Beautiful,Spider,Web,Close-up,On,The,Background,Of,Nature.,Selective

Scientists have bred spiders that weave bright red, fluorescent draglines, proving that the animals’ silk can be genetically re-engineered inside the living organism. This finding shows a new path toward designer fibers with tunable strength, elasticity, and surface chemistry.



The experiments were carried out by the Biomaterials research group at the <a href="https://www.uni-bayreuth.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bayreuth</a>. Using the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing system</a>, the team inserted a fluorescent marker gene into the spiders’ silk-protein DNA, then confirmed the edit when the offspring produced crimson red threads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-spider-silk-excites-engineers"><a></a>Why spider silk excites engineers</h2>



Dragline silk already outperforms many man-made fibers. It resists tearing, stretches without snapping, weighs very little and breaks down harmlessly in nature. 



If its molecular recipe can be tweaked at will, future filaments could combine even greater toughness with added functions ranging from antimicrobial activity to electrical conductivity. Over the past decade CRISPR-Cas9 has become biology’s precision scalpel. 



The enzyme-guide complex targets chosen DNA sites, cuts them, and lets the cell’s own repair crew delete unwanted sequences or patch in new ones. The method has been applied to plants, insects, mice and more, yet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-spiders-have-personalities-what-new-research-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> had remained untouched.



“Considering the wide range of possible applications, it is surprising that there have been no studies to date using CRISPR-Cas9 in spiders,” said senior author Thomas Scheibel, a professor of biochemistry at Bayreuth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-egg-injection-to-glowing-fiber"><a></a>From egg injection to glowing fiber</h2>



Scheibel and doctoral researcher Edgardo Santiago-Rivera mixed the gene-editing components with a sequence coding for a red fluorescent protein. They injected this cocktail into unfertilized spider eggs and later mated the females.



Because the edit happened before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-are-picky-when-choosing-their-mate-for-fertilization/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilization</a>, every cell in the brood carried the new blueprint. When the juveniles spun safety lines, the filaments glowed scarlet under blue light, confirming a successful gene knock-in.



“We have demonstrated, for the first time worldwide, that CRISPR-Cas9 can be used to incorporate a desired sequence into spider silk proteins, thereby enabling the functionalization of these silk fibers,” Scheibel said.



“The ability to apply CRISPR gene-editing to spider silk is very promising for materials science research. For example, it could be used to further increase the already high tensile strength of spider silk.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-learned-from-red-spider-silk">Lessons learned from red spider silk</h2>



The fluorescent marker acts as a beacon, showing where and how the modified proteins fold into the fiber. That view should help unravel the still-mysterious link between amino-acid sequence, spinning process, and macroscopic performance.



With the roadmap clearer, scientists can test added modules that stiffen the thread, alter its stickiness or carry therapeutic payloads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artificial-vs-natural-spider-silk">Artificial vs. natural spider silk</h2>



Earlier attempts to engineer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-artificial-spider-silk-indistinguishable-from-natural-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silk</a> relied on copying genes of spiders into bacteria, yeast, plants or even goats. While those hosts churn out raw protein, the artificial threads seldom match the natural product because spinning in air differs from extrusion through a spider’s duct.



Editing the spider itself preserves the native assembly line, letting researchers fine-tune properties without losing the fiber’s intricate nanostructure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-innovation-and-ecology"><a></a>Balancing innovation and ecology</h2>



The gene-edited arachnids remained confined to secure laboratories, and the team stresses that large-scale production will require strict containment.



Spiders play key roles in ecosystems, so any field release of modified lines would demand careful risk assessment. For now. the focus lies on fundamental insight and small-batch, high-value uses such as surgical sutures or micro-mechanical springs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-web-strands-to-come">The next web strands to come</h2>



Having proved that complex proteins can be knitted into dragline <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-artificial-spider-silk-indistinguishable-from-natural-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silk</a>, the Bayreuth group plans to insert sequences that enhance strength, adjust elasticity, or add sensing abilities.



Marker colors beyond red could enable multicolored performance mapping. Researchers also hope to explore the spider’s six other silk types - each specialized for tasks like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-adapt-their-webs-to-filter-out-human-made-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">web</a> capture or egg protection - to see how far CRISPR can stretch nature’s design space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-point-for-sustainable-fibers">Turning point for sustainable fibers</h2>



By merging a molecular editing toolkit with the planet’s premier fiber spinner, the study opens a fresh chapter in biomaterials science. It hints at a future where customized, biodegradable threads are spun at ambient temperature by miniature eight-legged factories - no smokestacks or petrochemicals required. 



For now, a vivid red glow in a strand of spiders silk stands as proof that the possibilities are real, and only beginning to be woven.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.202502068" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angewandte Chemie</a>.



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World's first gene-edited spiders spin red silk

Scientists have bred spiders that weave bright red, fluorescent draglines, proving that the animals’ silk can be genetically re-engineered inside the living organism. This finding shows a new path toward designer fibers with tunable strength, elasticity, and surface chemistry. The experiments were carried out by the Biomaterials research group at the University of Bayreuth. Using the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing system, the team inserted a fluorescent marker gene into the spiders’ silk-protein DNA, then confirmed the edit when the offspring produced crimson red threads. Why spider silk excites engineers...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> have found that support for the Endangered Species Act has been stable for the last twenty years. Only about ten percent of Americans are opposed to the legislation, and four out of every five adults in the United States support it.


