 

The frills, in combination with a smooth surface like that of a flatworm, made up of the focus of the research which was presented at the 2019 <a href="https://www.aps.org/">American Physical Society</a> March Meeting in Boston.

“People have looked at these hyperbolic surfaces for 200 years, but nobody has thought about the role of smoothness in relation to how these things move, their mechanics,” said Shankar Venkataramani, who presented his team’s findings “Nobody saw a relevance to these things until now.” 

It was long thought that natural frills are the result of both bending and stretching a surface, but the researchers found frills could occur without stretching. 

The researchers also discovered that movement of frilly surfaces required very little energy. So if you think about a flatworm seamlessly gliding through the ocean as it’s wavy edges move up and down, these shifts do not expend too much costly energy. 

The researchers were able to develop a theory that helped describe the inflected nonsmooth surfaces and then created a mathematical model of a thin film that had six up and down portions or frills. 

The question was how to get the model to move in a similar non-energy expending way.

“We realized that nature already solved the problem millions of years ago. Some sea slugs and marine worms use this geometry to get around,” said Venkataramani. 

With this in mind, the researchers were able to get their model to “stroke” or swim, and the sheet was able to remain unstretched as it moved.

The researchers say that further studies into the smooth gliding movements of marine invertebrates could help with engineering energy efficient and flexible robots in the future. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Studying sea slug movement could help develop energy-efficient robots

Marine flatworms and sea slugs have more in common with...

Carnivores play an important role in many ecosystems, and by preying on herbivores, they ensure that plants and vegetation aren’t grazed into extinction. 

A diverse and balanced food chain is key to a healthy ecosystem, but in general <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medium-sized-carnivores-climate/">carnivores are declining</a> worldwide. 

In the <a href="http://www.gorongosa.org/">Gorongosa National Park</a> in Mozambique, important carnivores like leopards, hyenas, and African wild dogs have disappeared entirely due to the Mozambican civil war. 

While this has emboldened large herbivorous mammals to seek out new grazing areas, new research shows that unchecked herbivores with no predators degrade the ecosystem.  

Seeing a unique opportunity to study large-mammal ecosystems and the impacts of carnivore declines, researchers from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> monitored Gorongosa National Park, recording the number of herbivores in the area, what they ate, and how vegetation recovered when protected from grazing. 

A study detailing their findings was published in the journal Science, and the results provide hope that degraded ecosystems can recover upon the reintroduction of large carnivores. 

In Gorongosa, the researchers discovered that the lack of carnivores created a “landscape of fearlessness” or where herbivores, no longer afraid of being eaten, would graze in open areas that were previously too risky. 

“We found that one of the common antelope species, bushbuck, which typically is a very shy, secretive forest-dweller, has expanded out into the open plains,” said Robert Pringle, a senior author of the study. “The plants in the plains are very nutritious, and the bushbuck that have colonized those areas are bigger and in better shape than their counterparts in the forest. And the presence of bushbuck in this new habitat has negative effects on the plants that bushbuck eat.”

The presence of herbivores in previously high-risk areas has created ripples throughout the entire food chain according to the researchers. 

Starting in 2015, the Princeton researchers surveyed the park and GPS collars were used to track movements and locations of different herbivores.

The researchers also analyzed animal scat to find out what plants what were being eaten and how nutritious each plant was. All of the data was used to help develop experiments that would illustrate the impacts of predation and lack thereof on an ecosystem with large herbivorous mammals. 

“The two most important pieces of the study were two experiments that Justine [Justine Atkins was the lead researcher of the study] performed in the field in 2016 and 2017,” said Pringle. “One was to use the sounds and scents of large carnivores to simulate risk -- the idea was to try to scare the bushbuck into thinking that predators were present and see how that affected their behavior.”

Once the bushbuck sensed that their predators had returned through the scents of carnivore urine and the sounds of leopard calls, they retreated to the cover of wooded areas. Atkins also prevented the bushbuck from eating plants in the open plains they preferred. 

Once grazing stopped there, the plants recovered and grew back rapidly which was good news to the researchers. 

Since the plants rebounded so quickly, the researchers say that reintroducing carnivores into an ecosystem would be beneficial to plant diversity and growth.

“Our work really underscores the importance of top carnivores, which are declining globally,” said Ryan Long, a co-author on the project. “Carnivores influence ecosystems in complex ways that go beyond just killing and eating other animals, but it can be really challenging to get experimental evidence of those kinds of effects in large-mammal systems.”

