Plastic may not always float where we expect it. The ocean’s surface might look clean in some places, but far beneath the waves, a different story is unfolding. 



In the southeastern Mediterranean, the deep seafloor is turning into a massive storage ground for plastic packaging, especially bags. A new study shows how this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-retailers-are-replacing-plastic-bags-with-eco-friendly-paper-bags/">waste</a> ends up thousands of feet below the surface, and the answer isn’t as simple as trash just “sinking.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-in-the-deep-sea">Plastic in the deep sea</h2>



Plastic debris has entered every corner of the ocean, but previously, most of the research has concentrated on floating plastic or beach trash. That changed with this latest study, which took a closer look at what is occurring on the ocean floor. 



Scientists discovered that the Levant Basin - a deep section of the eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/two-continents-meet-along-the-mediterranean-coastline/">Mediterranean</a> off the coasts of Israel, Egypt, and Turkey - is among the world's most contaminated deep-sea areas.



“We used trawls to survey the seafloor and we mainly found plastic bags and packaging that dominate the debris,” said Xing-Yu Li from the <a href="https://www.haifa.ac.il/?lang=en">University of Haifa</a>, the study’s lead author.



This raised a question: how does something so light - something meant to float - end up nearly a mile underwater?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-forensic-approach-to-trash">A forensic approach to trash</h2>



To answer that, the team decided to treat each plastic item like a crime scene. Every piece of debris was carefully examined using a method called multi-marker analysis. 



This approach looks at everything about the plastic - size, shape, color, material, surface features, and even what kinds of things are stuck to it, like tar or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-organisms-may-adapt-to-climate-change-but-with-hidden-costs/">marine organisms</a>.



“In the multi-marker approach anything that is found on a piece of plastic is an evidence,” said Xing-yu. “We extracted as many evidence as possible from every piece of waste, more than many previous studies, to build a fuller, more detailed view of the bottom waste.”



Instead of just counting how much trash was found, this method helped researchers understand how it got there, why it sank, and where it might have come from.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-plastic-doesn-t-sink">Why some plastic doesn’t sink</h2>



Most of the plastics found were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-kitchen-tool-that-could-be-leaching-toxins-into-your-food-polypropylene-cutting-board/">polyethylene</a> - the same material used in grocery bags. Normally, this kind of plastic floats. But when additives like calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) are mixed in during manufacturing, the plastic becomes heavier. 



Those with CaCO₃ sank closer to the shore. Others, without these additives, drifted farther out before eventually settling on the seafloor.



The study also revealed that the deep basin at over 3,000 feet deep acts like a trap. Pressure and fine sediments help keep the plastic down. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofilms-could-change-the-way-we-track-plastic-pollution/">Biofilms</a>, which are slimy layers formed by microbes, usually help weigh plastics down too, but they don’t grow well in this part of the sea. Instead, things like tar, sand, and tiny shells helped plastics stay put.



The scientists noted that these plastic films - while thin and lightweight - are ending up where they can do the most long-term damage. 



Even more troubling, the team found that some of this plastic could become buoyant again if disturbed, but because of how the deep sea works, that rarely happens. Once the plastic settles, it stays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-trash-is-coming-from">Where the trash is coming from</h2>



The plastic pollution isn’t only from local beaches. According to the research, land-based sources from Egypt, Israel, and Turkey are a big part of the problem. 



Shipping also plays a role, especially in deeper waters. Surprisingly, fishing was not a major contributor - possibly due to strict Israeli regulations.



For years, scientists noticed high levels of plastic at the seafloor, but they didn’t fully understand why. 



“For years in our monitoring reports we have reported a high concentration of plastic debris in this area. It was an unsolved mystery as we know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-floor-harbors-up-to-11-million-tons-of-plastic-debris/">plastic debris</a> should remain floating on the sea surface. Now we have a deep understanding of how it happens,” said Dr. Yael Segal from Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research (IOLR). 



“The Eastern Mediterranean is the most polluted area in the world, and we must take action for the sake of the next generation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-risks-to-marine-life">Long-term risks to marine life</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grapevines-could-offer-a-breakthrough-alternative-to-plastic-packaging/">Plastic packaging</a> is cheap, easy to produce, and used globally - but it doesn’t go away. It breaks into smaller pieces and can remain in the environment for hundreds of years. 



Deep-sea habitats are already fragile, and adding plastic into the mix could disrupt food webs, introduce toxins, and harm species that haven’t even been fully studied yet.



“As the head of the national monitoring program, I see firsthand how plastic pollution is impacting the entire sea environment: beaches, water, sea bottom, and even local turtle populations,” said Dr. Segal.



Professor Revital Bookman said that the discovery is fascinating in the worst possible way. 



"The eastern Mediterranean is quietly turning into a deep-sea landfill. Plastics that we use for only a few minutes are ending up trapped for centuries, threatening deep marine ecosystems we barely understand," noted Professor Bookman. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-needs-to-happen-next">What needs to happen next</h2>



According to the researchers, this study changes how we should think about ocean pollution. Plastic doesn’t just float around until it hits a beach. It travels far, interacts with other pollutants like tar, and ends up in hidden places. 



“This previously overlooked dynamic necessitates a broader perspective on pollution processes in marine environments,” said Professor Bookman. 



“Without systematic deep-sea accounting, we risk underestimating the true environmental footprint of plastic pollution and misallocating mitigation efforts by neglecting offshore and deep-sea sinks.”



