Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s <a href="https://www.fsis.usda.gov/">Food Safety and Inspection Service</a> (FSIS) announced on Wednesday that approximately 132,606 pounds of ground beef products are being recalled after a deadly E. coli outbreak. 

In July, raw ground beef was identified as the likely cause of 17 illnesses and one death. Nearly all of the patients were from Florida, which prompted Publix grocery stores in the state to voluntarily recall ground beef products that were suspected to be contaminated with Escherichia coli (STEC) O26.

Upon further investigation, the illnesses were traced to items sold by the Colorado-based company Cargill Meat Solutions. The products had been packaged on June 21 and were distributed to retailers all over the country.

A <a href="https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/recalls-and-public-health-alerts/recall-case-archive/archive/2018/recall-072-2018-release">news release</a> states: “FSIS is concerned that some product may be frozen and in consumers’ freezers. Consumers who have purchased these products are urged not to consume them. These products should be thrown away or returned to the place of purchase.”

The recalled items bear the establishment number “EST. 86R” inside the USDA mark of inspection.

Individuals that become ill from STECs will begin to experience symptoms an average of three to four days after exposure.

“Most people infected with STEC O26 develop diarrhea (often bloody) and vomiting. Some illnesses last longer and can be more severe. Infection is usually diagnosed by testing of a stool sample,” says the news release. 

“Vigorous rehydration and other supportive care is the usual treatment; antibiotic treatment is generally not recommended. Most people recover within a week, but rarely, some develop a more severe infection.”

According to the FSIS, consumers must always use caution when preparing raw meat products and only consume <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meat-and-seafood-production-have-a-high-environmental-cost/">ground beef</a> that has been cooked to a temperature of 160°F. The agency says, “The only way to confirm that ground beef is cooked to a temperature high enough to kill harmful bacteria is to use a food thermometer that measures internal temperature.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deadly E. coli outbreak leads to ground beef recall

The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety and Inspection Service...

Experts are speaking out against the sale of caffeinated energy drinks to children. Professor Russell Viner, president of the <a href="https://www.rcpch.ac.uk/">Royal College of Pediatrics and Child Health</a>, argues that these drinks contribute to the twin epidemics of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/societal-changes-obesity-epidemic/">obesity</a> and mental health problems among young people.

Across high income countries, children and young adults consume more sugar and calories than necessary, which means that they usually do not need additional energy. Professor Viner explained that this trend is especially cause for concern when combined with regular caffeine consumption, because there is little evidence of the effect that caffeine may have on the body as it develops. 

A 2014 survey of over 5,000 children in England revealed that 14 percent of 11- to 15-year-olds consume energy drinks at least two to four times a week. The study also found that 5 percent of all young people consume energy drinks daily. 

Professor Viner said that the high sugar content in many of these drinks, which is up to 27 grams of sugar per 250 milliliter serving, “undoubtedly contributes to the overall calorie excess and resultant obesity epidemic among our children.”

While recent studies show that caffeine may have detrimental effects on the developing brain, surprisingly little is actually known about its safety. 

A growing collection of research suggests that the consumption of energy drinks among children and young people is associated with anxiety, depression, sensation seeking, and increased hyperactivity and inattention.

Professor Viner said that this is alarming because psychological distress can lead to risky behaviors such as poor academic performance and drug use. He also pointed out that caffeinated drinks can have a negative impact on sleep. 

According to Professor Viner, humans get energy naturally from a “good diet, refreshing sleep, exercise and, most importantly, interaction with other people.”


The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Energy drinks are especially harmful to young people, doctors warn

Experts are speaking out against the sale of caffeinated energy...

A new study has demonstrated that generosity and cooperation are contagious. The research was focused on hunter-gatherers in Tanzania - individuals who are far removed from the modern world - over the course of six years. 

The research team found that the Hadza are generally willing to share, but this does not mean that they always do so. The willingness to share depended less on an individual and more on the group that they happened to live with at the time.

“We found that year after year, willingness to share with others clustered within residence groups or what we call 'camps,’” said study lead author Coren Apicella of the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>. “People were living with other people who were similar to them in levels of generosity.”


