High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a thumbprint have stepped out of anonymity and into the scientific spotlight. Their world is a maze of wet cliffs, dripping bromeliads, and wind‑scoured ridges where moss carpets the rocks.



“They’re <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">small</a> and unassuming, but these frogs are powerful reminders of how much we still don’t know about the Andes,” said Germán Chávez of the Center for Ornithology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://corbidi.org/">CORBIDI</a>). 



Chávez and his colleagues trekked those ridges between 2021 and 2024, often in freezing rain, to reach calling sites above 9,000 feet.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountains-support-unique-frog-species">Mountains support unique frog species</h2>



The <a href="https://blog.pensoft.net/2025/06/27/hidden-gems-in-the-mist-three-new-frog-species-uncovered-in-northern-peru/cordillera-de-huancabamba-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cordillera de Huancabamba</a> forms a natural break in the Andes, splitting watersheds and isolating species. 



Ecologists classify the region as a <a href="https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/tropicalandes_techsummary.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspot</a>, one of only thirty‑five on Earth where extraordinary endemism collides with severe habitat loss.



"The Cordillera de Huancabamba is not just a remote range - it's a living archive of biodiversity and cultural legacy," said Wilmar Aznaran. "And we've barely scratched the surface."



Isolation breeds novelty, and novelty fills the genus Pristimantis. With 619 described species, Pristimantis is now the most diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whistling-forest-frogs-recently-discovered-may-be-wiped-out-before-we-learn-about-them/">amphibian</a> genus on the planet.



The new frogs, Pristimantis chinguelas, P. nunezcortezi, and P. yonke, occupy different niches along the same ridge. One clings to cliff faces, one prowls leaf litter beside clear streams, and the smallest tucks itself deep inside tank bromeliads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-new-species">Confirming the new species</h2>



Night surveys began after dusk, when temperatures hovered near 50 °F and fog erased headlamp beams. Team members listened for faint “peep” notes that barely rose above dripping leaves. 



Finding a caller did not end the chase. Each frog had to be photographed, swabbed for DNA, measured, and released without harming delicate skin.



Back in Lima, the researchers compared mitochondrial 16S sequences. Genetic distances exceeded the three‑percent threshold herpetologists often use to flag separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">species</a>, clinching the case for formal description.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-amphibians-are-poorly-studied">Many amphibians are poorly studied </h2>



All three newcomers enter the IUCN books as <a href="https://www.thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-bulletin/issue-number-169-autumn-2024/4079-03-how-many-data-deficient-amphibians-are-threatened-iucn-red-list-assessments-for-amphibian-species-previously-classed-as-data-deficient" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Data Deficient</a>, meaning scientists lack enough information to judge extinction risk. 



The label sounds neutral, yet recent reassessments show that roughly half of amphibians that start as Data Deficient later prove threatened.



Formal names unlock funding and legal tools that nameless creatures rarely receive. Conservation plans, environmental‑impact statements, and protected‑area budgets almost always hinge on a taxon’s standing in recognized databases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-climate-shifts">Indicators of climate shifts</h2>



The Cordillera de Huancabamba isn't just a biological goldmine, it’s wrapped in layers of folklore. In nearby villages, frogs are often seen as signs of rain or omens tied to agriculture and spiritual beliefs.



This cultural lens makes local communities key allies for conservation. When researchers name <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/">species</a> after regional icons or traditions, like P. yonke, they honor local identity and encourage stewardship.



Unlike most frogs, species in the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/64811-Pristimantis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pristimantis genus</a> bypass the tadpole stage entirely. They hatch from eggs as fully formed froglets, ready to climb, hop, and call without ever entering water.



This reproductive shortcut allows them to thrive in places where standing water is rare or seasonal. It also makes them sensitive indicators of climate shifts and microhabitat changes in mountain ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frog-species-in-fire-prone-habitats">Frog species in fire-prone habitats</h2>



Each frog occupies an area smaller than four square miles, hemmed in by crop fields and fire scars. Peru recorded about 10,400 wildfires in 2024, more than double its previous record, burning grasslands and cloud‑forest edges alike.



P. chinguelas calls from a road‑cut cliff where charred bamboo still smells of smoke. P. nunezcortezi shares a single stream corridor that now borders new potato plots.



P. yonke lives higher, inside bromeliads at roughly 9,800 feet, in what locals call the <a href="https://lacgeo.com/northern-andean-paramo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">páramo</a>, a chilly grassland‑wetland mosaic perched above the treeline. 



Páramo vegetation stores water like a sponge, so every lost bromeliad weakens both the frogs and the human communities farther down‑slope.