To deal with this, the experts call for coordinated efforts across the region. Countries that share the sea need to work together on monitoring, cleanup, and prevention. 



Without a shared strategy, plastics will continue piling up, silently choking one of the planet’s most mysterious ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X25009671?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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Hidden plastic graveyard uncovered in the deep Mediterranean Sea

Plastic may not always float where we expect it. The ocean’s surface might look clean in some places, but far beneath the waves, a different story is unfolding. In the southeastern Mediterranean, the deep seafloor is turning into a massive storage ground for plastic packaging, especially bags. A new study shows how this waste ends up thousands of feet below the surface, and the answer isn’t as simple as trash just “sinking.” Plastic in the deep sea Plastic debris has entered every corner of the ocean, but...

A new study published in the journal <a href="http://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2115231119A">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> has investigated a period of rapid global warming from 300 to 260 million years ago, when the Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-accelerating-the-water-cycle/">climate</a> went from a glacial icehouse to a hot, ice-free greenhouse. According to the scientists, within about 300,000 years, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels doubled, oceans became anoxic, and biodiversity dropped significantly both on land and in the seas.



Although several other hyperthermal or rapid warming events are known in our planet’s history, this appeared to be one of the fastest ones. Moreover, it was the first such event identified in an icehouse Earth, when the planet had a variety of ice caps and glaciers, comparable to today’s situation. Experts argue that an icehouse climate may be more sensitive to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels than warmer conditions, when the levels of this gas are already higher.



In this study, the scientists homed in on a transition 304 million years ago, known as the Kasimovian-Gzhelian boundary, or KGB. By using multiple proxies, such as carbon isotopes and trace elements from rocks and plant fossils, they estimated that about 9,000 gigatons of carbon were released in the Earth’s atmosphere just before the K-G boundary.



This period of massive carbon release also led to marine anoxia, or a drop in the levels of dissolved oxygen in the oceans. Since melting ice caps release fresh water onto the ocean surface, they create a barrier to deep water circulation and cut off the supply of oxygen, leading to the extinction of many marine species. By measuring uranium isotopes in carbonate rocks from present-day China, the scientists managed to get a proxy for the amount of oxygen in the ocean when the rocks were laid down. They estimate that 23 percent of the seafloor worldwide became anoxic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-tides-and-dead-zones-threaten-floridas-west-coast/">dead zones</a>, leading to high losses of biodiversity.&nbsp;



According to study co-author Isabel Montañez, a paleoclimatologist at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>, the effects of carbon release on ocean anoxia were significantly greater than those observed in other studies of rapid warming during “greenhouse” conditions, in which the baseline level of atmospheric carbon dioxide was already higher. “If you raised CO2&nbsp;by the same amount in a greenhouse world, there isn’t much effect, but icehouses seem to be much more sensitive to change and marine anoxia,” Professor Montañez said.



The researchers concluded that this massive carbon release may have been triggered by volcanic eruptions that tore through carboniferous coal beds and started a large number of wildfires. The rapid warming caused by these events may have melted permafrost, leading to the release of even more organic carbon in the atmosphere.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Earth endured rapid global warming 300 million years ago

A new study published in the journal Proceedings of the...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a>, scientists are urgently trying to provide guidance for helping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-thrive-under-environmental-stress/">plants</a> and animals that are most threatened by climate change. The experts reviewed previous research and determined that many species will need assisted migration, or a direct intervention by humans to move threatened species into areas where they could have a better chance of survival in the future.&nbsp;



“There is an enormous need to think ahead and be proactive, as well as a growing recognition that we have to act now,” said study senior author Professor Erika Zavaleta.



“Climate change is causing a mismatch between where species are now and where the habitat and conditions suitable for them are moving. We need to think about where suitable habitats for different ecological communities will be in the future, and how they can get there.”



Climate change has occurred on the planet before, but the current rate of change - which is associated with the burning of fossil fuels - is much faster than historical climate shifts. Furthermore, humans have fragmented natural habitats to the point that it is much more difficult for species to move to suitable areas.&nbsp;



“The need to move is greater while the ability to move is less,” said Professor Zavaleta. “Things are changing, and we need to assist the adaptive responses of the natural world if we don’t want to lose both the species and the amenities they provide for people. We depend on natural ecosystems, and helping them adapt is not separate from helping people and communities adapt to climate change.”



According to the researchers, current recommendations have gone beyond conceptual guidance to provide more specific and actionable ideas about strategies to implement for particular ecosystems or species. “There has been a lot more on-the-ground implementation of some of these approaches,” said Professor Zavaleta.



Conservation measures remain critically important in the context of climate change, but the researchers noted that three novel strategies have received growing attention in recent years: climate change refugia, assisted migration, and protecting climate-adaptive genetics.



“If you think of a valley oak, with acorns that are carried only a short distance by birds and are only viable in the year they are dropped, you can have connectivity but the trees are not going to move at the same pace as the drying that’s happening in parts of their range,” explained Professor Zavaleta. “So do we watch their range contract and disappear? Or do we bank them as seedlings in botanical gardens? And what do we need to be learning now about how to put them back out into the landscape where they can survive?”