Study first author Kristopher Smith added, “We also found individual willingness to share changed from year to year to match their current campmates and found no evidence that people preferred living with more cooperative people.”

Significantly, the researchers observed that these trends persisted even as the Hadza people changed campmates every couple of months.

The study demonstrated that it is not simply that people who like to share choose to live with others who also like to share. Instead, people adjust their behavior to match that of their cohabitants. 


The researchers were interested in investigating cooperation among the Hadza, particularly due to their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hunter-gatherers-superior-smell/">hunter-gatherer</a> lifestyles. 

“The Hadza are one of the last populations left on the planet who live a similar lifestyle to how our ancestors lived for millions of years,” said study co-author Ibrahim Mabulla. “They offer insight into how cooperation evolved.”

“Food is unreliable and people often worry about there being enough food to feed themselves and their families,” said Apicella. “To counteract this, the Hadza share their food with their campmates. High levels of cooperation help to ensure survival in this unpredictable setting.”

To investigate what drives cooperative behavior among the Hadza, the researchers visited 56 camps in Tanzania over six years. Nearly 400 Hadza adults of all ages were asked to play an economic game in which participants were asked to consider sharing their favorite food, straws of honey.

The individuals started the game with four honey straws, which could be contributed to the group depending on each player's decision. When the participants chose to share their honey straws with the group, the number of straws was tripled.

The experiment revealed that Hadza individuals living in certain camps were consistently more generous than others. The individuals were also found to modify their behavior over time to match the norms of the camp they were currently living in.

“You have some camps in which everyone is contributing and some where people are contributing very little,” said Smith. “In a random population, you'd expect all the camps to contribute similar amounts.”

“We were surprised to find that people do not have a stable tendency to cooperate and are instead influenced by those around them,” said Apicella. “Our results show that there is no such thing as good guys and bad guys.”

The researchers explained that the study findings highlight the flexible nature of human cooperation. Overall, the research also shows that generosity can be contagious.

“If you find yourself surrounded by selfish people, you don't necessarily have to find a new crowd, but by being generous yourself, you can get others to be generous as well,” said Smith.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Generosity and cooperation found to be contagious

A new study has demonstrated that generosity and cooperation are...

Death rates from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-expectancy-overdose-us/">drug overdoses</a> have been on the rise in the US for the past 15 years, even before the more recent opioid crisis caused these numbers to skyrocket.

According to the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/statedeaths.html">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>, in 2016, 63,632 deaths in the United States were the result of a drug overdose, and the number of overdose deaths has increased by 21.5 percent from 2015 to 2016. And the trend doesn’t appear to be slowing down. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.publichealth.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health</a> took an in-depth look at overdose drug rates in the US and found that the solution is not targeting one specific drug, but discovering what factors are driving the drug epidemic overall. 

The findings of the study were published in the journal Science. 

“The current epidemic of overdose deaths due to prescription opioids, heroin and fentanyl appears to be the most recent manifestation of a more fundamental, longer-term process,” said Donald S. Burke, the senior author of the study. “Understanding the forces holding these multiple individual drug epidemics together in a tight upward exponential trajectory will be important in revealing the root causes of the epidemic, and this understanding could be crucial to prevention and intervention strategies."

For the study, the researchers collected data on all accidental drug poisoning or overdose deaths in the United States since 1979 from the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/index.htm">U.S. National Vital Statistics System</a>. 

Over the last four decades, the researchers were able to plot an almost perfect upward exponential curve illustrating the rise in drug overdose deaths over the years. 

“This remarkably smooth, long-term epidemic growth pattern really caught our attention,” said Burke. “If we can figure it out, we should be able to bend that curve downward.”

When the researchers looked at the specific drugs involved in overdose death rates in the United States, there arose no one specific region that suffered more overdose deaths than others, and the patterns for different opioids, stimulants, and hallucinogens varied widely through the years. 

“There is no regular or predictable pattern to the overdose rates for any of these drugs,” said Hawre Jalal, a lead author of the study. “Nonetheless, when we plot the annual sum of all drug overdoses, we get a remarkably smooth, inexorable exponential curve.”