“Exploring this area is more than fieldwork - it’s an immersion into wilderness, culture, and resilience,” said Karen Victoriano‑Cigüeñas.&nbsp;



"Many of these mountain&nbsp;ridges&nbsp;are isolated, with no roads and extreme terrain," noted Ivan Wong. "The weather shifts within minutes, and the steep cliffs make every step a challenge. It's no wonder so few scientists have worked here before. But that's exactly why there's still so much to find."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-new-frog-species">Protecting the new frog species </h2>



No one has recorded the breeding calls of P. nunezcortezi or P. yonke, so females remain unverified. Diet, predators, and lifespan also remain mysteries for all three species.



Future expeditions will test whether the frogs persist on neighboring ridges or whether each ridge hosts its own micro‑endemic. 



Acoustic monitors and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.2353" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eDNA traps</a> could reveal silent populations hiding in moss tunnels or bromeliad tanks beyond the reach of hikers.



For now, the frogs depend on local goodwill. Community fire patrols, low‑impact grazing, and small protected micro‑reserves can buy time while researchers gather the missing data.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://evolsyst.pensoft.net/article/148522/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Systematics</a>.



Image Credit: Germán Chávez et. al



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Three new frog species found in Peru face an uncertain future

High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a thumbprint have stepped out of anonymity and into the scientific spotlight. Their world is a maze of wet cliffs, dripping bromeliads, and wind‑scoured ridges where moss carpets the rocks. “They’re small and unassuming, but these frogs are powerful reminders of how much we still don’t know about the Andes,” said Germán Chávez of the Center for Ornithology and Biodiversity (CORBIDI). Chávez and his colleagues trekked those ridges between 2021 and 2024, often in freezing rain, to reach...

Giraffe death calls into question zoo conditions and regulations. Zoos allow people to stand some mere feet away from wild animals they likely would have never encountered otherwise. While zoos can provide a once-in-a-lifetime experience for visitors, they can be harmful and potentially fatal for the animals they showcase.

Just last month, a giraffe died at the Lisbon Zoo while trying to reach for food from a visitor. The giraffe fell into a moat in its enclosure that was meant to separate the animals from the visitors. The 11-year-old female giraffe had made headlines last year after giving birth at the zoo.

Now the giraffe is in the news again, illustrating the risks of allowing humans and wildlife to interact so closely. Although there was a “Do Not Feed the Animals” sign next to the giraffe’s exhibit, the visitor still enticed the giraffe towards the moat with food.Giraffe death calls into question zoo conditions and regulations

In a statement, the zoo stated that the visitor who tried to feed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-long-necks/">giraffe</a> has been identified by area police who are looking into the case.

A necropsy revealed that the giraffe died from cardio-respiratory failure as a result of its fall into the moat.

The giraffe’s baby will require additional care from the zoo staff to ensure its survival. Baby giraffes are dependent on their mothers, especially babies like the one at the Lisbon Zoo who are less than one year old.

According to<a href="http://www.animalplanet.com/tv-shows/giraffe-birth-live/frequently-asked-questions/"> Animal Planet</a>, giraffe’s nurse from their mothers for 9 to 12 months and stay with their mother for a few months after they are done weaning. Female giraffes will live in the same herd as their mother throughout adulthood.

This is not the first case of visitors causing the death of a wild animal. In May 2016, the story of a boy falling into a gorilla’s enclosure at the Cincinnati Zoo made national headlines. Zookeepers shot and killed the gorilla to protect the boy, who survived the incident.

In 2007, a Siberian tiger killed a teenage boy and injured two others after leaping from its cage at the San Francisco Zoo. Police officers shot and killed the tiger. Federal investigators believe the teenagers agitated and provoked the tiger, leading to the attack.

In a draft report for the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">United States Department of Agriculture’s</a> Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, tiger expert Laurie Gage wrote, “With my knowledge of tiger behavior I cannot imagine a tiger trying to jump out of its enclosure unless it was provoked.”

For wild animals, living in close proximity to human visitors can be stressful, even without the public directly interacting with the animals.

Research shows that the mere presence, sounds and smells of people can elicit a stress response in captive animals which can depreciate their overall welfare.

A 1988<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/zoo.1430070407"> study</a> published in Zoo Biology showed that the presence of visitors made primates less social, more aggressive and more likely to display stereotypical behavior- repetitive movements usually associated with boredom or stress. Researchers were able to reduce the changes by 50% simply by making the visitors lower their height.

A more recent 2017<a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/4/4/161017"> study</a> published in Royal Society Open Science examined fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGC) in captive meerkats to assess the effect visitors had on the animals’ stress levels.