Climate change refugia includes habitat restoration, such as restoring woodland streams. Assisted migration involves directly intervening to move species to more suitable areas and moving individuals between populations to preserve genetic diversity.&nbsp;



“I feel like the devil is in the details, but I also think translocation has been mischaracterized as an untested strategy, when actually it has been practiced for over a century and probably longer,” said Professor Zavaleta. “Forestry, for example, has a long practice of planting trees from a wide range of locations in areas that are being restored. But we do have a lot more to learn, especially for certain animals and species that are not well understood.”



In particular, the researchers want to protect the genetic variants that might be better adapted to hotter, drier conditions. “These are the very conditions that we are likely to see more of in the future,” said study co-author Professor Blair McLaughlin. “Preserving the climate-adaptive evolutionary potential of a species before it’s lost is critical to make sure we have the genetic resources we need to help species adapt to novel climate futures.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/biological-conservation">Biological Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Assisted migrations could help species survive climate change

In a new study from UC Santa Cruz, scientists are...

Oyster fisheries around the world have suffered collapses over the past 200 years that have been attributed to overexploitation, climatic changes, disease and the introduction of alien species. This is particularly noticeable in countries where colonizers arrived and commercialized the harvest of this shellfish on a large scale. In the process, Indigenous peoples who had used the resource for hundreds, or even thousands of years previously, were displaced and marginalized. Today, as much as 85 percent of the 19th century oyster <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-map-coral-reefs-before-and-after-marine-heat-wave/">reefs</a> have been lost and oyster fisheries have declined globally.&nbsp;



Research into oyster fisheries has often focused on the years subsequent to the arrival of colonizers, and the data has been used to inform management practices, while the earlier use of the resource by Indigenous peoples has largely been overlooked or ignored. And yet these people depended upon oysters as part of their diet and economy, in addition to using them in social, ritual and cultural traditions. They were deeply connected to the coastal ecosystem and had indigenous knowledge derived from the historical use of the resource.



In a new, global study of Indigenous oyster fisheries, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-29818-z">Nature Communications</a>, scientists have excavated the remains of shell middens in areas of eastern Australia, the Pacific Coast of North America, and the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coast of North America, in order to expand on knowledge about oyster harvesting prior to the arrival of colonial populations. The study was co-led by&nbsp;anthropologist&nbsp;<a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/staff/torben-rick">Torben Rick</a> of the&nbsp;<a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/">Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History</a>, and Temple University anthropologist and former Smithsonian postdoctoral fellow Leslie Reeder-Myers.



“Oyster harvesting didn’t start 500 years ago with the arrival of Europeans,” said study co-author Bonnie Newsom, an anthropologist at the University of Maine and citizen of the Penobscot Indian Nation. “Indigenous peoples had a relationship with and understood this species well enough to use it as part of their subsistence and cultural practices. Indigenous peoples have a lot to offer in terms of how to engage with this natural resource in ways that are sustainable.”



According to Rick, the new research expands on a seminal&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0405150101">2004 paper</a>&nbsp;that documented the collapses of 28 oyster fisheries located along the east and west coasts of North America and Australia’s east coast. But the 2004 paper’s timeline in each location begins with European colonists’ creation of commercial oyster fisheries. In the current study, the aim was to deepen the historical background of those modern declines by documenting the Indigenous oyster fisheries at the same locations as considered in the 2004 paper.&nbsp;



But the authors also aimed to highlight that Indigenous communities should be included in future management decisions pertaining to these resources since they have a valuable input to make.&nbsp;



“Conservation today can’t just be seen as a biological question and can’t just be about undoing the environmental damage we’ve done in the modern era,” Rick said. “Instead, global conservation efforts should be coupled with undoing the legacies of colonialism which brought about the attempted erasure and displacement of Indigenous people all over the world.”



Rick, Reeder-Myers and 24 other researchers used information from shell middens at the sites studied in the 2004 paper. The team used data from previously published papers, unpublished records and their own research in order to quantify the numbers of oysters disposed of by indigenous peoples at these archeological sites. Some middens were small and perhaps only used seasonally, while others were massive and towered up to 30 feet in height.



The findings of the research show that oyster fisheries were hugely productive over a timescale of hundreds and even thousands of years, during which the shellfish were intensively harvested. Long before European colonizers arrived, the Indigenous groups in these locations harvested and ate immense quantities of oysters in a manner that appeared to be sustainable, as the availability of oysters did not appear to diminish over time.&nbsp;



In North America, the highest midden came from an Island called Mound Key in Estero Bay on Florida’s Gulf Coast – it contained shells of an estimated 18.6 billion oysters harvested by the region’s Calusa tribe. About 200 miles north, in Cedar Key, Florida, a site known simply as Shell Mound features the remains of an estimated 2.1 billion oysters. On the Atlantic coast of the United States, the midden at South Carolina’s Fig Island boasts just under 75.6 million oysters, and a number of sites in Chesapeake Bay total around 84 million of these shellfish. In Australia, Saint Helena Island near Brisbane is estimated to contain roughly 50 million oyster shells harvested by Indigenous peoples over more than 1,000 years.



“We knew there were big sites in the southern U.S., but when we started to calculate just how many oysters were in these sites we were astonished,” Rick said.