Almost every region in the country was found to be a hotspot for drug overdose, as the researchers, found even when accounting for different demographic and geographic factors as well as the type of drug involved.

There are several explanations as to why drug overdoses have increased, and the researchers point to improvements in drug manufacturing, lower drug prices, expanding drug markets, and wider supply chains that are making illicit drugs readily available. 

The researchers say that finding out what exactly is driving drug overdose death rates is crucial for combating the increase in mortalities due to drugs in the US. 

“This is a paradox - inexorable growth in the aggregate, composed of variable sub-epidemics,” said Burke. “But it should be solvable. Evidence-based public health responses have contained past epidemics. If we understand and address these root causes at the same time that we take on the opioid crisis, we should be able to curb the epidemic for good.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The growing drug overdose epidemic has been brewing for decades

Death rates from drug overdoses have been on the rise...

A new study examining what neural mechanisms influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rock-climbers-high-risk-climbs/">risk-taking behavior</a> in monkeys has led to new insights about how risks and rewards are evaluated in the brain. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">John Hopkins University</a> conducted the study which was published in the journal Current Biology. 

The results point to a specific area in the brain that drives risk-taking, and could one day help with treatments for risky behavior and addiction in humans. 

“People think risk attitude is always the same for individuals, but behavior researchers have found this isn't true - a person can be risk-averse for some things but inclined to risk in others, like someone who saves a lot of money but also skydives,” said Veit Stuphorn, a co-author of the study. 

Two rhesus monkeys were trained to gamble by taking bets against a computer for rewards of drinks of water. There were big bets that had higher payoffs, and smaller bets with more of a chance to win. 

The researchers found that the monkeys were big risk takers and preferred taking the bets with the biggest payoff. 

When the monkeys had a choice between a 20 percent chance to win 10 milliliters of water and an 80 percent chance to win three milliliters, the monkeys almost always took the bigger bet. 

The researchers found that the monkeys seemed to simply enjoy the excitement of the win and so the higher reward was more appealing, even if the monkeys weren’t thirsty. 

“The monkeys should rationally choose the 3 milliliters, but they always went with the riskier option,” said Xiamomo Chen, the lead author of the study. “They're like people who like to go to Las Vegas to play the slots, where there's a very high reward but a very low chance of winning it.”

An area of the prefrontal cortex of the brain called the supplementary eye field was identified as the main region that influences risk-taking behavior, and the researchers suppressed this area in the monkeys. 

When this region of the brain was temporarily inactivated in the monkeys, it drastically reduced the high-risk gambling preferences and the monkeys were 30 to 40 percent less likely to take risky bets. 

“This was truly unexpected, to find a brain section so specifically tied to risk attitude,” said Stuphorn. “The monkey's preference markedly changed from really liking risk to liking it much, much less.”

What was interesting was that suppressing this part of the brain didn't affect the monkeys’ ability to gamble or their memory of previous wins and losses. The monkeys were simply less likely to choose the risky bets with higher rewards. 

The researchers say that future studies could help improve our understanding of the neural mechanisms that drive risk-taking behavior in humans and create new treatments for addiction and risky behaviors. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gambling monkeys shed light on what drives risk-taking

A new study examining what neural mechanisms influence risk-taking behavior...

Girls and boys have their differences – spanning everything from the obvious physical differences to the more subtle emotional and social disparities between the two genders. While these differences may be apparent, whether or not they provide any advantage to a certain <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sleep-gender-equal-countries/">gender</a> can be a messy and controversial discussion. 

However, new research from the <a href="http://www.apa.org/">American Psychological Association</a> suggests that, by as early as fourth grade, girls perform better than boys on standardized reading and writing tests, and this achievement gap only grows wider as children age.

“The common thinking is that boys and girls in grade school start with the same cognitive ability, but this research suggests otherwise,” says David Reilly, a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/">Griffith University</a> and lead author of the study published in <a href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/amp/">American Psychologist</a>. “Our research found that girls generally exhibit better reading and writing ability than boys as early as the fourth grade.”