Glucocorticoids are often used to measure stress in zoo animals. The researchers state, “The main characteristic of the physiological stress response in vertebrates is the release of glucocorticoids (cortisol, corticosterone) from the adrenal gland in response to a stressor. Glucocorticoids play an essential role in general homeostasis, and their presence at elevated concentrations can also indicate a stress response, as one of their functions is to trigger the mobilization of energy stores to allow the animal to respond to the current threat.”

The researchers found that fGC levels increased the day after a large number of people visited the meerkat exhibit. Meerkats who were visited by a low number of individuals did not have similar spikes in their fGC levels.

While not all human-wildlife interactions at zoos result in the death of an animal, it is still important to note the potential adverse effects of captivity.

Zoos can take steps to make life for these animals less stressful. For example, the researchers found that meerkats had lower levels of stress when they were housed in larger groups. Additionally, visitors should always use caution when interacting with and observing wild animals. Keeping in mind the welfare of captive animals can help prevent harmful interactions.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Giraffe death calls into question zoo conditions and regulations

Giraffe death calls into question zoo conditions and regulations. Zoos...

Two new species of ancient saber-toothed predators discovered.  Scientists led by the <a href="http://naturalsciences.org/">North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences</a> have described two new species of saber-toothed prehistoric predators. The fossils are providing new insight into the early evolution of mammals, which was a time when the role of some carnivores drastically changed.

During the Permian Period, millions of years before the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-asteroid-struck/">dinosaurs</a>, ancestors of today's mammals called therapsids dominated terrestrial ecosystems. The diverse creatures, referred to as “protomammals,” included tusked herbivores, burrowing insectivores, and saber-toothed predators. 

Most remains of Permian therapsids have been found in the Karoo Basin of South Africa. This South African record has provided scientists with invaluable evidence of the evolution of protomammals.

Therapsid fossils from outside of South Africa, however, are also extremely important because they can be used to examine whether events in the protomammal fossil record represent global or strictly regional evolutionary patterns.


Recent expeditions by the <a href="https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g1380981-d6491475-Reviews-Vyatka_Paleontological_Museum-Kirov_Kirov_Oblast_Volga_District.html">Vyatka Paleontological Museum</a> have produced a collection of very well-preserved Permian fossils recovered near the town of Kotelnich in European Russia, including the remains of two previously unknown species of predatory protomammals.

 The first of the two new species, Gorynychus masyutinae, was a wolf-sized carnivore and the largest predator in the Kotelnich fauna. The second new species, Nochnitsa geminidens, was a smaller, long-snouted carnivore with needle-like teeth. 

The new species from Russia provide the first evidence that the turnover in predators after the mid-Permian extinction was worldwide and not unique to South Africa.


The mid-Permian mass extinction, which came about eight million years before the well-known and devastating end-Permian mass extinction, played a major role in driving protomammal evolution.

 In the late Permian ecosystems, the top predators were giant, saber-toothed gorgonopsians, while therocephalians were generally small insectivores. In mid-Permian ecosystems, however, these roles were reversed. The saber-toothed top predator Gorynychus was a therocephalian, and the only gorgonopsians during this time were much smaller animals.

“In between these extinctions, there was a complete flip-flop in what roles these carnivores were playing in their ecosystems - as if bears suddenly became weasel-sized and weasels became bear-sized in their place,” said study co-author Christian Kammerer. 

“Kotelnich is one of the most important localities worldwide for finding therapsid fossils - not only because they are amazingly complete and well-preserved there, but also because they provide an all-too-rare window into mammal ancestry in the Northern Hemisphere during the Permian.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Matt Celeskey

Two new species of ancient saber-toothed predators discovered

Two new species of ancient saber-toothed predators discovered.  Scientists led...

New research reveals that whales mourn their dead. A new study suggests that we should add marine mammals to the list of animals that form such strong bonds with their herds, pods, and family that they grieve and mourn their dead. 

This trait has been witnessed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-recovering-poaching/">elephants</a>, giraffes, chimps and now seven species of whale and dolphin, according to a new study conducted by researchers from the<a href="http://www.dolphinbiology.org/areas.htm"> Dolphin Biology and Conservation at Oceancare</a> in Italy. 

The research was published in the journal Zoology. 

Some whales have been seen holding onto a dead calf for long stretches of time and now, the new study says that this is representative of grief. 

The animals are keeping vigil for their dead, even disregarding their own wellbeing and safety by protecting the dead calf, family member, or friend. 

It’s likely a stress response and emphasizes the strong bonds formed in groups, particularly between a mother and her calf, so much so that the mother has a hard time letting go if the calf dies. 

For the study, the researchers reviewed 78 reports of seven whale and dolphin species dealing with their dead and a majority of the documented events involved females taking care of their dead offspring. 