Dating the shells at various middens revealed that the oldest oyster remains, found in California and Massachusetts, were harvested more than 6,000 years ago. The longest-utilized single sites (though not necessarily with perfect continuity) span some 5,000 years.&nbsp;



In addition, the researchers measured the lengths of oyster shells dating back in history to find out whether smaller individuals became more common in younger deposits. According to Rick, if the oyster populations were harvested faster than they could recover, smaller individuals would have characterized more recent deposits. But the scientists found no evidence of decreasing shell size, suggesting that the populations were generally healthy and were not overexploited, despite the enormous numbers of individuals harvested.



The information from these ancient, sustainable fisheries offers insights to help restore and manage estuaries today, say the authors. They note that the findings show that Indigenous peoples in these locations had deep connections to oysters and that their living descendants are long overdue to be involved in decisions about how to manage what is left of this precious coastal resource



“The fact that there are so many oysters at archeological sites in so many different regions is an important lesson,” said Reeder-Myers. “These systems have a ton of potential and huge quantities of oysters can be sustainably harvested over long time periods if the ecosystem is healthy.”



Rick said he hopes that their findings are heeded by biologists and environmental managers and heighten public awareness about the deep connections of Indigenous peoples to coastal ecosystems around the world.



“What this study does is it says we need to start a broader dialogue when we look to restore an ecosystem or make conservation decisions,” Rick said. “In this case, that dialogue needs to include the Indigenous peoples whose ancestors stewarded these ecosystems for millennia. This broadening of perspectives can enhance biological conservation and help restore connections between Indigenous peoples and their ancestral homelands.”



Image Credit: Torben Rick



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Indigenous people harvested oysters sustainably for thousands of years

Oyster fisheries around the world have suffered collapses over the...

Corals,,Anemone,And,Clownfish,In,Red,Sea,,Egypt

Coral reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> around the world are characterized by supporting large numbers of marine species, as well as providing livelihoods for more than half a billion people. They are a source of food and jobs,&nbsp;are used for recreational purposes and provide coastal protection against damage from the sea. This is why the destructive effects of marine heat waves that bleach living corals are a matter of grave concern.&nbsp;



As global temperatures increase, marine heat waves are likely to become more frequent and intense, causing lasting damage to coral reef ecosystems. Warmer water can cause corals to expel the algae living in their tissues, which results in the corals turning white. When corals bleach, however, they do not necessarily die, but may become more vulnerable to other stressors, such as water pollution, which then increase the rate of mortality.



Previous research has shown that many reefs harbor corals that survive ocean heat waves, indicating that the issue of bleaching and its impact on coral mortality is a complex one. Understanding this may be key to conserving coral reefs under conditions of global warming.



For the first time, scientists have now been able to map the locations of living corals before and after a major marine heat wave. Arizona State University researchers were able to take to the sky on the&nbsp;<a href="https://gao.asu.edu/">Global Airborne Observatory</a>&nbsp;(GAO), and use the advanced spectrometers and visual equipment to get images of coral reef sites around eight different Hawaiian Islands just before, and again after, a heat wave event in 2019. The GAO aircraft is equipped with advanced remote sensing technologies that enable the mapping of ecosystems both on land and beneath the ocean surface.&nbsp;



The results of the surveys, published today in&nbsp;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, show that coral species and local environment are important factors in determining the likelihood of survival when ocean temperatures rise. They also demonstrate that the GAO approach to visual mapping provides an unprecedented opportunity to monitor coral reefs and assess changes in coastal ecosystems over time.&nbsp;



“Repeat coral mapping with the GAO revealed how Hawaii’s coral reefs responded to the 2019 mass bleaching event,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://isearch.asu.edu/profile/3398779">Greg Asner</a>, lead author of the study and director of the ASU Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science. “We discovered coral ‘winners’ and ‘losers.’ And these winning corals are associated with cleaner water and less coastal development despite elevated water temperatures.”



The surveys identified more than 10 potential coral refugia – habitats that may offer a safe haven for corals facing climate change. In these areas, there was up to 40 percent less coral mortality than on neighboring reefs, despite the fact that the warm water infiltrated all the areas, causing similar temperature conditions. The results also identified that reefs near heavily developed coasts are more susceptible to coral mortality from heat waves. Development on land is associated with increased pollution that enters coastal reef systems, creating even more stress for coral reefs already fighting to survive the warming water.



According to Brian Neilson, study co-author and head of Hawaii’s Division of Aquatic Resources, “This study supports Hawaii’s&nbsp;<a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/dar/30x30/">Holomua Marine 30x30 Initiative</a>&nbsp;by not only identifying areas impacted by ocean heat waves, but also areas of refugia. These findings can be incorporated into management plans to aid in building a resilient network of reef regions and sustaining Hawaii’s reefs and the communities that depend on them into the future.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The Holomua 30x30 initiative aims to establish marine management areas across 30 percent of Hawaii’s nearshore waters. Coral reefs in Hawaii are integral to life on the islands, and are tied to culture and livelihoods. Understanding which corals are surviving, and where, is key to achieving conservation that is targeted and effective.



“Previous approaches have failed to deliver actionable interventions that might improve coral survival during heat waves or to locate places of heat-wave resistance, known as coral refugia, for rapid protection,” said Asner, who is also director of the Global Airborne Observatory. “Our findings highlight the new role that coral mortality and survival monitoring can play for targeted conservation that protects more corals in our changing climate.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts map coral reefs before and after marine heat wave

Coral reef ecosystems around the world are characterized by supporting...