Reilly and his colleagues assessed data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress, which contains a nationally representative data sample of standardized test scores in the U.S. from over 3.4 million students in fourth, eighth, and 12th grades, spanning almost three decades. These scores showed that, on average, girls scored significantly higher than boys in both reading and writing in fourth grade, and this disparity only increased in eight and 12th grades – with the differences being much larger for writing than for reading in each case. 

“It appears that the gender gap for writing tasks has been greatly underestimated, and that despite our best efforts with changes in teaching methods does not appear to be reducing over time,” says Reilly.

What could be the underlying reasons for this difference in ability? The authors suggest that gender differences in behavioral problems, such as physical aggression and disobeying rules – along with attention disorders – may be to blame for boys’ being at a disadvantage. Boys are also statistically more likely to have a learning disability, and may face peer pressure to conform to masculine norms that push reading to the side. Furthermore, other research has found that girls tend to use both brain hemispheres when given reading and writing tasks, while boys are more likely to use a single hemisphere of the brain. 

“Bilateral language function presumably affords some benefits, which could explain the female advantage observed on such tasks,” explains Reilly. “Boys may also struggle to write as well as girls because it is an ability that requires solid reading skills, as well as competency in verbal fluency, spelling and grammar,” adds co-author David Neumann, PhD, also of Griffith University.

The study’s findings are necessarily suggesting that boys and girls have significantly different learning styles, nor does it point to single-sex education being a solution. “All the evidence suggests that gender segregation of education reinforces negative gender stereotypes, and makes gender more salient, which could be harmful for boys with reading and writing, and for girls with math and science,” says Reilly. “Rather, it suggests that we need to better tailor our education to meet the needs of boys and really encourage in them early a love not just of reading but also writing.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Girls perform better at reading and writing tests, study reveals

Girls and boys have their differences – spanning everything from...

Cruise ships have revolutionized the way people travel since they first rose in popularity in the 1990s. Travelers can eat, drink, shop, swim and enjoy entertainment while voyaging the seas, free from the stress of planning out every step of a vacation. But with the convenience of cruise ships comes a steep environmental cost.

Cruise ships are a popular vacation attraction for the laid-back traveler. According to the<a href="https://www.f-cca.com/downloads/2017-Cruise-Industry-Overview-Cruise-Line-Statistics.pdf"> Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association</a>, 24.2 million travelers went on a cruise in 2016 alone.

Along with carrying passengers, cruise ships carry waste and pollution as well. The<a href="https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies"> U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> even describes cruise ships as “floating cities” because the ships transport people, resources, entertainment and services. All this baggage can cause a huge impact.

A 3,000 passenger cruise ship is<a href="http://www.cep.unep.org/publications-and-resources/databases/document-database/other/cruise-ship-pollution-background-laws-and-regulations-and-key-issues.pdf/view"> estimated</a> to generate 210,000 gallons of sewage, one million gallons of graywater (water from laundry, sinks and showers), 130 gallons of hazardous wastes, 8 tons of solid waste and 25,000 gallons of oily bilge water every week.

These pollutants cause high levels of pesticides, chemicals and nutrients to enter the air and waterways. Untreated graywater, for example, contains excessive levels of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increase-nitrogen-runoff/">nitrogen</a> and phosphorus. The artificial influx of nutrients into fragile ocean ecosystems results in the diebacks of corals and other sea vegetation.

As nature serves as a popular backdrop for travelers, pristine habitats may be exploited and commercialized to accommodate the new visitors. Construction can occur on previously undisturbed areas to make tourist excursions which can cause increased pollution and disrupt local wildlife.

Cruise ships can also damage pristine beach habitats that tourists shell out thousands of dollars to visit. Cruise ship anchors sometimes destroy coral reefs when the ship is landing. In March 2017, a cruise ship rammed into one of Indonesia’s most preserved coral reefs destroying<a href="https://www.cnn.com/2017/03/15/asia/raja-ampat-ship-coral-reef/index.html"> nearly 140,000 square feet</a> of reef total.

Marine animals who come into contact with the massive structures may suffer as well. A 2004<a href="https://www.greateratlantic.fisheries.noaa.gov/shipstrike/news/shipstrike03.pdf"> report</a> on large whale ship strikes found that 12.7% of incidents of large whale ship strikes from 1975 to 2002 were from cruise ships.