In 2018, a pack of African wild dogs was introduced into the park, and the project has been extremely successful in bringing balance back to the park’s food chain and ecosystem. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Carnivores play a key role in a healthy ecosystem

Carnivores play an important role in many ecosystems, and by...

An international team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index.html">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a>, and <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a>, recently studied the human impact on the behavioral diversity of chimpanzees. Their findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>, show that human intervention causes a massive drop in the overall behavioral diversity of chimps.

"Chimpanzees are highly intelligent and adaptable creatures," said coauthor Kevin Lee from Arizona State University, "and there have been various reports of chimpanzees, both in captivity and in free-living conditions, that have relatively more frequent contact with humans exhibiting some 'novel' behaviors not observed in more remote populations, but it was not clear how overall behavioral diversity would be affected."

Before this study, behavioral diversity of chimps was lumped into overall biodiversity changes in chimp populations, which is often attributed to the decline of wild chimp populations in their native habitats, caused by human-linked deforestation, hunting, and diseases. 

However, more recently, behavioral diversity has been distinguished as its own unique entity, and the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> and the <a href="https://www.cms.int/">Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals</a>, of the United Nations Environment Programme, now call specifically for its protection under the umbrella of biodiversity protection.

In order to get a better grasp on how humans have impacted behavioral changes in chimps, the research team compiled a dataset of 31 chimpanzee behaviors across 144 chimp social groups/communities located throughout the entire global range of chimpanzees. Behaviors noted in this study included “extraction and consumption of termites, ants, algae, nuts and honey; the use of tools for hunting or digging for tubers; and the use of stones, pools and caves among several others.”

The behaviors were studied in each chimp group and then put into perspective of the amount of human impact on said group.

"We measured multiple levels of human impact, including human population density, roads, rivers and forest cover," said coauthor Kevin Langergraber, also from Arizona State University. "The analysis revealed a strong and robust pattern — chimpanzee behavioral diversity was reduced by 88 percent when human impact was highest compared to locations with the least human impact."

It is believed that chimps may act differently knowing humans are in such close range. They may steer clear of actions that would inform hunters of their presence, like cracking nuts. 

Furthermore, habitat depletion and lack of resources may be preventing the next generation from learning behaviors from older generations. Climate change might also play a role in loss of behavioral diversity due to the fact that certain foods and resources have become less available and have forced chimps to rework their lifestyle to adapt.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Kevin Langergraber

Chimpanzee behavioral diversity is reduced by human impact

An international team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute...

Over a hundred new species of beetle have recently been discovered on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi – known for being home to unique species like the deer-pig and the midget buffalo. 

What the island wasn’t known for was its <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beetle-species-game-thrones/">beetle</a> inhabitants, specifically the tiny weevils of the genus Trigonopterus, as only a single species had been classified on the island since 1885. But now thanks to new research in the open-access journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/">ZooKeys</a>, a total of 103 new Trigonopterus species have been identified and described.

“We had found hundreds of species on the neighboring islands of New Guinea, Borneo and Java - why should Sulawesi with its lush habitats remain an empty space?” asks Dr. Alexander Riedel, lead author of the study and an entomologist at <a href="https://www.smnk.de/en/">Natural History Museum Karlsruhe</a> in Germany. 

Riedel actually came across the first specimens of these new species back in 1990 while doing a survey of the fauna living in the rainforest foliage in Central Sulawesi. Over the coming years, he collaborated with the Indonesian Institute of Scientists (LIPI) to fill out the rest of the picture.

“Our survey is not yet complete and possibly we have just scratched the surface. Sulawesi is geologically complex and many areas have never been searched for these small beetles,” explains Raden Pramesa Narakusumo, curator of beetles at the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (MXB), <a href="https://www.gbif.org/publisher/07acecfd-5994-47a7-bd1b-ccdbf534973b">Indonesian Research Center for Biology</a>.

[caption id="attachment_1869285" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/beetles.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1869285" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/beetles.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="282" /></a> Trigonopterus asterix, T. obelix and T. idefix, Image Credit: Alexander Riedel[/caption]

These beetles have likely remained overlooked for so long due to their size (no bigger than 2-3 millimeters) and superficial resemblance amongst their genus. Many look so similar that DNA sequencing is the only efficient method to determine if they are in fact separate species. 