Salt,Lake,Tuz,,Turkey.beautiful,View,Of,The,Salt,Lake,Tuz

When faced with environmental conditions that are too dry, cold, or salty, many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-that-breathe-underwater-could-improve-crop-resilience/">plants</a> try to conserve resources, by producing fewer leaves and roots, and closing up their pores to hold in water. If circumstances fail to improve, most of them eventually die. However, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>, some plants known as extremophytes have evolved to survive, and sometimes even thrive, in such harsh environments.&nbsp;&nbsp;



An example of such a plant is Schrenkiella parvula, a member of the Brassicaceae family that contains cabbage, broccoli, turnips, and several other major food crops. Growing on the shores of Lake Tuz in Turkey, where salt concentrations in the water can be up to six times higher than in the ocean, this scraggly, branching member of the mustard family is actually able to grow faster under stressful environmental conditions that would kill most other plants.



“Most plants produce a stress hormone that acts like a stop signal for growth,” said&nbsp;study senior author José Dinneny, an associate professor of Biology at Stanford. “But in this extremophyte, it’s a green light. The plant accelerates its growth in response to this stress hormone.”



When plants encounter dry, cold, or salty conditions that create water-related stress, they produce a hormone called abscisic acid (ABA) which activates specific genes that dictate plants how to respond to environmental stressors. The researchers found that, while most plants’ growth slowed or even stopped when this hormone was activated, the roots of S. parvula grew significantly faster, even if its genome is highly similar to that of other plants.&nbsp;



Since S. parvula is also related to oilseed species which have the potential to be engineered and used as sustainable sources of jet fuel and other biofuels, better understanding this plant’s stress response and managing to engineer it in other species could help more than food crops. Moreover, if such plants can be adapted to grow in harsher conditions, there would be more land available to cultivate them.



“You want to be growing bioenergy crops on land that is not suitable for growing food – say, an agricultural field that has degraded soil or has accumulated salinity because of improper irrigation,” Professor Dinneny explained. “These areas are not prime agricultural real estate, but land that would be abandoned otherwise.”



“With climate change, we can’t expect the environment to stay the same,” added study lead author Ying Sun, a postdoctoral researcher at the<a href="https://www.salk.edu/"> Salk Institute for Biological Studies</a> who earned her doctoral degree at Stanford. “Our crops are going to have to adapt to these rapidly changing conditions. If we can understand the mechanisms that plants use to tolerate stress, we can help them do it better and faster.”



“We’re trying to understand what the secret sauce is for these plant species – what allows them to grow in these unique environments, and how we can use this knowledge to engineer specific traits in our crops,” concluded Professor Dinneny.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-022-01139-5">Nature Plants</a>.   



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some plants thrive under environmental stress

When faced with environmental conditions that are too dry, cold,...

Protected areas such as nature reserves, national parks, or wilderness regions are crucial for conserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-single-gene-could-control-biodiversity-in-an-ecosystem/">biodiversity</a>. However, due to climate change, many plant and animal species from specific protected areas will need to change their habitats, in order to find more favorable conditions.&nbsp;



A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/64206">Environmental Research Letters</a> has provided new insights for developing climate-smart conservation strategies. By investigating the global network of protected areas, the researchers have evaluated the potential for shifts in where plants and animals live due to climate change. Their findings suggest that there is a need for strategic conservation plans that transcend international borders and protect endangered species.&nbsp;



“As the planet continues to warm, we expect a number of species to move out of some protected areas and into others as they shift their ranges in response to climate change,” said study lead author Sean Parks, a research ecologist at the USDA Forest Service <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/rmrs/">Rocky Mountain Research Station</a>.



Dr. Parks and his colleagues have found that some species that are currently in protected areas may soon need to cross international boundaries in order to find more suitable climate conditions. During such migrations, they might face both physical and non-physical barriers, from border fences to inconsistent conservation policies in different regions and countries.



Under a scenario of 2°C warming above pre-industrial levels, climate conditions are expected to change in over a quarter of the current land-based global network of protected areas. Better understanding these climatic shifts and the ways in which they will impact the plants and animals from these areas will help the international conservation community efficiently forecast planning needs and make more strategic investment decisions for the limited funding that is currently available for conservation initiatives.&nbsp;



“The Rocky Mountain Research Station is committed to addressing the threat of climate change, by providing research needed to support new strategies for stewarding protected areas and other wildlands within the United States and internationally,” concluded&nbsp;Jason Taylor, the Director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/rmrs/research-labs/aldo-leopold-wilderness-research-institute">Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change impacts biodiversity in protected areas worldwide

Protected areas such as nature reserves, national parks, or wilderness...

The beautiful and colorful tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-destroyed-14-percent-of-the-worlds-coral-reefs/">coral reefs</a> are teeming with an amazing diversity of marine organisms, including over 8,000 species of fish. However, climate change and various human activities are causing corals to disappear at an alarming rate, making scientists largely unable to properly quantify how many species of reef fish there are and where they are distributed.&nbsp;



Besides the rapid pace of change coral reefs face worldwide, there are several other reasons why scientists have difficulties in mapping marine ecosystems from specific areas: most of these fishes lead rather secretive, hidden lives, are highly similar to one another, or live in the open sea and are thus difficult to detect.