Mothers and sometimes fellow podmates were observed attending to the calf, carrying it, trying to keep the corpse afloat, and even attempting to revive the calf.New research reveals that whales mourn their dead 

This behavior is called postmortem attentive behavior (PAB) and the researchers found examples of PAB in 20 of the reports that were reviewed for the study. 

Many instances of PAB involved dolphins, and the researchers hypothesize that this is because dolphins have more brain mass than other aquatic mammals and are highly social. 

A few of the reports detailed accounts of adult males becoming aroused by a corpse of a podmate but not by calves. 

The study shows that aquatic mammals react to their dead the same way that many other species and even humans do. Whales and dolphins seem to grieve or mourn and have difficulty letting go if a calf dies. 

More research needs to be conducted to see if the animals truly are responding to the death of a loved one or responding to stress, but the patterns of the behavior documented undoubtedly shows some attachment to the corpse of a familiar animal. 

“We found it is very common, and [there is] a worldwide distribution of this behavior,” Melissa Reggente, the study’s co-author, told <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/07/whales-death-grief-animals-science/?beta=true">National Geographic</a>. “They are in pain and stressed. They know something is wrong.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New research reveals that whales mourn their dead

New research reveals that whales mourn their dead. A new...

Intricate communication strategies seen in male dolphin alliances.  It’s a well-known fact in the marine biology community that male bottlenose dolphins sometimes form long-lasting cooperative alliances with each other. These alliances can last decades, and have been the subject of intense study for decades as well.

Now, a new study in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a> puts together over 30 years of continuous research on this subject. Stephanie King, of the <a href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/">University of Western Australia</a>, and colleagues wanted to better understand the role that vocal communication plays in coordinating complex social behaviors – such as cooperation – in bottlenose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-decline-amazon/">dolphins</a>.

To assess the role of vocal signals, the researchers went to Shark Bay, Australia and recorded the dolphins’ vocalizations using underwater microphones. They then determined the individual vocal label used by individual males, and measured the similarity of those identity signals within and between alliances in order to determine whether males with stronger social relationships used vocal labels that were more alike. 

“We found that male bottlenose dolphins that form long-term cooperative partnerships or alliances with one another retain individual vocal labels, or ‘names,’ which allows them to recognize many different friends and rivals in their social network,” says King. “Our work shows that these ‘names’ help males keep track of their many different relationships: who are their friends, who are their friend’s friends, and who are their competitors.”

The researchers wanted to know if allied dolphins shared similar calls as a way to advertise their alliance, or if they stuck to individual vocal labels. Analysis determined that males in an alliance kept their distinct vocal labels, which suggests that these calls may serve a purpose similar to an individual name. This finding is in contrast to other species, whose individuals with close relationships converge on shared vocalizations in order to advertise their alliance to that partnership or group.

“With male bottlenose dolphins, it’s the opposite – each male retains a unique call, even though they develop incredibly strong bonds with one another,” King explains. “Therefore, retaining individual ‘names’ is more important than sharing calls for male dolphins, allowing them to keep track of or maintain a fascinating social network of cooperative relationships.”

The researchers are planning to further study male dolphins’ relationships with one another more closely. They plan on playing the “names” of individual males back to each other and seeing how males respond to members of their alliances in different contexts. “It will be interesting to reveal whether all cooperative relationships within alliances are equal or not,” says King.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Simon J Allen at the Dolphin Alliance Project

Intricate communication strategies seen in male dolphin alliances

Intricate communication strategies seen in male dolphin alliances.  It’s a...

Bee brains can understand the concept of zero.  Basic bee brains can comprehend the concept of zero, according to a new study conducted by researchers from Australia and France.

The results, published in the journal Science, show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-high-nectar-special-neurons/">bees</a> understand that nothing belongs at the lower end of the spectrum and could help with teaching Artificial Intelligence new tasks. 

Human brains have 86,000 million neurons but bees have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-high-nectar-special-neurons/">fewer than one million</a>.

It was thought that only humans, or species with similarly complex brains, could understand zero, which according to the researchers, is the backbone of modern mathematical and technological advancements. 

“Zero is a difficult concept to understand and a mathematical skill that doesn't come easily - it takes children a few years to learn,” said Adrian Dyer, a member of the research team. “We've long believed only humans had the intelligence to get the concept, but recent research has shown monkeys and birds have the brains for it as well. What we haven't known - until now - is whether insects can also understand zero.”

For the study, bees were presented with a series of images that contained different quantities of things. The bees were given a reward if they gravitated toward the image with the lowest number of elements. 

The bees would choose the image with two elements versus three and so on, and were given a sugar solution treat in return. 

Occasionally the researchers would show the bees a blank image, and even though they had not been trained to respond to an empty page or the concept of zero, the bees gravitated toward the picture with nothing. 