Along with figuring out which beetles were members of different species, the researchers were faced with the daunting task of naming 103 separate species. While some species were named in ways that indicated their localities or characteristic morphology, others received much more unique names.

One small, green and forest-dwelling species was named after the Star Wars character Yoda, while three other species were named after the main characters in the French comics series The Adventures of Asterix. Two species were named after Greek mythological characters Artemis, the goddess of hunting and nature, and Satyr, a male nature spirit inhabiting remote places.

With all the work done to find, identify, and name these species, the researchers wanted to ensure that future taxonomists could easily access information about these species.

“This provides a face to the species name, and this is an important prerequisite for future studies on their evolution,” explained the researchers. “Studies investigating such evolutionary processes depend on names and clear diagnoses of the species. These are now available, at least for the fauna of Sulawesi.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Alexander Riedel

Over 100 new species of beetle found on remote Indonesian island

Over a hundred new species of beetle have recently been...

The <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">United States Fish and Wildlife Service</a> has announced a proposal to <a href="https://apnews.com/b2e0ee9f81da4e1db9672a3725354720">lift federal protections</a> for gray wolves and revoke their endangered status in the lower 48 states. 

If approved, gray wolf management would return to states and tribes. The proposal was announced by former lobbyist and acting Secretary of the <a href="https://www.doi.gov/">Interior Department</a> David Bernhardt. 

In 1975, there were just 1,000 gray wolves in the US and in 1978 the gray wolf was classified as an endangered species. Now, gray wolf populations have recovered significantly, and there are around 5,000 wolves. 

Even though this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-environmental-news-change/">conservation success story</a> is a hopeful sign that protections and management have helped gray wolves re-establish themselves, there are concerns that lifting protections will cause declines in unstable and vulnerable populations. 

In the Adirondacks and the southern Rocky Mountains, biologists have predicted that gray wolf populations could thrive but current gray wolves that live there still need protections because populations only recently recovered. 

“The proposal will also all but ensure that wolves are not allowed to recover in the Adirondacks, southern Rockies and elsewhere that scientists have identified suitable habitat,” the Center for Biological Diversity said in response to the new proposal. 

The <a href="http://www.beefusa.org/">National Cattlemen’s Beef Association</a> lauded the proposal as farmers and ranchers have had to deal with encroaching wolf populations hunting their livestock. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protect-livestock-impact-ecosystems/">Non-lethal methods</a> exist to help farmers keep wolves away from their livestock, but it may be some time before these methods are implemented on a wide scale. A farmer may also have less incentive now going forward to use non-lethal methods under the new proposal. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Trump administration plans to end protections for gray wolves

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has announced a...

A new species of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tarantulas-migrating-new-areas/">tarantula</a> with bright blue legs has been described for the first time by arachnologists Ray Gabriel and Danniella Sherwood. However, there is controversy surrounding whether two specimens of the palm-sized tarantula were illegally removed from their habitats in Malaysia. 

Wildlife photographer Chien Lee, who first posted a photo of the spider on Facebook in 2017, said the spider was “hands down” the most beautiful tarantula he had ever seen. Lee said it is possible that the experts were not aware that the spiders were obtained illegally. Lee theorizes that after he posted the image, collectors went out searching for the spiders. 

However, experts in Britain believe that the proper procedures were followed. <a href="https://www.thebts.co.uk/">British Tarantula Society</a> chairman Peter Kirk told <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">MailOnline</a> that he supports Lee's claim that he originally found the new species. He said that the two specimens were received in “good faith,” adding that the society was told “they were legally collected with all appropriate paperwork needed.”

Kirk also explained that the collectors did not smuggle the tarantulas out of Malaysia, but that two dead spiders were mailed to Europe.

“It would be down to the Malaysians to sort out the paperwork, the collectors had a permit,” Kirk told MailOnline. “We published it from the authors without any reason to believe that the spiders were illegally obtained. How easy is it to identify someone selling something illegally?”


The spider has been classified as a new species in a new genus called Birupes simoroxigorum, named after the children of the three Malaysian collectors who provided the spiders. According to MailOnline, the spiders will be held at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History until they are sent back to Malaysia.    