“Every time the ESA is in the news, you hear about how controversial it is,” said study lead author Professor Jeremy Bruskotter. “But the three most recent studies show that, on average, approximately 83 percent of the public supports it, and that's sort of the opposite of controversial.”

Support was found to be consistent throughout various regions of the country. Roughly 74 percent of conservatives, 77 percent of moderates, and 90 percent of liberals said they stood behind the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-species-act-endangered/">law</a>.


The most opposition to the act by any group was found among property rights advocates, with around 21 percent opposed.

Professor Bruskotter believes that the public's impression of the ESA may not line up with the perspective of individuals who seek to roll back the reach of the legislation due to business and political interests.

“Scholars, the media and others keep talking about how controversial the act is and we wanted to know whether that was really true in the population at large,” said Professor Bruskotter.


He said that the Endangered Species Act is undeniably under scrutiny in Washington D.C.

“In the 1990s and 2000s, a typical year saw roughly five attempts to amend the act or curtail its protections. But from 2011 to 2015, there were about 33 legislative attacks per year - and there have been almost 150 in the last two years alone,” said Professor Bruskotter.

“I don't think at any time, maybe since the act was passed, have there been this many members of Congress working in direct opposition to the act, but that doesn't mean that they're acting in the interests of the people they represent.”

For the investigation, the researchers analyzed census data and responses to a 2014 online survey. They compared the results with a separate poll and two studies conducted in the last two decades to see if there was evidence of shifting feelings about the ESA over time. 

Across these studies, support ranged from a low of 79 percent to a high of 90 percent, and opposition ranged from a low of seven percent to a high of 16 percent.

Professor Bruskotter said that he would like to see elected officials and other policymakers consider what the majority of Americans think about existing protections and not let vocal minorities drown out the will of the American people.

“Government should be responsive to its citizens, but our research suggests that is not how government is working, at least not when it comes to environmental policy,” he said.

Study co-author John Vucetich of <a href="https://www.mtu.edu/">Michigan Technological University</a> added: “The Endangered Species Act is a genuine point of American pride; it's considered one of the best laws in the world for conserving biodiversity. So why don't our representatives represent us?”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1755263x">Conservation Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Most Americans support the Endangered Species Act, study finds

Researchers at Ohio State University have found that support for...

While bats may not be the most beloved animal on our planet, they undoubtedly play an important role in protecting our environment. Bats help control the number of pest species through predation, spread plant seeds, and help pollinate over 500 plant species. But this crucial animal has been facing a deadly battle against the fungus known as white-nose syndrome.

White-nose syndrome is a disease caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans. The disease gets the name white-nose syndrome because affected bats often are affected with white fuzz on their face in addition to premature arousals, unusual behaviors, dehydration and loss of fat reserves. Bats with the disease can be repeatedly woken from their hibernation which leads to them burning off their winter fat reserves and starving to death before spring arrives. The disease grows in cool, dark spaces such as caves where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fuzzy-yellow-bats-kenya/">bats</a> often hibernate.

White-nose syndrome was first discovered in Albany, New York in 2007. After the initial discovery, a photograph was found depicting white-nose syndrome in the Albany area at Howes Cave in February 2006.

Since its discovery, white-nose syndrome has spread rapidly to more than half of the United States and seven provinces in Canada. In fact, a contaminated bat was found as far away as Washington State. Spores of the fungus can be spread by unknown hikers and cave explorers who come into contact with the disease.

The disease causes high death rates and has killed an estimated 5.7 million bats in North America since it was first discovered in 2007. According to <a href="http://www.batcon.org/">Bat Conservation International</a>, “The disease is causing massive population declines for multiple hibernating bat species – resulting in the most precipitous wildlife collapse of the past century. The disease has hit northern long-eared bats particularly hard – threatening this species with extinction.”

A study published in the journal <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/329/5992/679.full">Science</a> found that white-nose syndrome has caused regional population collapses. The researchers predicted the disease will lead to regional extinctions of the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus). Today, eleven North American species, including two endangered species and one threatened species, are affected with the disease.

Unfortunately, there is no known cure for white-nose syndrome which leaves conservationists largely defenseless as bat populations continue to be wiped out.

Efforts are underway to track and research white-nose syndrome. The <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> has led interagency responses to the disease since 2008 and has dedicated more than $30 million in research and state grants. The <a href="https://www.nps.gov/index.htm">National Park Service</a> has funded over 158 projects related to the disease in 78 parks. Non-profit groups such as<a href="https://www.nature.org/?intc=support.tnav.logo"> The Nature Conservancy</a> and Bat Conservation International have also conducted their own research to test potential methods for controlling the disease.

There is still hope that a cure can be found. In 2015, scientists were able to successfully treat bats for white-nose syndrome during field trials using a bacterium that has the ability to inhibit the growth of certain fungi. Additionally, in January 2018 a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02441-z">study</a> in Nature Communications found that UV-C light was able to kill over 99% of the fungus.

The study says, “The differential susceptibility of P. destructans to UV light in comparison to other hibernacula-inhabiting fungi represents a potential ‘Achilles’ heel’ of P. destructans that might be exploited for treatment of bats with WNS.”

While this may be the most promising chance for bats yet, the UV light studies will have to go from petri dishes to actual bats to test its ability to protect bats. Researchers will also have to figure out a way to use UV light in the field to treat infected bats. Flashing a UV light into a cave likely would not be enough because the disease can manifest in crevices such as the bats’ armpits that would not be exposed to the light.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

White-nose syndrome is quietly killing millions of bats

While bats may not be the most beloved animal on...