The fact that the bees went to the blank image shows that bees understood that nothing was lower than the other quantities shown, and the researchers say this provides a new understanding of how different brains grasp abstract concepts. 

“How does a brain represent nothing? Could bees and other animals that collect lots of food items, have evolved special neural mechanisms to enable the perception of zero?” Asked Dyer. “If bees can learn such a seemingly advanced maths skill that we don't even find in some ancient human cultures, perhaps this opens the door to considering the mechanism that allows animals and ourselves to understand the concept of nothing.”

The researchers are most excited about the implications the results could have for Artificial Intelligence and teaching relatively basic robots to operate in complex environments. 
--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Bee brains can understand the concept of zero

Bee brains can understand the concept of zero.  Basic bee...

Chemical attacks from parasites have big impacts on insects. A new study has revealed details about a behavior-modifying chemical warfare between leafcutter ants and the infectious parasites that live alongside them. The fungal parasite can overpower the leafcutter ants and control them, just as zombie ants are brainwashed to march out of their colonies by a different type of fungus.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> teamed up with experts at the John Innes Centre and other institutions to investigate colony collapse, when the highly efficient ant farmers suddenly abandon their carefully-managed gardens.

Leafcutter ants are common across Latin America and are the most highly-evolved of fungus-growing ants, adapting their farming skills around 60 million years ago. The larvae of leafcutter ants consume a specific specialized fungus, which the ants cultivate using a mulch of chewed leaves. 

The farms of leafcutter ants are infected by a fungal parasite that has co-evolved to live off their fungal food supply called Escovopsis. The ants produce specialized bacteria on their bodies to control Escovopsis attacks, but the parasite can take over the fungus farm when colonies become stressed, resulting in colony collapse. Chemical attacks from parasites have big impacts on insects

“Leafcutter ants are superb farmers,” said study co-author Professor Matt Hutchings. “They patrol their gardens, remove foreign fungi and use antibiotic-producing bacteria on their bodies to kill off parasites - effectively using them as weedkillers. But the ways in which Escovopsis succeeds in getting through their defenses is not well understood.”


For the analysis, the researchers used samples of the food fungus from leafcutter ant colonies collected in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/panama-dolphins-threatened-boat/">Panama</a> and infected them with the parasite.

The experts identified two families of molecules that were produced at high levels by the Escovopsis pathogen and tested them against the defensive bacteria produced by the ants.

The study revealed that the first molecule killed the ant’s bacteria, while the second manage to modify the behavior of the leafcutter ants. Under the influence of the second molecule, the ants fled their fungus garden. If the ants were exposed to the chemical weapon for long enough, it eventually killed them.

The strategy is similar to that used by a different fungus that is responsible for manipulating “zombie ants” to leave their colonies and climb up into the trees where they promote the spread of fungal spores after their death.

“We think the Escovopsis pathogen is always present in or around the nests and kept at bay by the ants' constant gardening and chemical defences,” said study co-author Professor Barrie Wilkinson.

“But when something unusual happens - a drought, or other environmental change perhaps - the parasite may gain a foothold and start increasing the levels of the chemical weapon compounds that cause behaviour changes and decrease the ants' weeding efficiency in their gardens.”

“From then on you have an escalating situation which leads to the appearance of dead ants, and the pathogen taking over, so the remaining ants eventually abandon the nest.”

Professor Wilkinson said that the research may lead to the development of ways to control pests such as leafcutter ants without using insecticides.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a>

Chemical attacks from parasites have big impacts on insects

Chemical attacks from parasites have big impacts on insects. A...

A new study led by the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> exposes details about the practice of killing marine mammals such as dolphins, sea lions, and seals for use as fishing bait. 

As World Oceans Day approaches, the researchers are hoping to raise awareness on this issue, which they say has received little attention from scientists and conservationists thus far.

Many animals, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-decline-amazon/">dolphins</a>, sea turtles, and birds, are accidentally caught as bycatch during commercial fishing, which is a well-known problem. What is not very well-known, however, is that the intentional capture of marine mammals for fishing bait is also widespread.

According to the study, more than 40 species of aquatic mammals have been utilized as bait since 1970 in at least 33 countries. The vast majority of these species were deliberately killed for use in at least one fishery. 

For example, dolphins are often killed to be used as shark bait in fisheries, a practice that was found to be most common in Asia and Latin America.

Study lead author Dr. Vanessa J. Mintzer said that the research was prompted by the observation of population declines in a few of the territories that are known to slaughter aquatic mammals for bait.

“Killing for use as bait is a primary threat affecting Amazon river dolphins, known as botos - the species and issue I have studied since my Ph.D. dissertation,” said Dr. Mintzer. “With this global review we wanted to see whether, and where, other species were killed for bait, and learn about possible solutions to stop the problem.”