Birupes simoroxigorum is described in the <a href="https://www.thebts.co.uk/">Journal of the British Tarantula Society</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: British Tarantula Society Journal

New species of tarantula found in Malaysia has electric blue legs

A new species of tarantula with bright blue legs has...

Conservationists brand tortoise shells to save species from the pet trade. The Ploughshare tortoise is known throughout the world for its memorizing, geometric shell. This shell makes the species stand out, especially in the illegal pet trade, which is causing Ploughshare tortoise populations to plummet.

The Ploughshare tortoise is currently listed as <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/9016/12950950">Critically Endangered</a> on the IUCN Red List as a result of smuggling for the pet trade and human-caused fires. Today, there are only around 400 individuals left living solely in Madagascar. The species holds the undesired title of the world’s rarest tortoise.

Demand for the Ploughshare tortoise has risen in recent decades among hobbyists and collectors who are willing to shell out large amounts of money for the tortoises. Conservationists brand tortoise shells to save species from the pet trade

This demand has fueled poaching in the wild as poachers often target species that will yield a high price in the wildlife market. Incentivizing the smuggling of Ploughshare tortoises more is the ease of taking them from the wild. Ploughshare tortoises have a highly limited distribution, allowing poachers to zero in on where they could find the species. Chasing and catching a tortoise is not a difficult task and Ploughshare tortoises have been<a href="https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/viewFile/11659/16038"> known</a> to get stuck between trees.

A<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Serene_Chng2/publication/317664475_Rising_internet-based_trade_in_the_Critically_Endangered_ploughshare_tortoise_Astrochelys_yniphora_in_Indonesia_highlights_need_for_improved_enforcement_of_CITES/links/59f92bf"> study</a> which examined the online market for Ploughshare tortoises found 88 advertisements selling 126 Ploughshare tortoises in a five-year period. The tortoises were highly valuable, selling for up to $47,000 USD each. Individuals have also been<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vincent_Nijman/publication/266388361_Analysis_of_a_decade_of_trade_of_tortoises_and_freshwater_turtles_in_Bangkok_Thailand/links/542faf510cf277d58e91fd86/Analysis-of-a-decade-of-trade-of-tortoises-and-freshwate"> found</a> for sale at marketplaces.                               

Times are desperate for the Ploughshare tortoise. Despite protections by Madagascar law and international treaty, the illegal smuggling and trade persists. In 2016, a group of<a href="https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/17/InfDocs/E-CoP17-Inf-36.pdf"> wildlife conservation groups</a> warned that the species could become extinct in the wild in the next two to three years.

In an attempt to curtail the trade, conservation groups have turned to an unlikely solution. The<a href="https://www.turtleconservancy.org/"> Turtle Conservancy</a>, a non-profit aimed at protecting turtles and tortoises, currently runs a program where turtles in the wild are safely marked with serial numbers on their shells. This approach hopes to curtail the demand for Ploughshare tortoises in the pet trade by making the individuals less attractive.

While it certainly is unfortunate to deface what makes the tortoise so iconic, the alternative is the likely extinction of the species. The Ploughshare tortoise faces a similar fate as other species whose beauty and unique attributes make them victim to overexploitation.

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/northern-white-rhinos-genetics/">Rhinos</a>, who are targeted by poachers for their horns, have been the recipients of a few creative ideas to curtail demand for their parts. Some conservationists have suggested humanely shaving off rhinos’ horns and poisoning the horn itself. These ideas have been met with<a href="https://www.ifaw.org/united-states/news/why-some-creative-poaching-solutions-fail"> hesitancy</a> by some who question the efficacy of the ideas.

Although the shell marking program was controversial when it was first suggested, a similar program was conducted on Burmese star tortoises when they were reintroduced into the wild. The shell markings even helped prosecute two smugglers in Thailand, Turtle Conservancy<a href="https://www.turtleconservancy.org/news/2016/2/wild-ploughshare-tortoises-in-more-danger-than-ever"> notes</a>.

Despite ethical concerns about defacing the tortoises, the logic makes sense. Buyers are unlikely to spend $47,000 on a tortoise whose shell is damaged, especially if the serial number puts the buyer at an increased risk of detection.

Marking the shells of the Ploughshare tortoise is just one of the initiatives taking place to protect the species. The species’ habitat at Baly Bay was been established as a national park, tortoises have been<a href="http://www.chelonian.org/wp-content/uploads/file/CRM%206/26-Kiester&amp;al.pdf"> equipped with radio tags to track their movements and individuals have been bred in captivity</a>. The Ploughshare tortoise also needs increased enforcement around its habitat and internationally.