It’s a well-known fact that we currently know less about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-ocean-floor/">ocean floor</a> than we do about the surface of the moon. Our oceans are the largest and least explored environments on the planet, and scientists estimate they may contain up to a million species that are yet to be discovered. Still, deep-ocean dives in specially designed submersibles frequently turn up new species. Many of these organisms are soft-bodied – similar to jellyfish, squid, and octopuses – which makes them difficult to capture for study without harming them.

Luckily, a new device has just been developed by researchers at <a href="https://wyss.harvard.edu/">Harvard University’s Wyss Institute</a>, <a href="https://www.seas.harvard.edu/">John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences</a> (SEAS), and <a href="https://www.radcliffe.harvard.edu/">Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study</a>. This device can capture soft-bodied species for study inside a folding polyhedral enclosure, before letting them go unharmed. The research is reported in <a href="http://robotics.sciencemag.org/">Science Robotics</a>.

The device was designed and built by Zhi Ern Teoh, Ph.D., and consists of five 3D-printed polymer “petals” attached to rotating joints that are linked together to create a scaffold. A motor applies torque to the point where the petals meet, resulting in the entire structure rotating about the joints and folding into a hollow dodecahedron – which is a twelve-sided 3D shape, almost like a rounded box. This device has been named the Rotary Actuated Dodecahedron (RAD). 

The RAD sampler was tested at the Mystic Aquarium in Mystic, CT, where it successfully collected and released moon jellyfish underwater. It was then modified to withstand open ocean conditions, and mounted on an underwater remotely-operated vehicle (ROV) provided by the <a href="https://www.mbari.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute</a> in Monterey, CA. The device was tested in the field at depths of 500-700 meters, using the ROV’s manipulator arm and a human-controlled joystick to operate the RAD. In the field, the team was able to capture soft organisms like squid and jellyfish in their natural habitats, and then release them unharmed. 

“The RAD sampler design is perfect for the difficult environment of the deep ocean because its controls are very simple, so there are fewer elements that can break. It’s also modular, so if something does break, we can simply replace that part and send the sampler back down into the water,” says Teoh. “This folding design is also well-suited to be used in space, which is similar to the deep ocean in that it’s a low-gravity, inhospitable environment that makes operating any device challenging.”

Teoh is currently working on a more rugged version of the RAD to be used in heavy-duty underwater tasks – such as marine geology. Robert Wood, Ph.D., a Founding Core Faculty member of the Wyss Institute, explains how the benefits of this device go beyond its practical use: “Our group’s collaboration with the marine biology community has opened the door for the fields of soft robotics and origami-inspired engineering to apply those technologies to solve problems in an entirely different discipline, and we are excited to see the ways in which this synergy creates novel solutions.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A novel device for capturing delicate, undiscovered sea creatures

It’s a well-known fact that we currently know less about...

Large animals are known collectively as “megafauna” – such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ground-vibrations-elephants-poachers/">elephants</a>, giraffes, hippos and other enormous creatures. In many ecosystems, herbivorous megafauna are crucial for the dispersal of the seeds of many terrestrial plants, particularly those bearing large fruits (“megafaunal fruits”). In the forests of Thailand, sambar deer, bears, gibbons, and elephants play this critical role for the forest tree Platymitra macrocarpa, which bears 3-5” long fruits that these animals consume. 

A study published in the open-access journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a> assesses the relative contribution of each of these species to the seed dispersal of this tree. The authors of the study tracked fruit consumption, seed dispersal, and seed viability by observing trees during the fruiting period, sampling dung piles and other sites of deposited seeds, and measuring the rate of germination and growth of deposited seeds. Through this analysis, they were able to calculate the seed dispersal effectiveness for each megafauna species that uses these trees as an open buffet.

Their results showed that, while elephants consume a paltry 3 percent of the available fruit, they were responsible for a whopping 37 percent of the seeds that produced viable seedlings. On the other hand, sambar deer consumed 23 percent of fruit, but were only responsible for 17 percent of seedlings. This was determined to be a result of the much more significant beetle damage done to the seeds the deer excreted. 

Although smaller members of this ecosystem’s megafauna such as deer and bear play important roles in seed dispersal, their effectiveness is lower. Ultimately, they require more fruit to reach the same level of reproduction achieved by elephants with significantly less fruit consumed.

“If less vulnerable large herbivores such as deer are unable to replicate the seed dispersal role of threatened mega-herbivores such as elephants, megafaunal fruit could suffer range contractions, affecting forest community composition and potentially forest carbon stocks,” says Kim McConkey of the <a href="http://www.nias.res.in/">National Institute of Advanced Studies</a> in Bangalore, Thailand. 

Although it may seem that a study into the seed dispersal of a handful of species for one tree in one ecosystem has a small scope, this couldn’t be further from the truth. If this widely-dispersed tree species is unable to reproduce effectively, it could have major effects on numerous species within the ecosystem, not to mention the forest carbon stocks indicated by McConkey. In ecosystems such as this, small changes can have major consequences.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Kulpat Saralamba

Elephants are crucial to the survival of this tropical tree

Large animals are known collectively as “megafauna” – such as...

About a week ago, I was walking my dog through a neighborhood in western Colorado.  In the street I saw a juvenile male robin. The bird moved away from me and the dog, flapping rather ineffectually.  I watched the robin for a bit and tried to shoo the bird off the road so at least he wouldn’t be hit by a car. The bird’s condition was a familiar one to me.  As an intern for the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">United States Geological Survey</a> (USGS) working on seabird research in Alaska, I’ve seen plenty of young birds in an awkward stage of almost fledging.  I’ve also seen plenty of chicks die young. 