The extent of killing and impact on the species identified in this study will remain largely unknown due to the fact that this is a convert practice. Dr. Mintzer said that obtaining better data should now become an urgent priority.

“For scientists already working on species and locations identified as ‘hot spots’ in this review, organized efforts should begin right away to estimate these numbers,” said Dr. Mintzer. 

“It took years to determine that the hunt for botos was unsustainable and now conservation actions need to be expedited. We need to identify other affected populations now to facilitate timely conservation actions.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dolphins are being killed for use as bait in fisheries

A new study led by the University of Florida exposes...

A new report from <a href="http://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a> has revealed that there is a substantial increase in white shark activity when the animals are interacting with tourists and cage-diving operators. It is not yet known how this shift in behavior may be affecting the health of white shark individuals or populations.

In recent decades, wildlife tourism has emerged as one of the fastest growing sectors of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-footprint-tourism-industry/">tourism</a> industry. Tourists can cage-dive with white sharks in Australia, South Africa, the United States, Mexico, and New Zealand.


Previous research has demonstrated that wildlife tourism can cause species to behave unnaturally by changing their habitats or eating patterns. The current investigation shows that white sharks are more active and use up more energy when tourism operators are present compared to when they are not.

The researchers used monitoring devices to track ten white sharks at South Australia's Neptune Islands for nine days. They found that the overall dynamic body acceleration of the sharks was 61 percent higher when cage divers and operators were present.

Study lead author Charlie Huveneers is an associate professor in the Southern Shark Ecology Group (SSEG) research lab at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>.

“This suggests that the cage-diving industry has the potential to affect the energy budget of white sharks,” said Huveneers. “However, the mere presence of the cage-diving operators in the general vicinity of the sharks was not sufficient to elicit such behavioral changes. These only occurred when white sharks were close to the cage-diving vessels.”

“Spending time interacting with cage-diving operators might distract sharks from normal behaviors such as foraging on natural, energy-rich prey like pinnipeds.”

The study highlights the need for a better understanding of the impact of ecotourism on the health of white sharks.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/conphys">Conservation Physiology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cage diving may be affecting the health of great white sharks

A new report from Oxford University Press has revealed that...

The bond between a dog and their owner is a strong one, but how exactly does this connection form so cohesively and how does it impact human brain chemistry? 

Dog expert and author Meg Olmert spoke in-depth about just how exactly dogs affect our brain chemistry, and how a relationship between canines and humans that started 45,000 years ago has become such an integral part of our lives today.

It all boils down to hormones, particularly the pleasure hormones like dopamine and oxytocin.

Olmert told <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/how-having-dog-affects-your-body-brain-pet-oxytocin-animal-baby-2018-5?r=US&amp;IR=T">Business Insider</a> that seeing and petting your dog releases oxytocin in the brain. 

Oxytocin is a central hormone for bonding between mothers and their children and it promotes breast milk production in mammals. 

The fact that oxytocin strengthens mother and child bonds  helps explain why the connection with a pet can be so strong.

Spending time with your pet also alleviates stress as a result of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-loves-smile/">mood-boosting hormones released</a> after interacting with your four-legged friend.

“You release oxytocin, the opioids, adrenaline, and serotonin. So, all of these great reward chemicals and anti-stress chemicals can be released in both you and the pet,” Olmert told Business Insider.

Not all dogs produce this response according to Olmert. When people are faced with any dog off the street, or even different breeds, the brain reacts in different ways.

Some breeds that are perceived as more aggressive like pit bulls or rottweilers will increase heart rate and anxiety, even triggering the fight or flight response.

“Dogs perceived as being fierce will trigger a different hormonal profile (increased cortisol, adrenaline, etc). They may not be an actual threat to illicit this defensive response,” Olmert told the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5807069/Dogs-trigger-release-dopamine-oxytocin-way-children.html">Daily Mail</a>.

On the other hand, dogs from breeds that are considered more social and loyal like golden retrievers will trigger more of the pleasure response and oxytocin.

Having a pet can be a greatly rewarding experience as studies have shown that owning a dog comes with many health benefits, and Olmert’s work helps explain why the bond between pets and humans are so strong and long-lasting.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How your bond with your dog changes your brain

The bond between a dog and their owner is a...

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you.  How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you. Scientists at the <a href="http://www.butantan.gov.br/">Instituto Butantan</a> in Brazil have been analyzing the sugar molecules and proteins in several species of lancehead vipers. The experts found that sugar chains within the snakes known as glycans can modify the toxic proteins in snake venom, causing it to become more lethal.

The lancehead viper is one of the most dangerous snakes in South America, and a single bite can be fatal. Species found throughout Central and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-south-american-forests/">South America</a> have venom that can cause hemorrhaging, strokes, and kidney failure.