Without intervention, the only Ploughshare tortoises in the world may be living in the homes of the buyers who fueled their demise.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: reptiles4all/Shutterstock

Conservationists brand tortoise shells to save species from the pet trade

Conservationists brand tortoise shells to save species from the pet...

Mass coral bleaching events can be devastating to coastal ocean ecosystems and research has shown that these events have become increasingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mass-coral-bleaching-common/">frequent and widespread in recent years</a>. 

Climate change is a major driving factor in mass coral bleaching, and coral reef health is important when predicting how a reef will adapt to rising sea levels and temperatures.

Corals need herbivorous fish to graze on algae on the reef, and previously it was assumed that as long as fish populations remained high, coral reefs were healthy.

Now, a new study has found that diversity plays an equally important role as population numbers and biomass in keeping corals healthy and reef systems thriving.  

Researchers from the at <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a> recorded underwater footage of fish grazing along reefs in the Dominican Republic to assess how fish diversity impacted reef health.

The study was published in the journal Science Advances.

“Scientists have long known that reefs are healthier when a large number, or a ‘high biomass,’ of plant-eating fish graze their surfaces," said Doug Rasher, the senior author of the study. “However, this study revealed that having a diverse portfolio of those fish species on the reef is equally important to keeping reefs well grazed and hospitable to baby corals.”

When fish graze in coral reefs, they also double as the coral cleaning crew, scraping off seaweed and algae from the corals with their bodies.

Without fish to graze on them, seaweed and algae can overtake the reef and, in the Caribbean, this has become an increasingly common problem.

[caption id="attachment_1869250" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/parrotfish1.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1869250" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/parrotfish1.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="430" /></a> A large stoplight parrotfish scrapes algae from the reef surface. Image Credit: José Alejandro Alvarez[/caption]

Each fish has their own preference when it comes the kind of algae they prefer, so it would make sense that a reef that houses a diverse number of fish species has a decreased risk of being overcome by seaweed.

The researchers wanted to see if diversity impacted reef health across a wide range of coral reefs or if it was a localized phenomenon that only benefitted certain reefs.

The team used underwater cameras to record fish activity at ten reefs spread across 1,000 kilometers of coastline in the Dominican Republic.

“Looking at reefs in isolation is like studying individual pieces of the puzzle,” said Rasher. “It is only by studying multiple reefs across an entire region that we could see the much larger role that biodiversity plays in supporting the process of grazing.”

Along with recording the fish, the researchers also measured algae abundance both before and after the fish fed on the corals and the number of baby corals.

Next, the researchers analyzed the video footage and took note of the diversity and sizes of the grazing fish.

A model was designed to process the data and compare the effectiveness of fish diversity to fish biomass on grazing.  

The model confirmed the importance of fish diversity on reef health, and the researchers say the study has important implications for managing tropical fisheries as conservation and management has typically focused on population size and not the number of species present.

“Our research helps bring coral reefs in line with what we know from many other ecosystems - from seagrass beds to forests and grasslands,” said Jon Lefcheck, the lead author of the study. “It appears more and more likely that biodiversity is the lynchpin that holds nature together.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Main Image Credit: José Alejandro Alvarez

Both diversity and abundance are key to coral reef health

Mass coral bleaching events can be devastating to coastal ocean...

Dinosaurs were flourishing just before they were killed off. Most scientists agree that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-dinosaurs-global-tsunami/">dinosaurs</a> were killed off at the end of the Late Cretaceous period by a large asteroid impact, which was likely combined with intense volcanic activity. On the other hand, many experts disagree on the overall state of the dinosaurs just before they were wiped out. 

A new study led by <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> has found that dinosaurs had survived millions of years of long-term climate changes and were flourishing at the time of the devastating asteroid strike. This discovery contradicts the findings of previous studies which concluded that the dinosaurs were in a state of decline when they were killed. 

Study lead author Alessandro Chiarenza is a PhD student in the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at Imperial.

“Dinosaurs were likely not doomed to extinction until the end of the Cretaceous, when the asteroid hit, declaring the end of their reign and leaving the planet to animals like mammals, lizards and a minor group of surviving dinosaurs: birds,” said Chiarenza.