As I was watching the robin in the street, I noticed a few things.  First, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-birds-hatch-late/">bird</a> had plenty of adult feathers but wasn’t completely mature yet.  Second, the bird’s behavior seemed the normal behavior of a fledgling just started on learning to fly.  Lastly I saw that the robin had no signs of injury or sickness, just a frustration from trying to learn to fly.  I decided to leave the bird as he was and hope for the best; the robin was after all just going through the normal process of growing up.  As I determined to leave the bird alone, a woman from a nearby yard started talking to me. The woman said she’d just asked her brother in law to catch the bird for her, so she could help it.  The woman said she thought the bird had a broken wing. I corrected the impression of injury, telling her I’d worked with birds before and this one was just fledging. The woman was well intentioned but it was clear she was determined to intervene on behalf of the fledgling robin. 

I thought back to a couple of times when I had naively thought to help wildlife and how poorly it had gone.  When I was still quite young, 10 years old at most, I was playing outside in a tract of prairie near my home in Wyoming.  I often played in the bluffs of the area, catching toads, collecting bones and rocks. On the day in question I came upon a just born Pronghorn fawn.  The fawn looked helpless next to its amniotic sac. As an unwitting but concerned child, I picked up the infant Pronghorn and awkwardly carried her home to elicit my parents help.  

My parents are not wildlife veterinarians.  A call to the Department of Wildlife, Animal Control or some other government agency quickly confirmed my mistake.  It was probably that the pronghorn mother was nearby, watching the fawn, perhaps only scared away by my approach. I don’t remember all of the details of my encounter with the Pronghorn; I’m not sure what the fate of the baby was.  I did learn a valuable lesson though: not every intervention is good. Often nature is best left to its own devices. 

In 2016, <a href="https://yellowstoneinsider.com/2016/05/17/man-who-picked-up-bison-calf-in-yellowstone-identified/">Yellowstone Insider</a> and many others reported an instance of a man driving through Yellowstone National Park picked up an abandoned Bison calf.  It seems the calf was truly abandoned by its mother and was certain to die of starvation, predation or exposure. In the end the bison calf was brought to rangers for help but was euthanized when it was obvious the calf wouldn’t reintegrate into the herd.  Many were outraged at the naivety of the man who picked up a cold bison calf to help, blaming him for the calf’s eventual death. The sad truth of the matter is that there was nothing to be done to save the Bison calf in Yellowstone that wouldn’t have made the animal captive, an option the Park Service wouldn’t consider.  The Bison like my own Pronghorn illustrates a truth: no matter how well intentioned we can’t always save a life, especially the life of a wild animal. 

Keeping in mind the presence of real limitations, there are many cases of wildlife rescued from bad situations, including orphaned infants.  This year, <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/06/29/bear-cub-rescued-colorado-wildfire/">The Denver Post</a> reported that a bear cub was rescued from a wildfire in Colorado.  The cub’s paws were badly burned but the bear is expected to be released by winter.  Of course in the case of bear cubs, a professional is required to keep the cub safe as well as keep the bear from associating too closely with humans, endangering her life in the future. 

Struggling birds, like the one I found while walking my dog, are common.  According to <a href="https://www.massaudubon.org/learn/nature-wildlife/birds/baby-birds-out-of-the-nest">Massaudubon.org</a>, only 30% of young songbirds survive their first year of life.  The website goes on to say that most of the time, birds should be left alone pointing out it’s illegal to take care of native birds in your home.  

I’m reminded of another incident.  A non-native House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) near where I lived was injured by a cat.  My then-girlfriend Erin and I took the sparrow in while deciding what to do to help the little bird or if indeed there was anything to do at all.  Against Erin’s advice, I fed the small bird bits of cracker crumbs. A few hours later, the House Sparrow was dead. It turns out that the high salt content of processed foods is deadly to non-domesticated birds.  I learned that despite volunteering on bird research projects in three countries, despite an education in biology, I knew nothing about caring for a bird.  

A simple Google search reveals that there are many individuals and organizations that are more educated and experienced than I at caring for birds and other injured wild animals.  The <a href="http://www.avianhaven.org/">Wild Bird Rehabilitation Center</a> of New England is an example plucked straight from a search.  According to the center’s website, they have a caseload of about 2,000 birds annually.  The organization is the largest in the area but not the only, and there are many different wildlife rehab organizations in the US (and elsewhere), it just takes a bit of searching to find them.  You can also call your local animal control branch or division of wildlife can help. 

When I was living in South Dakota, I visited a raptor center that cared for raptors injured, often by human activity.  I was able to hold a small owl in my hand, the little bird peering at me with nocturnal eyes through the deepening evening.  The raptors were unable to return to the wild, too hurt, too accustomed to humans. In many areas, raptors (including owls) are taken care of and become part of wildlife education programs in an attempt to increase the public’s understanding of wildlife.  Years ago, in Tasmania, I saw such a program with a Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) that had lost a wing when striking a powerline diving for prey.  It was there that I learned that the peregrine was indeed a wanderer of almost the whole earth.        

For young animals, especially birds, it’s best to keep in mind that appearances can be deceiving.  An article from <a href="https://www.peta.org/action/how-to-save-baby-birds/">PETA</a> says that most fledglings don’t need help.  This is somewhat contradictory with the idea of only 30% of songbirds surviving their first year but it’s more a matter of birds not needing help most people are capable of giving.  