The team was led by Solange Serrano, a researcher in the Laboratory of Applied Toxicology at Instituto Butantan. According to Serrano, most proteins in lancehead venom are modified with glycans, which can affect the folding, stability, and binding of the proteins. However, little is known about glycan structure in the snakes' venom.

Serrano's graduate student Debora Andrade-Silva visited the lab of glycomics expert Vernon Reinhold at the <a href="https://unh.edu/">University of New Hampshire</a> to learn ways to structurally characterize glycans. 

Using mass spectrometry, the team characterized the structure of 60 glycan chains in eight lancehead venoms. They were able to determine which sugars were present and how they were linked into glycan structures.

Lancehead venom contains nearly 100 milligrams of protein per milliliter of liquid. At this concentration, protein solutions tend to become very viscous or form gels. 

The researchers found that a disproportionate number of glycans attached to the proteins were tipped with sialic acid, a sugar with a negative charge. 

Sialic acid on a toxic enzyme may also bind to host proteins called siglecs, pulling the enzyme closer to target cells for a type of “supercharged” venom, which is an effect that has been observed in other types of venom.


The team in Brazil continues working to gain a better understanding of how venom differs among snake species. This discovery could lead to the development of improved anti-venom treatment. 

Serrano explained that “the antivenoms do a reasonable job, but they are not so good at neutralizing the local effects of snakebite,” which include swelling, hemorrhage and necrosis. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.mcponline.org/">Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill...

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China. Researchers may have uncovered the oldest fossil footprints on record, dating back to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-animals-grew-large/">Ediacaran Period</a> 600 million years ago, in China. 

Fossils and footprints can reveal a great deal about what life was like millions of years before humans walked the Earth. 

The Cambrian Period marks the time in the fossil record when most major groups of animals <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php">first appeared</a>. This abundance of life is known as the Cambrian Explosion and some of the oldest fossils ever discovered come from this period. 

Some forms of life are suspected to have evolved before the Cambrian Explosion, for example, bilaterian animals with paired appendages, and now researchers can confirm that this is true. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://english.nigpas.cas.cn/">Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in collaboration with the <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University</a> examined trackways and burrows in sediment dating back to the Ediacaran Period. 

The burrows were found in the Ediacaran Shibantan Member of the Dengying Formation (551 to 541 million years ago) in the Yangtze Gorges area of South China, and the trackway patterns suggested that they were left by species with paired appendages. 

The trackways were also connected to the burrows which just strengthened the hypothesis that they were left by animals who dug burrows in the sediment for food. 

These are thought to be the earliest fossil footprints ever discovered and the find extends the fossil record of animals with appendages from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-seek-solve-mystery-cambrian-oxygen-spike/">Cambrian</a> to the late Ediacaran Period. 

A paper detailing the new fossil footprints was published in the journal Science Advances. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: NIGP

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China. Researchers...

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve. In the Mexican state of Tamualipas, it's possible to drive past a small sign marking the Tropic of Cancer.  As you head south past this boundary marking out the tropical belt surrounding the center of the globe, some changes are obvious.  Power lines are hung with the intricately woven, pendulous nests of Oropendolas; trees are draped with moss, wrapped in vines and spotted with lichen.  Lurid butterflies are noticeably more common everywhere. 

On an ongoing road trip through Mexico, my fiancé and I decided to venture into the tropics.  As we drove south, hills rose around us, covered with an abundance of green life.  The air became sticky.  It was hot.  It was humid.  We were driving to El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.  

El Cielo translates as 'Heaven' and the beauty of the place fit the descriptor.  El Cielo is the northernmost extent of tropical forests in North America and contains several different habitats including montane cloud forest, sub-deciduous tropical forest and dry, high elevation xerophyte shrublands.  The park itself extends for 357,100 acres, is an UNESCO World Heritage Site, and contains within it a few small, semi-remote villages. According to a 1999 survey, 6,208 people live inside the park. The human population is scattered among at least seven small villages strung along a road that gets rougher the further into the park you venture.       

[caption id="attachment_1215177" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/el-cielo-2.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1215177" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/el-cielo-2-300x225.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="225" /></a> Image Credit: Erin Moody[/caption]

Arriving in El Cielo, we were too late in the day for camping, so we found a nice hotel hugged by trees overlooking an impressive valley and hillside.  Birds called loudly from the trees. Humidity was omnipresent, sticking clothes to my body, dusting my face. The town we spent our first night in is at the end of the paved road, the rest of the roads are rocky dirt things with patches of concrete that apparently were last officially maintained before I was born.  As day turned to darkness, the songs of insects were everywhere: cicadas and katydids competing with frogs in their calls for sex. The people acted like they lived in heaven too, delicious street food was cheap and live music mingled with the animal sounds in the tropical night. The next day we drove on, following a road I wouldn’t again take our two wheel drive van on to start camping and really experience El Cielo if for but a short time.      