“The results of our study suggest that dinosaurs as a whole were adaptable animals, capable of coping with the environmental changes and climatic fluctuations that happened during the last few million years of the Late Cretaceous. Climate change over prolonged time scales did not cause a long-term decline of dinosaurs through the last stages of this period.”

North America, where many Late Cretaceous dinosaurs are preserved, was split in half by a body of water during this time period. A steady supply of sediment from the newly forming Rocky Mountains created the perfect conditions for fossilization in the west, but the conditions in the eastern half of the continent were not nearly as suitable for fossilization. For this reason, far more dinosaur fossils are found in the western half of North America and this fossil record has been used for most research.

“Most of what we know about Late Cretaceous North American dinosaurs comes from an area smaller than one-third of the present-day continent, and yet we know that dinosaurs roamed all across North America, from Alaska to New Jersey and down to Mexico,” said study co-author Dr. Philip Mannion from the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>.

The research team used a technique known as “ecological niche modeling,” which accounts for the environmental conditions that a particular species needs to survive.  This made it possible for the experts to gain new insight into where dinosaur species would have survived, rather than simply basing their existence on where fossils had been recovered. 


The study revealed that habitats which could support a range of dinosaurs were more widespread at the end of the Cretaceous than what was thought. The previously unknown territories were located in regions that were less likely to preserve fossils. This means that the number, as well as the diversity, of dinosaurs that were alive in the Late Cretaceous has been largely underestimated. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Davide Bonadonna

Dinosaurs were flourishing just before they were killed off

Dinosaurs were flourishing just before they were killed off. Most...

By now, everyone’s heard of the threats facing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fungicide-honey-bees-death/">honey bees</a> these days in the United States, from pesticides to the steady invasive creep of urbanization.  But few people think about the native bee species and how these interact with the non-native European honey bee or the ‘Africanized’ hybrid that so many people fear.  Native bees are victims to human activity just as the loyal pollinating honey bees we so love.

According to the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/oce/forum/past_speeches/2015_Speeches/SDroege.pdf">USDA</a>, there are 20,000 named species of bees worldwide.  There are estimated to be another 20,000 species of bees left to describe.  In the US, there are approximately 4,000 species of described bees and an estimated 400 species left to describe.  The highest diversity of bees here is in the Southwest. With overlapping populations, there are 100+ species at any given location in the US.  Only about 1% of the bees in the US are non-native. Of the native bees in the US, most are incapable of stinging. Mexico also has a large amount of bee diversity.

According to <a href="https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/protecting-native-bee-populations-in-mexico">UN University</a>, there are 2,000 species of bees native to Mexico.  Beekeeping in Mexico is a big business, with 41,000 honey producers raising 2 million hives with a profit in exports of about US $56 million per year.  Honey production includes both European Honey bees (Apis mellifera) and native species.  The honey produced by each species of bee differs in its flavor as well as the amount produced.  Colony sizes in European and native bees also differ greatly. European honeybee colonies range in size from 30,000 to 50,000, while native colonies are usually much smaller from 1,000 to 5,000 worker bees.  Interestingly, native apiculture still remains in Mexico.

Native American communities in Mexico sometimes use pre-Columbian techniques in raising bees, such as using clay pots instead of more modern containers.  Sometimes native bees are used as well, contributing to the natural biodiversity of bees in Mexico. There is also one big advantage to raising native bees, unlike their European relatives, native bees don’t sting.  Being stingless, native bees are much easier to handle than the European Honeybee. There is also an ecological advantage – native bee species pollinate higher up in the colony of native tropical forests than do the introduced European bees.  Despite the benefit of not being attacked by a bee and the benefit to tropical forests, native bees are usually less profitable because they produce smaller volumes of honey per colony. 

When Native Americans encountered European Honey bees in North America, they often called them the ‘white man’s fly’.  Seeing large numbers of honey bees meant European settlers were nearby, while Native Americans had already been collecting honey from native bee colonies they found in the wild.  In Mexico, the Maya had long been practicing bee husbandry when Europeans first arrived in their land.

In 2005, the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> reported that the main native species propagated by the Maya was Melipona beecheii, one of about 500 species of stingless bees found in the tropics.  16 species of stingless bees are native to the Yucatan region. The bee’s name in Yucatec Mayan is ‘Xunan-Kab’ which translates into, ‘royal lady bee’.  Traditionally colonies of these stingless bees were reared by a Mayan priest and honey was harvested only twice a year, to avoid damage from over harvesting.  