In order to circumvent such difficulties, a research team from <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zurich</a> has applied a new method that is currently making its way into Ecology: environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis. The idea behind this new approach is that organisms leave their genetic material or parts of it in the environment. By using this method, the scientists only need to take water samples at one location, isolate the DNA fragments they contain, sequence them, and compare these sequences with reference DNA sequences coming from reliably identified specimens in order to determine whether a particular species occurs at the location in question.



“Thanks to the eDNA method, we can detect many fish species and families much faster than with observations alone,” said study senior author Loïc Pellissier, a professor of Ecosystems and Landscape Evolution at ETH Zurich.



In 2017 and 2019, Professor Pellissier and his team collected 226 water samples at 26 sites in five tropical marine regions. The eDNA analysis of these samples revealed a 16 percent higher diversity of reef fishes than what conventional survey methods such as visual observations during dives have previous managed to detect. With this new method, the scientists discovered more pelagic (swimming in open water), reef-bound, and cryptobenthic (inhabiting caves and crevices in reefs) species than divers are generally able to see or identify. The discovery of these species is highly important because they are actively involved in the function of the coral reefs through their pelagic larval stages or their nocturnal migrations to the reefs.



These findings suggest that the composition of species varies significantly among marine bioregions. Fish diversity was found to be exceptionally high in the “Coral Triangle” between Borneo, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines (five times higher than in the Caribbean, for instance). According to Professor Pellissier, this has to do with the fact that, historically, the Coral Triangle was very tectonically active, producing a wide range of habitats. Moreover, the more stable surface temperatures of this area during the ice ages allowed the fishes to diversify considerably.



Although this new method is extremely efficient for mapping reef biodiversity, it has its limitations. Since some species – such as wrasses (Labridae) or blennies (Blenniidae) - are poorly detected through eDNA analysis, direct visual observations remain important. In addition, these more traditional methods can help gather supplementary information, such as fish sizes or biomass, which cannot yet be recovered through eDNA analysis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2022.0162">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Environmental DNA reveals the diversity of coral reef fish

The beautiful and colorful tropical coral reefs are teeming with...

Humans are changing the composition of forests, and this can have serious consequences for many species that depend on trees for food, shelter, mating, and feeding. A new study from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> has found that bird populations in eastern Canada are declining as a result of habitat degradation, which is the reduction or loss of biological complexity.



“Reducing forest loss has been the main focus of conservation policy to date, which is well justified because it has a strong negative effect on biodiversity. But the effects of changing the composition and age of forest via timber management have traditionally been very difficult to measure at large scales and thus have been largely ignored," explained Matt Betts of the OSU College of Forestry. "Our work shows population declines in many bird species in eastern Canada are due to habitat loss caused by forestry activities.”



The researchers set out to investigate the effects of forest degradation in places where trees have been thinned or clear-cut for the purpose of planting a single tree species. The experts wanted to know how these activities may impact bird populations in the long term.&nbsp;



The study was focused on the Acadian Forest in Canada’s maritime provinces. The results showed that 66 percent of the most common bird species had lost breeding habitat from 1985 to 2020. This habitat loss was strongly associated with the loss of older forests, according to the researchers.



The golden-crowned kinglet and Blackburnian warbler were the two species that were most impacted. The study authors estimate that over the 35-year study period, between 33 and 104 million birds were lost due to forest degradation.



Overall, nine bird species in the Acadian Forest have declined at rates exceeding 30 percent over the past 10 years, which meets criteria for listing as threatened under Canadian endangered species legislation.



“Due to increased global demand for wood, more and more of the Earth’s surface is being used for timber extraction,” said Betts. “This shows up on remote sensing as both forest loss and forest gain, but unfortunately the ‘gain’ is often vastly simplified, young forest. Our paper presents a new way to quantify these sorts of changes.”



Betts collaborated with experts from Cornell University, the University of Rhode Island, the University of New Brunswick, Google and multiple Canadian and U.S. agencies. The team analyzed satellite imagery and breeding bird survey data alongside projections of species distribution.



The Acadian Forest, known for its tree species diversity, has shown pervasive signs of degradation over the last three-plus decades, said Betts. More than three million hectares of the Acadian Forest have been clear-cut over the last 35 years.



“Old forest declined by 39 percent over the period we observed,” said Betts. “Over the same period, forest cover actually increased by a net 6.5 percent. That pattern of extensive harvest of old forest, followed by rapid regeneration of young forest and then subsequent harvest before maturity is attained, seems to be common in many forest regions of North America and northern Europe.”



According to Betts, managed forests tend to be dominated by one or two merchantable tree species, and they also tend to be younger than those that would occur naturally.&nbsp;



“Clearly the research by Betts and collaborators identifies one of the critical smoking guns of avian declines,” said Peter Marra, the co-author of a recent Science paper on bird declines. “We’ve assumed once a natural forest is cut down, as long as you plant more trees all the rest of the plants and animals will fill back in. The new research shows that’s not the case.”



In the Acadian Forest, deforestation was not a primary driver of habitat loss, explained Betts, as it accounted for less than two percent of all habitat loss across the 54 bird species examined.



“Overall, our findings indicate broad-scale declines in forest birds of the Acadian Forest, and for most species, abundance is strongly associated with habitat amount,” said Betts. “We expect that similar consequences for biodiversity are in place for intensively managed forests in other parts of the world as well. If all you look at is forest cover, you’ll miss the more subtle but critically important role of forest age and type in maintaining biodiversity.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forest degradation is a major cause of bird population declines

Humans are changing the composition of forests, and this can...