The next piece of advice PETA gives, after assessing the good health of the bird in question, is to try and return the fledgling to the nest.  It’s important here to confront a common misconception. Most people have heard somewhere or other that birds will smell human touch on their young and abandon a fledgling touched by a person.  The fact is, most birds have a poor sense of smell and there’s no evidence that handling a bird will cause her parents to abandon her. I’ve handled many baby birds in Alaska and a few in the Bahamas as part of conservation research and none of them were rejected by their parents.  If you can get a fledgling back into the nest, it’s the best thing you can do. I helped several young Blue Jays (Cyanocitta cristata) by putting them back in their nest once.  It’s important to remember though, the birds are leaving the nest because they’re almost ready to fly; they certainly will leave the nest again.  

The next best thing to returning a bird to a nest is to create a surrogate nest.  A well-padded and well drained container that can be put out of reach of cats and other predators is best.  A fledgling’s parents usually continue to feed their young as long as they’re close to the nest. 

If you find an injured animal or one that is truly abandoned, it’s best to contact a rehab facility or government authority such as animal control before you do anything else.  Most wildlife are managed under federal law and even an attempt to help them may be illegal. Besides the law, most of us don’t really understand how to care for our wild neighbors.  

In the end, what did I do with the robin I found in the street?  When confronted by a woman wanting to help, I quickly ascertained that there was little I could do to convey the situation to her and how little she could do to help.  I quietly caught the fledgling robin in my hand. I told the woman and her brother in law when he arrived on the scene that I’d take the bird. I told them that I had worked with birds before, perhaps slightly deceptively.  After I walked away, I returned to the area and released the robin to a small tree in a nearby empty piece of land. I hoped for the best for the robin. The stats were against the small fledgling but then again, robins are everywhere.  One thing I hoped I had achieved at least, by returning the robin, I hoped more than anything he wouldn’t die in a cage. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How to take care of injured animals

About a week ago, I was walking my dog through...

Scientists have been investigating how different populations of the same species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-are-being-killed-for-use-as-bait-in-fisheries/">dolphin</a> have a wide range of diving abilities. The experts have developed a new theory that lung architecture and the management of blood flow play a major role in the hunting depths of dolphins.

Bottlenose dolphin populations are typically close to land in shallow coastal environments and dive of less than 10 meters for their prey. However, other groups such as the Bermudian population dive to depths of around 400 meters, and even 1000 meters on some occasions.

Dr. Andreas Fahlman of the <a href="https://www.oceanografic.org/fundacion/">Fundación Oceanográfic</a> in Spain led two separate studies to gain a better understanding of how dolphins of a single species could dive so differently.

“We wanted to measure what kind of differences are responsible for these huge variations,” said Dr. Fahlman. “This allows us to determine how far the physiology can change within a single species and understand the threat that stressors may have on these deep diving dolphins.”

In the first study, deep diving dolphins were found to have a greater oxygen storage capacity compared to bottlenose dolphins in Florida that dive in shallow water. While this capacity would enable them to dive for longer durations, there were no differences in the lung mechanics or metabolic rates between the two populations.

“This was unexpected, as past studies have suggested that compression of the lungs was the main adaptation to avoid taking up excessive nitrogen at depth and getting the bends,” said Dr. Fahlman. “The lack of differences in the lungs between the shallow and deep divers suggest that the dolphins may use other means to avoid diving related problems.”


In a second study, the team estimated how different populations may manage gas exchange according to their diving lifestyles. A model developed by the experts indicated that, when comparing known parameters of how much oxygen storage would be required, the deep diving dolphins would exceed their calculated dive limits.

“The results indicated that the deep diving population would need to keep an elevated heart rate, not only during surface intervals, but also during shallow dives in-between deep dives to allow sufficient restoration of oxygen stores,” said Dr.Fahlman. 

“Keeping the blood flow elevated between deep foraging dives helps reduce time spent at the surface and enhances recovery time. On the other hand, during deep dives, the dolphins would need to direct blood flow through collapsed regions of the lung, allowing some exchange of oxygen and carbon, while preventing the exchange of nitrogen. Thus, the dolphins may have a way to manage the level of nitrogen they absorb and thereby preventing the bends.”

“This hypothesis provides new and exciting research opportunities to understand how mammals can dive to extreme breaths on a lung full of air without any of the related problems that humans experience. However, our dataset is limited, and further studies should be done on other deep diving dolphin populations to determine if there are similar physiological requirements for deep diving.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology">Frontiers in Physiology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do some dolphins dive deeper than others?

Scientists have been investigating how different populations of the same...

Researchers have investigated how social isolation in the short term may benefit an animal’s long-term development. For some animals, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/velvet-ants-invincible/">ants</a>, toads, and primates, isolation may be vital to natural selection and evolution.

Nathan Bailey of the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St Andrews</a> in Scotland and Allen Moore of the <a href="http://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> have identified the critical role that isolation plays among some animal populations.

“The environment an animal experiences can influence which genes it expresses, when, and how much, so conditions of social isolation might cause expression of different traits,” said Bailey. “This in turn could affect responses to natural selection in terms of survival and reproduction, which has evolutionary consequences. For some species, it might even mean that temporary social isolation is favorable.”