Researchers from the Smithsonian Institute of Tropical Research then decried the decline of native bee husbandry among the Mayan people of Mexico.  The decline is connected to a loss of cultural knowledge – the majority of Mayan bee keepers in Mexico are old men who aren’t passing there knowledge on.  Decline of bees as with the decline of all native species is also connected to a decline in habitat. Melipona beecheii depends on tropical forests for their survival and production of honey.  Given the threats to native honey bees, despite the 3,000 year history of beekeeping in Mexico, many Mayans are turning to European bees for beekeeping.  

By 2005, there had already been a 93% decline in native bee keeping.  1,000 native bee colonies were known in 1981 but only 90 remained in 2004.  At the time, biologist Rogel Villanueva Gutiérrez predicted that native bee production would be completely gone by 2008.  <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/01/house-of-the-royal-lady-bee-maya-revive-native-bees-and-ancient-beekeeping/">Mongabay</a> reported in 2018 that these predictions didn’t turn out to be entirely accurate.  

Villanueva himself brought together 50 local people in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo and taught them native bee husbandry in an attempt to save the tradition, the bee itself and contribute to forest health.  From these modest beginnings, native bee keeping has grown and the state government has taken on financing some beekeepers. One family in the agricultural community of La Pantera has 98 bee colonies, more than all the native bee colonies being kept in Quintana Roo in 2004.  

An agroecological School in Yucatán state, founded in 1992 by a Catholic priest is also part of the renewal in native bee keeping.  The school has trained 300 Mayan students in native bee keeping and even more in agroecology. This training is spreading the renewal in native bee keeping to  Yucatán as well as Quintana Roo. Some are concerned with possible bad actors in native bee keeping.

Wild bee hives are sometimes raided to create a new colony of native bees for a quick profit, hurting wild populations.  Older people also sometimes sell their bee colonies for a profit without passing down their deep, traditional knowledge to younger generations.  There are also concerns about those who start in the business without a good grounding in apiculture training and end up killing or hurting colonies by their ineptitude.  Still, a revival in traditional knowledge and connection to native wildlife is a good thing. 

Beekeeping in the Yucatán peninsula of Mexico shows a way that agriculture and wild ecology can coexist, a way humans have discovered of being comfortable as part of a greater environmental whole.  Yucatán state has a history of colonial violence and oppression of Mayans, greater than in Quintana Roo. Revival of native beekeeping can be seen as a small revival of a culture long persecuted by colonists.           

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Mexican beekeepers help native bees come back from the brink

By now, everyone’s heard of the threats facing honey bees...

Can FIV positive and negative cats live together? Working at a free-roaming cat rescue had many perks but perhaps my favorite was watching the adoptable cats interact and play with each other. These <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cats-friendly-cues-humans/">cats</a> were varied in their backgrounds, some were rescued outdoors while some were owner-surrendered, some were seniors while others were kittens, and some were diagnosed with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) while others were not.

FIV is a virus, similar to HIV, that impacts a cat’s immune system making them increasingly vulnerable to other illnesses. Years ago, FIV meant euthanasia for many cats brought to shelters and rescues. But as veterinarians and researchers learned more about the virus, opinions began to change about how to treat FIV positive cats.

Although the symptoms of FIV can be severe, FIV positive cats can live healthy lives for years after their diagnosis. The <a href="https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-feline-health-center">Cornell Feline Health Center</a> estimates that the median survival time for a cat diagnosed with FIV is<a href="https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-feline-health-center/health-information/feline-health-topics/feline-immunodeficiency-virus"> five years</a>. Additionally, a<a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1034.1044&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf"> study</a> published in the Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery found that the median survival time of FIV positive cats was not significantly different than FIV negative cats. In light of this, adopters can now find FIV positive cats readily available for adoption.

Cat rescues vary on how to house FIV positive cats in their care. FIV positive cats may be isolated or they may cohabitate with the other cats, such as at the rescue I had worked for.

Shelters and rescues may be hesitant to implement cohabitation policies between FIV positive and negative cats because FIV can be transmitted from cat to cat (it can not be transmitted to other animals or humans). The<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3439265/"> primary mode of the transmission</a> of FIV is through bite wounds which can occur through fighting or mating. Less common, is the transmission of FIV from mother to kittens and from mating itself. Can FIV positive and negative cats live together?