Perito,Moreno,Glacier,,El,Calafate,,Argentina.

As climate change accelerates, glaciers are melting faster, and experts fear that many will collapse by the end of the century, drastically raising sea levels and flooding coastal cities and island nations. Whyjay Zheng, a geophysicist at the University of California, Berkeley, has recently developed an improved model of glacial movement that could help identify the glaciers in the Arctic and Antarctic that are most likely to rapidly slide downhill and fall into the oceans.



Glaciologists have long thought that the speedup and slowdown of glaciers are related to what is happening at their front – the “glacial terminus” - where ice merges with the oceans’ increasingly warm waters. Observations have shown that for many marine-terminating glaciers, when the fronts melt or calve into then ocean, the remaining ones tend to speed up. However, in his new model, Professor Zheng has incorporated another major factor determining glaciers’ speed: the effect of meltwater that percolates to the base of the glaciers and lubricates its downward flow. 



Warmer weather causes meltwater lakes to form on many glaciers, which punch through to the bottom of the ice during a process called hydrofracture, or drain to the bottom through crevasses nearby. This basal lubrication by meltwater is then creating a feedback loop that accelerates glaciers that have already sped up for other reasons, such as changes at the terminus.



“Basal lubrication creates a positive feedback loop. The faster glaciers are more likely to respond faster to basal lubrication, and the following speedup makes them more prone to future lubrications,” explained Professor Zheng. “For example, if a glacier is flowing three kilometers per year, and basal lubrication suddenly happens, it will react so fast that you can see the fluctuation of the speed, probably just a few days later, compared to another glacier that would be flowing at 100 meters per year.”



The findings indicate that thick, fast-moving glaciers around the Arctic and Antarctic should be monitored frequently to anticipate discharges of large icebergs into the ocean that could affect sea levels. For this, better, more accurate ways of measuring basal lubrication are needed.



“The model suggests that thick and fast-flowing glaciers are more sensitive to lubrication than thin and slow glaciers. The data from Greenland glaciers support this new finding, indicating that those fast and thick glacier beasts might be more unstable than we thought under global warming,” concluded Professor Zheng.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/16/1431/2022/">The Cryosphere</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New model can identify glaciers at risk of collapse

As climate change accelerates, glaciers are melting faster, and experts...

The latest<a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/reports?gclid=Cj0KCQjwjN-SBhCkARIsACsrBz6h_uH-xJnN2929g3CDEV9GZVLFEGh6KWfiNgneXUlf6d78n4Tlk24aAg3fEALw_wcB"> U.N. report on climate change</a> has revealed that some measures of global warming are now unavoidable. A warming climate will lead to many impacts, such as a change in the frequency of flash flooding events, and the areas in which they occur.&nbsp;



The National Aeronautics and Space Administration describes this as a global problem, felt on local scales. Likewise, experts at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are providing the<a href="https://www.noaa.gov/climate"> data, tools and information</a> to better understand and prepare for climate change.&nbsp;



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.ou.edu/">University of Oklahoma</a> has created simulations that demonstrate widespread increases of flash flooding events across most of the United States.&nbsp;



“This study builds upon the state-of-the-art model (EF5/CREST) that is jointly developed by researchers with OU, NASA, and NOAA’s National Severe Storms Laboratory and has initiated collaboration with National Center for Atmospheric Research climate scientists,” said study lead author Zhi Li. “It realizes the concept of ‘Digital Twin in Earth System Science,’ in which one is our living climate and the other one is our future. Climate change never became so real to me until we successfully collaborated on such research.”



“There hasn’t been a real definitive study on what's going to happen with flash floods in the future,” said study co-author Jonathan J. Gourley. “We didn’t have that robust of an observational record … so, this study helped to fill in that gap. By using some of the rainfall simulations from a convection-resolving climate model and then coupling with our high-resolution hydrologic modeling system, we can see what sort of flash floods would be produced in the future.”



The research team used climate simulations and modeling of a 30-year period from 2070 to 2100. The effect, what the researchers call “flashiness,” describes the likelihood of weather conditions that cause rapid rainfall and lead to flash flooding.



The findings include the following:&nbsp;



<ul><li>If emissions continued at their current rate, flooding events would become 8% “flashier” by the end of the century. This means that heavy rainfall events are likely to occur quickly and in concentrated areas that could lead to flooding.</li><li>A more than 10% increase in flash flooding in the Southwest U.S. which accounts for the greatest increase in “flashiness” among hot spots.&nbsp;</li><li>The central U.S. is emerging as a new flash flood hotspot as well, with an 8.6% predicted increase.&nbsp;</li></ul>



Overall, the study revealed that future flash flood-prone regions are moving northward. This means that more people will learn how to better live with these increased events, and also, how to survive.&nbsp;



“The 20-year return floods will more likely occur every two to five years, especially alarming for the emerging flashiness hotspots that will be facing unprecedented challenges with aging infrastructure and outdated flood risk measures. There is a pressing need to implement climate-resilient engineering infrastructure and develop smart hydrological early warning systems.” said study co-author Yang Hong.&nbsp;



The researchers urge action, such as mitigation strategies, to curb these extreme climate impacts.&nbsp;



“Now’s the time to start thinking about better flood defenses,” said Gourley. “Of course, decreasing greenhouse gas concentrations would be the ultimate solution, but in the meantime, we can think about ways to reduce vulnerabilities and improve flash flooding safety education.”