For example, the invasive cane toad Rhinella marina of Australia expands into new territory on its own. As a result, members of the opposite sex are extremely attracted to the toad upon its return, boosting the likelihood of both communication and successful mating. In this case, social isolation itself promotes the conditions for natural selection.

“Traits expressed during social interactions might exist because they've been shaped by selection, but at the same time, social interactions themselves represent a type of environment that can select and shape how individuals behave,” explained Bailey.


The team has proposed the development of an “index of social isolation,” which would enable experts to measure the ideal amount of isolation that would help specific animals to thrive.

“To understand how short-term social isolation experienced by individual animals translates into trans-generational evolutionary impacts for a larger population, we need a number, something measurable that we can compare across different species and contexts,” said Bailey. “After all, isolation that has negative effects for one species could in fact be beneficial for another.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/home">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Nathan W. Bailey

A little alone time: Social isolation can benefit some animals

Researchers have investigated how social isolation in the short term...

A new study has found that older children who abuse animals are much more likely to have been abused in early childhood. The researchers determined that this behavior is far less common among girls, and is a stronger indicator of child abuse compared to boys.

“Reports of girls abusing animals are less prevalent than boys, and there is some suggestion that girls who do report that they abuse animals are more likely to be part of a wider abuse,” wrote the researchers.

As many as 44 percent of children abuse animals at some point during their childhood, and the study authors explained that this may be a low estimate considering a lot of this abuse is not acknowledged or reported.

Animal abuse among younger children can often be a way of exploring their surroundings, but abuse by children over the age of ten is much more concerning because it may be the result of abuse within the family.

Previous studies have found that children are three times as likely to have been physically abused themselves when they are physically aggressive at five years old, while abusive behavior among 12-year-olds is linked to five times the likelihood of a history of abuse.

According to the study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-behavioral-issues-parents/">children</a> who witness violence between their parents are around three times as likely to abuse animals.

The study authors pointed out that the term “animal abuse” is associated with a wide variety of motivations and behaviors.

“Differences of opinion exist on what constitutes abuse to an animal, and which animals should be included inside the definition,” they wrote. “For example, should it be restricted to just large vertebrate companion animals, such as dogs and cats, or include smaller animals, such as rodents or birds, or even insects.”

The experts concluded that additional research is needed to identify which types of animal abuse are more indicative of abuse within the family.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://adc.bmj.com/pages/">Archives of Disease in Childhood</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Kids who abuse animals are likely to have been abused themselves

A new study has found that older children who abuse...

“Just keep swimming,” pipes Dory, the spritely blue tang in the film Finding Nemo—over and over again. Her mantra amusingly invokes the longstanding perception of fish as dimwitted automatons, with little motivation beyond keeping themselves afloat, locating food and mates, and avoiding predators. 

Because they have more primitive brains than higher vertebrates such as mammals and birds, the reactions of fish to their environments were long viewed as mere “fixed action patterns.” That is: their actions and reactions were thought to be simple, coded responses without any real basis in cognition. There was no “thought” behind their actions, just hard-wired instinct. 

Though decades of research have slowly chipped away at this notion, most people still probably view fish as unintelligent and even incapable of feeling pain. The Nirvana song “Something in the Way” makes this explicit: “It’s okay to eat fish/’Cause they don’t have any feelings.” While this article will not concern itself with the ethics of fish consumption, it will delve into the evidence contradicting the latter point. 

The fact is, recent research has demonstrated that in all likelihood, fish do feel pain. Studies have shown that <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/218/7/967">mid and forebrain regions display different reactions</a> to painful stimuli than to non-painful stimuli. And fish have been proven to possess nociceptors—the nerves necessary for perceiving pain. A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159117300072#!">2017 University of Liverpool study</a> showed that when pain-relieving drugs were administered to larval zebrafish, they stopped reacting to painful stimuli, and when the drugs were removed, avoidant behavior resumed, suggesting that their pain pathways are in some respects similar to those of higher animals. 

Goldfish were demonstrated to avoid areas in their tanks where electric shocks were previously administered in a <a href="https://www.appliedanimalbehaviour.com/article/S0168-1591(05)00180-2/abstract">2006 study at Queen’s University of Belfast</a>, supporting the notion that they are capable of learning to avoid pain. And <a href="https://www.appliedanimalbehaviour.com/article/S0168-1591(07)00364-4/abstract">goldfish even learned to avoid such areas when food was present</a> per a 2008 study, indicating an ability to weigh the costs and benefits of two powerful stimuli. 

Fish have also demonstrated incredibly sophisticated cognitive processes once thought to be the exclusive province of mammals and perhaps birds. Investigations have shown that the spectrum of animal intelligence is far broader and more complex than previously thought. While fish do not form highly complex societies and alter their environments in the exact manner of humans, they do in fact display the key signifiers of cognitive ability—memory formation, learning, the ability to solve problems.

Fish inarguably possess more primitive brains than mammals, lacking a neocortex. But then again, so do birds. And their sentience is far less controversial. Some scientists have even argued that the primitive brains of fish possess structures similar to those responsible for cognition in higher vertebrates. 

Behavioral studies are perhaps more compelling in demonstrating this, though. Fish have clearly discriminated quantities in the lab. <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-55920-001">Guppies</a> (2018; University of Padova) and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-017-1143-1">cleaner wrasses</a> (2017; University of Neuchâtel) have both been shown to be able to select a screen with a larger number of dots if a reward is offered. In a <a href="http://eprints-phd.biblio.unitn.it/2833/">2018 study</a> at the <a href="http://eprints-phd.biblio.unitn.it/2833/">University of Trento</a>, zebrafish preferred shoals with larger numbers of fish, suggesting a level of discernment by choosing safety in numbers. 