[caption id="attachment_1215174" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/millipede-el-cielo1.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1215174" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/millipede-el-cielo1-300x225.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="225" /></a> Image Credit: Erin Moody[/caption]

In El Cielo, black bear, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaguar-conservation-attitude/">jaguar</a>, and mountain lions coexist.  If you remember that jaguars are often called 'el tigre' in Spanish, you could almost say, 'lions and tigers and bears, oh my!' It's rare to be in the habitat of so many large predators in North America.  Military Macaws nest in El Cielo and we saw a Mot Mot perch briefly in a tree before flitting away into a bank of fog.  Mot mots are an interesting tropical bird, sometimes referred to as ‘pajaro del reloj’ for the resemblance of their long tails to pendulums in old grandfather clocks.  I visited a cave with large clear pools of water and dripping stalactites that shelters vampire bats. Hiding under rocks and leaves are an abundance of interesting arthropods, giant millipedes are common.  I found a dead specimen of one of the world's strangest arachnids, an animal known as the vinegaroon.  Vinegaroons look mainly like scorpions except for delicate whip-like tails without stingers.  Instead of stinging vinegaroons squirt a stream of acid into the eyes of would-be attackers.

The park is also home to extensive karst formations that filter the local rain and supply delicious drinking water for the park’s inhabitants.  There are even caves where the rare blind Mexican Tetra (Astyanax mexicanus) a fish adapted to the subterranean dark lives.  The form of fish living in caves is whitish but not technically albino.  Without the use of eyes, the fish navigates with a lateral line system, sensing slight differences in water pressure.

There are at least 255 species of resident birds in El Cielo and more than 175 migrants have been recorded in the reserve.  There are also 81 reptile and amphibian species and 40 types of bats, according to a pamphlet written by Alejandra Sosa Florescano.  Reptiles include dangerous snakes like the neotropical rattlesnake, the coral snake and the lancehead. There is an alligator lizard adapted to living in trees that can be found in El Cielo as well as throughout the Sierra Madre Oriental.     

Continuing the weird mash-up of tropical and temperate mammal species resulting from such a far north tropical forest, small cat species are all over the map.  Bobcats share El Cielo with Margays, ocelots and jaguarundi. White Tailed deer live in the park as well as the more typically tropical Red Brocket Deer. The ubiquitous raccoon lives in El Cielo as well as the hooded skunk, a species at the northern edge of its range in the southwestern United States.

Trees range from Mexican Maple, Mexican Yew and Mexican Beech to the more obviously tropical species like the beautiful magnolia.  For those like me who are used to seeing maples on in the far north, seeing one in the tropics is exciting. 

Part of the reason for the amazing array of species in El Cielo is the elevation gradient.  The park is full of mountains and hills, half of the reserve being made up by the Cucharas Mountains and ranging in elevation from about 660 feet above sea level to 7,500 feet.  Being in the northern range of the tropics where species from North America as well as species originating further south also adds a dimension to the assemblage of species in El Cielo.

El Cielo is also part of a migration corridor.  Monarch Butterflies rest in El Cielo on their yearly trip to wintering grounds further south in Mexico, near Mexico City.  The Central Flyway birds in North America use for migration also extends into this part of Mexico. 

El Cielo was protected relatively late. From 1900 to the 1930s, the area was under an intensively managed forestry program.  In 1935, a Canadian farmer named John William Francis Harrison created a homestead in what is now El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.  In 1965 Harrison along with Juan Fidel Zorrilla and Francisco García San Miguel created an institution, El Cielo, S.A., created initially with 25 hectares of land, to study and preserve the important environment of the area.  Harrison was later murdered over a land dispute. Harrison’s homestead is now El Cielo Biological Research Center. In 1975, the Tamaulipas government made El Cielo state park. In 1985, the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve was created and in 1987 El Cielo was recognized by UNESCO.                 

We spent five nights at El Cielo and went hiking every day, exploring a small amount of the tropical forest.  The place is beautiful but also somewhat perilous.  Besides the more obvious dangers of large predators, there is the overbearing presence of mosquitoes that descend in the evening.  I picked as many as 15 ticks from my body in a day and Erin found a similar amount on herself.  It also rained every night we were there.  It rained hard enough that we tied a tarp over the back of the van to keep water out.  For me, the hardships highlight the wildness of the place and accentuate its beauty.  You know a place better if you know its nastier moods.

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Images by Erin Moody

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve. In the...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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