The majority of fatalities during flash floods are caused by people entering flooded areas - most often from driving through a flooded roadway. The best way to stay safe during flash flooding events is to stay off the roads and avoid standing water.



The findings are published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsenv/">Nature: Communications Earth and Environment</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flash floods are set to become much more common in the U.S.

The latest U.N. report on climate change has revealed that...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.icm.csic.es/ca">Institut de Ciències del Mar</a> (ICM-CSIC) in Spain has found that climate change is accelerating the water cycle due to an increase in the evaporation of water from the seas and oceans caused by rises in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-surface-temperatures-are-speeding-up-ocean-currents/">temperatures</a>. This results in more water circulating in the atmosphere in its vapor form, 90 percent of which will precipitate back into the sea, while the remaining 10 percent will precipitate over the continent. The researchers predict that these changes in the water cycle could have major consequences on the global climate system.



“The acceleration of the water cycle has implications both at the ocean and on the continent, where storms could become increasingly intense. This higher amount of water circulating in the atmosphere could also explain the increase in rainfall that is being detected in some polar areas, where the fact that it is raining instead of snowing is speeding up the melting,” explained study lead author&nbsp;Estrella Olmedo, an expert in Physical and Technological Oceanography at ICM-CSIC.



Dr. Olmedo and her colleagues have found that another important factor contributing to the acceleration in the water cycle is the decrease in the wind over some areas of the ocean, which favors stratification of the water column (water not mixing in the vertical direction).&nbsp;



“Where the wind is no longer so strong, the surface water warms up, but does not exchange heat with the water below, allowing the surface to become more saline than the lower layers and enabling the effect of evaporation to be observed with satellite measurements,” said study co-author Antonio Turiel, a senior scientist at ICM-CSIC. “This tells us that the atmosphere and the ocean interact in a stronger way than we imagined, with important consequences for the continental and polar areas.”&nbsp;



The researchers used satellite data to analyze ocean surface salinity. Unlike subsurface salinity data – which is collected with in situ instruments – the satellite data allowed them to detect more efficiently the acceleration in the water cycle and the effect of stratification over vast areas of the oceans.&nbsp;



“We have been able to see that surface salinity is showing an intensification of the water cycle that subsurface salinity does not. Specifically, in the Pacific we have seen that surface salinity decreases more slowly than subsurface salinity and, in this same region, we have observed an increase in sea surface temperature and a decrease in the intensity of winds and the depth of the mixing layer,” said Dr. Olmedo.



According to Dr. Turiel, ocean models must standardize the assimilation of satellite salinity data, in order to complement in situ data. This is crucial in order to make accurate predictions, particularly at the current time of climate crisis, when changes are occurring much faster than before.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-10265-1">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change is accelerating the water cycle

A new study led by the Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM-CSIC)...

At first glance, metropolitan areas may appear to be devoid of wildlife, but that is far from the truth. Green spaces in large cities can serve as corridors or stepping stones for wild animals and even threatened mammal species.



In one of the most populous and densely urbanized cities in Brazil, a research team recorded a South American coati, a carnivore that lives on trees that feeds on small invertebrates and fruits. The species is classified as vulnerable in Rio Grande do Sul, mainly because of the loss of its forest habitats.



The Brazilian research team detected the animal using a camera trap during a Masters research project conducted at the Canoas Airbase, one of the last green spaces remaining in the municipality.&nbsp;



Finding a coati in the middle of a dense, urban area surprised them. While the species is not considered threatened in the majority of its area of distribution, the coati population has been in a state of decline as a result of habitat loss and hunting.



"This record confirms the capacity of this species to use environments that have been changed by anthropic activity. In urban areas, the availability of anthropic food resources can favor the establishment of species with greater plasticity," wrote the researchers.



"Conversely, proximity of humans can also cause conflicts and threats to wildlife and increases the likelihood of diseases transmitted by domesticated animals, such as cats and dogs."



According to the study authors, this record is worthy of note because it refers to an urban area where coatis were believed to be extinct, in the only Brazilian state in which the species is threatened. The discovery highlights the importance of urban green spaces for wildlife conservation.



"It highlights the importance of urban green spaces for wildlife conservation, since these spaces can furnish corridors or stepping-stones, enabling migration and reducing isolation of populations in increasingly fragmented landscapes," wrote the researchers. "This is very important for defining appropriate conservation measurements for endangered species, especially beyond protected areas."



The study - a partnership between the Canoas Airbase and<a href="https://www.lasalle.edu/"> La Salle University</a> - was led by Dr. Cristina Vargas Cademartori.&nbsp; The findings are published in the open access journal <a href="https://neotropical.pensoft.net/">Neotropical Biology and Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Green spaces are a critical refuge for threatened species

At first glance, metropolitan areas may appear to be devoid...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air">Invisible threat in urban air</h2>



City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge">Disturbing connections emerge</h2>



Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters">Timing matters</h2>



The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns">Genetic vulnerability patterns</h2>



Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications">Public health implications</h2>



These findings, published in <a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.



As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.



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Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.



Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.



Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



Published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.



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What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.



The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.



The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.



The full study was recently published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.



Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.



Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents". In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively. MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.



MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization. The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.



Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.



A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.



This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.



PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.



In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.



As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.



The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.



For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.



The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.



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MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a>



Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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