Fish can even learn by observation. Archerfish learned how to hit a target by watching other archerfish in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096098220601013X#!">2006 study</a> by the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096098220601013X#!">University Erlangen-Nürnberg</a>, and in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05511#author-information">2007 study at Stanford</a>, cichlids were shown to avoid conflicts with stronger males by watching them compete for mates. They can even recognize other fish. Shoaling behavior is known to be more efficient among fish that know each other. Cleaner wrasses, which pick parasites off of other reef fish, have been <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=gNNB2_y5z8EC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA146&amp;dq=info:CiE9brEdSn4J:scholar.google.com&amp;ots=f1REoUPCxL&amp;sig=V82pN-2_85jPjfqP74wInviYzgc#v=onepage&amp;q=cleaner%20fish&amp;f=false">observed prioritizing fish that they have serviced before</a>. They have demonstrated a capacity for memory as well. Goldfish fed from different colored tubes remembered the color of the tube that dispensed their food a year after the initial experiment. 

One compelling study conducted at the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10164-016-0462-z">University of South Florida</a> in 2016 claims that manta rays, which have what are considered to be the most complex brains of any fish, were able to pass the so-called mirror test, in which an organism is able to recognize itself in a mirror. The great apes, elephants, dolphins, and a few species of birds have also passed the test. Some are skeptical that the behavior demonstrated by the manta rays as they viewed their reflections actually indicates self-recognition, suggesting that it may have instead been simple curiosity. Such debates underscore the reality: there is no true objective measure of sentience and consciousness.

Researchers have noted that the resistance to the idea that fish are sentient is rooted in the anthropocentric principle. That is: due to cultural factors, notably Christian religion, which gives man “dominion” over the beasts and birds and fishes, we humans view ourselves as inherently superior to our fellow residents of Earth. Add to that the misconception that evolution is a progressive process—moving inexorably toward higher intelligence—and we have a recipe for a view of our fellow creatures that places us at the pinnacle of intelligence and sophistication. In this schema, all other animals reside on lower tiers of the pyramid. 

This hierarchy serves the additional purpose of justifying the actions of industry and science—if fish are in fact sentient, the way they are treated in harvesting and in experiments would have to be adjusted. Some scientists advocate the use of the precautionary principle—making these changes even in the absence of definitive proof of sentience with the assumption that that proof is forthcoming. A 2010 EU directive has already employed that to some extent in regard to the treatment of fish in lab settings. 

While a consensus on the sentience of fish is a ways off, it is fair to say that they aren’t just filets with fins, bobbing around in the depths without a care in the world.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Fish cognition: Why Dory isn’t as dumb as she seems

“Just keep swimming,” pipes Dory, the spritely blue tang in...

According to a new study from the <a href="http://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a>, fish that are friendlier are more likely to end up caught on a fishing hook. The researchers also found that removing the most sociable fish from the lake could result in drastic changes for the fish left behind.

“There's a reason everyone's first fish is bluegill,” said study lead author Michael Louison. “They are social fish, forming big groups around structures close to shore. It seemed like their social behavior and their aggression would be super important in terms of angling vulnerability.”


The experts stocked up an experimental pond with bluegill from a hatchery and tagged the fish for identification. 

“They had been living in a natural lake environment,” said Louison. “They had to find food and avoid predators in that environment. So they were 'real fish.'”


Louison and a colleague fished the pond with typical methods used for catching bluegill over the course of five days. When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inland-fishery-harvests-underreported/">fish</a> was caught, its identification number was documented.


At the end of the week, the pond was drained and 38 of the fish were assigned to a test group. Half of the fish had been caught at least once, while the others had never been caught.

To investigate the sociability of the fish, the team split a fish tank in half with a glass divider. A test fish was placed on one side and six random bluegills from the pond were placed on the other.

“We were looking at how much time this fish spent hanging out right next to the divider trying to associate with the fish on the other side,” said Louison. "You'd expect a social fish to be hanging out close to the glass a lot, whereas you'd expect a non-social fish to be further back."

The experiment revealed that fish who had been caught spent significantly more time near the divider than fish who had never been caught, and multiple trials confirmed these findings.

The teem tested to see if aggression was also a factor that drove fish to take the bait more often, but no link was found.

The researchers speculated that removing the most sociable fish from a population could change the structure, at least on a temporary basis.

Study co-author Cory Suski is an associate professor in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences.


“Broadly speaking, for animals living in groups, social individuals are really important. They help spot predators, find prey, and transmit information about these things to the rest of the group,” said Professor Suski.


Study co-author Jeffrey Stein is a fish ecologist at the Illinois Natural History Survey.

“Our previous research has shown that removing fish with certain characteristics - like parental quality or even overall vulnerability to angling - has potential to change the character of a population," said Stein.

“Understanding how characteristics like sociability affect vulnerability to angling can lead to more effective management of high-quality recreational fisheries.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Friendly fish are more likely to get caught

According to a new study from the University of Illinois,...

It’s that time of year to watch one of nature’s most fascinating light shows - not the Northern Lights - this show is courtesy of fireflies. For those of you lucky enough to have encountered fireflies on a summer evening, you know it is nothing short of magical. Whether as a child or adult, these small creatures induce wonder and delight. What makes these bugs so captivating? At first glance, they almost appear as a reflection or trick of the eye, and then, almost as if orchestrated by a ballet company, a handful to thousands of the fireflies rise from the surrounding shrubs and begin a whimsical dance. 