Cats who are not sterilized are at an increased risk of fighting and mating with other cats, which is why<a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1034.1044&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf"> free-roaming, aggressive male cats</a> are the most frequently infected. Shelters and rescues regularly mandate that all cats in their care have to be sterilized, which greatly reduces the risk of transmission by controlling testosterone and desires to fight over territory and mates.

This does not mean there is no chance of transmission between FIV positive and negative cats. Sterilized cats may still fight each other but rarely do these interactions result in forceful biting and open wounds.

A 2014<a href="http://maddieslifesavingacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Litster-2014-TVJ-Tmission-FIV-cohabiting-cats-2-rescue-shelters.pdf"> study</a> published in The Veterinary Journal examined the transmission of FIV between 138 cohabitating cats and found no evidence of transmission despite years of close contact. The cats living together engaged in grooming and sporadic fighting and shared food bowls, litter boxes and bedding. This study is in line with three previous studies which also found no transmission of FIV between positive and negative cats.

However, a 2000<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10811262"> study</a> published in The Veterinary Record found that six FIV negative cats became infected while living with FIV positive cats over a ten-year period.

Allowing FIV positive and negative cats to live together is not universally accepted in the animal welfare field. Some professionals still advise against the practice. Those who are in favor of the practice emphasize that the risk of transmission is low and that animal owners can monitor their cat’s behavior to ensure aggressive fighting is not occurring.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Can FIV positive and negative cats live together?

Can FIV positive and negative cats live together? Working at...

A research team led by the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/">Zoological Society of London (ZSL)</a>, the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>, and the <a href="http://www.nmnaturalhistory.org/">New Mexico Museum of Natural History</a>, have discovered three new species and subspecies in fossilized <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-hide-caves/">crocodile</a> digestive remains. The fossilized bones, originally found between 1930 and 1990 and predicted to belong to a species that existed about 300 years ago, were discovered in caves, peat deposits, and sinkholes in the Cayman Islands.

The team found two new large rodents — Capromys pilorides lewisi and Geocapromys caymanensis — and a small shrew-like animal, dubbed Nesophontes hemicingulus. These three animals only existed in the Cayman Islands and likely went extinct in the 1700s after European settlers brought cat, dogs, and rat species to the Islands. 

This new discovery was published March 4th in the <a href="http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/7">Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History</a>.

[caption id="attachment_1869143" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/new-mammal-species.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1869143" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/new-mammal-species.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="797" /></a> Cuban hutia Capromys pilorides, the closest living relative to the newly described mammals, Image Credit: Nancy Albury[/caption]

"Humans are almost certainly to blame for the extinction of these newly described mammals, and this represents just the tip of the iceberg for mammal extinctions in the Caribbean,” said co-author Professor Samuel Turvey, Senior Research Fellow at the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/science">ZSL Institute of Zoology</a>. “Nearly all the mammal species that used to live on these tropical islands, including all of the native Caribbean sloths and monkeys, have recently disappeared.”

"It's vitally important to understand the factors responsible for past extinctions of island species, as many threatened species today are found on islands,” he continued. “The handful of Caribbean mammals that still exist today are the last survivors of a unique vanished world and represent some of the world's top conservation priorities."

When Sir Francis Drake visited the Islands in 1586 and recorded seeing “little beasts like cats,” which he also called “coneys,” he was most likely describing the Capromys and the Geocapromys, the researchers believe. Similar species to those of the Capromys and the Geocapromys have survived to modern day on Cuba. It is thought that the Cayman Islands became populated with mammals by way of said mammals being transported via floating vegetation from Cuba.

"Although one would think that the greatest days of biological field discoveries are long over, that's very far from the case,” added co-author Professor Ross MacPhee, of the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/our-research/vertebrate-zoology/mammalogy">American Museum of Natural History Mammalogy Department</a>. “With only one possible sighting early in the course of European expansion into the New World, these small mammals from the Cayman Islands were complete unknowns until their fossils were discovered.”

With their closest relatives residing on Cuba, MacPhee ponders the question, “how and when did they manage a 250-km journey over open water?"

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New mammal species found in an ancient crocodile’s digestive system

A research team led by the Zoological Society of London...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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