This spectacular sight is the result of flight and bioluminescence combined. Want to learn more about fireflies and what makes them so special? Read on for fun facts and how to help attract these beautiful fairy-like insects: 
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The firefly, or sometimes known as lightning bug, is actually not a special fly but rather belongs to the beetle family Lampyridae. Lampyridae in Latin appropriately means “shining fire”. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Fireflies use light to communicate. A very unique characteristic in comparison to most animals which use sound. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Primarily the light signals are to attract a mate. Male fireflies light up quickly and continuously flash in hopes of attracting a female firefly. The females generally stay lower to the ground in the safety of plants and signal back to the male whose lightshow they find favorable. She also uses light to signal to the male and the brightness of her flash corresponds with her level of interest in the male. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Photocytes in the fireflies abdomen produce the light through a 100% efficient chemical reaction of luciferin and luciferase when exposed to oxygen. The firefly controls this reaction by managing the flow of oxygen to its abdomen- this turns the light on and off. Hues of yellow, green, and blue are possible amongst different species. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">There are 2,000 species of fireflies around the world (except Antarctica) and each has its own unique light qualities that vary depending on sex.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The flashing can also be used as a warning signal to ward off predators. The bugs actually have a very bitter taste to most predators which is another deterrent that helps protect them. </li>
</ul>
Enamored with these shining bugs? You can help attract fireflies to your backyard by planting low trees and shrubs. Fireflies appreciate the shade for daytime shelter. They also like tall grassy meadows, extra long blades of grass are a good perch for them. The bugs also need a good water source so adding a small bird bath to your garden could increase the occurrence of seeing them. 

When looking for fireflies it’s easy to remember that they enjoy conditions similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-mosquitoes-eradicate-malaria/">mosquitos</a> - damp, dim, and moderate weather are all important conditions to consider! Fireflies also prefer to be the strongest light source around, they are most commonly found away from cities and light pollution and in yards without much lighting around the home or streets. Right after the sun sets May through July is the best time to search for fireflies. 

Hopefully these facts and tips help encourage you to seek out your next natural lightshow. It won’t be anything short of stunning! 

--

By <a href="mailto:bianca@earth.com">Bianca Vierra</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Your summertime guide to enjoying the magic of fireflies

It’s that time of year to watch one of nature’s...

A team of experts led by <a href="http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a> has been investigating whether protecting the carbon storage of tropical forests will also protect biodiversity. The researchers have found that investments designed to prevent carbon losses will be the least effective in safeguarding wildlife across the most ecologically valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-north-american-forests/">forests</a>.

In these particular regions, up to 77 percent of species remain vulnerable when conservation efforts are focused solely on protecting carbon stocks. 

“Securing tropical forest carbon should remain a central conservation objective,” said study co-lead author Dr. Gareth Lennox.

“Not only will this slow climate change but it also has the potential to safeguard the unique and irreplaceable wildlife that inhabits these ecosystems. However, to ensure that those species survive, biodiversity needs to be treated as a priority - alongside carbon - of conservation efforts.”

More than a third of the the world's terrestrial carbon is stored in tropical forests, which is why these regions have become an important target of international efforts to mitigate climate change and have attracted billions of dollars in funding.

Tropical forests are also the world's most biodiverse ecosystems, harboring more than two-thirds of Earth's land species. 

The researchers wanted to understand how projects focused on protecting carbon stocks may affect biodiversity. The international team spent 18 months measuring the carbon content and species richness of plants, birds, and dung beetles in 234 tropical forests across the Brazilian Amazon.

For the first time, carbon and biodiversity levels were assessed in forests that ranged from minimally-disturbed by human activities to those recovering after vegetation had been completely cleared.


The analysis of this data confirmed that more carbon would mean more biodiversity in severely damaged forests. The study also revealed that, where human impacts were less intense, more carbon would not lead to more species.

*The changing relationship between carbon and biodiversity across forests that have suffered different kinds of human disturbances explain our findings,” said co-lead author Dr. Joice Ferreira. 

“As cleared and highly disturbed sites recover from the effects of agricultural use and severe wildfires, biodiversity also recovers. However, this linkage between carbon and biodiversity breaks down mid-recovery.” 

“The result: Forests with the greatest carbon content do not necessarily house the most species, meaning carbon-focused conservation can miss large swathes of tropical forest biodiversity.”

According to study co-author Dr. Toby Gardner, carbon and biodiversity conservation efforts must be combined for the best results.

“Although trade-offs are inevitable, conflicts between carbon and biodiversity can be reduced by more integrated planning,” said Dr. Gardner.

“By considering carbon and biodiversity together, we found, for example, that the number of large tree species that can be protected can be increased by up to 15% relative to a carbon-only approach for just a 1% reduction in carbon coverage.”

Study co-author Professor Jos Barlow explained why climate change mitigation requires the protection of biodiversity. 

“Biodiversity and climate change are inextricably linked in tropical forests. A warming climate and changing rainfall patterns will lead to the extinction of many tropical species, while it is within tropical biodiversity itself that forest carbon resides,” said Professor Barlow.

“Species-poor forests will eventually become carbon-poor. Therefore, tackling the climate crisis requires that both tropical forest carbon and tropical forest species are protected together.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: A. Lees

Saving tropical forest carbon stocks won’t protect biodiversity

A team of experts led by Lancaster University has been...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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