The cruise ship industry is estimated to be the fastest growing segment in the travel industry. A simple search on a travel website can present you with options to cruise all over the world. The international, multi-jurisdictional nature of cruise ship has resulted in international laws to address cruise ship pollution. One of the major international agreements governing cruise ships is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), established in 1973.

Although MARPOL sets guidelines for member nations to follow, enforcement can be difficult as cruise ships sail through different jurisdictions. As a<a href="http://www.cep.unep.org/publications-and-resources/databases/document-database/other/cruise-ship-pollution-background-laws-and-regulations-and-key-issues.pdf/view"> 2008 Congressional report</a> states about incidents outside of the U.S., “these procedures require substantial coordination between the Coast Guard, the State Department, and other flag states and that, even when referrals have been made, the response rate from flag states has been poor.”

The tides are slowly changing for the cruising industry. Ships are now being held to higher environmental standards and are investing in technology such as solar panels and advanced wastewater treatment systems to lessen their ecological footprint. Cruise ships should also embrace the new wave of ecotourism in the travel sector by adjusting their excursions to focus on appreciating and preserving nature instead of exploiting it.

For the traveler who still wants to sip their Bahama Mama while sailing on a Caribbean cruise, Friends of the Earth has made a<a href="https://foe.org/cruise-report-card/"> cruise ship report card</a> which grades environmental standards cruise lines have put in place. Measures such as this both hold the cruising industry accountable and allow travelers to stay informed. Afterall, vacations should allow travelers to kick back and relax without worrying about the damage they are causing to the beautiful sites they visit.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cruise ships can be wildly harmful to the surrounding environment

Cruise ships have revolutionized the way people travel since they...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.czu.cz/en/">Czech University</a> have found that dog-assisted therapy may be more effective than standard speech therapy for children. The study revealed that patients with developmental dysphasia were more successful in mimicking vocal signals in a therapy session where a dog was present.

The experts discovered that the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-childrens-respiratory/">children</a> were more motivated and open to communicating in the company of a therapy dog. The researchers also noted that the kids displayed more authentic and natural expressions during their interactions with the animals.

“The presence of the dog improves the relationship with the therapist, as it distracts from the fear of therapy in children and provides them with a form of support during the practice,” said study lead author Kristýna Machová.

The study, which is the first long-term randomized study of its kind, was focused on 69 nursery-school children who were diagnosed with developmental dysphasia. This is a common language disorder that makes it difficult for individuals to formulate words and to understand spoken words.

The goal of the research was to investigate whether speech therapy results may be improved in the presence of a dog. In both a control and an experimental group, the children were evaluated for a baseline measurement of speech and language skills prior to receiving speech therapy months later.

Traditional speech therapy was conducted among participants in the control group, while the experimental group received animal-assisted therapy sessions with a middle-aged Peruvian hairless dog named Agáta.

Improvements were observed in both groups, and the study authors explained that further research would be needed to consolidate the findings. However, the researchers still agree that there is great potential in a canine-assisted approach to therapy.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rfan20">Anthrozoos</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Credit: Josef Ruzicka

Dog-assisted speech therapy found to be effective with children

Researchers at Czech University have found that dog-assisted therapy may...

A new study from the <a href="http://www.europeanlung.org/">European Lung Foundation</a> has revealed that children who live close to green spaces have fewer respiratory problems such as asthma in adulthood. On the other hand, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chinese-children-obesity-risk-air-pollution/">children</a> exposed to air pollution are more prone to respiratory issues later in life. 
A large international study known as <a href="https://helse-bergen.no/fag-og-forsking/forsking/rhinessa/rhinessa-english">RHINESSA</a> has been investigating lung health in children and adults in seven European countries, focusing on exposure to residential green spaces and air pollution from the time of birth into adulthood. 

Dr. Ingrid Nordeide Kuiper of <a href="https://helse-bergen.no/en">Haukeland University Hospital</a> and colleagues analyzed RHINESSA greenness data that involved 5,415 participants between the ages of 18 and 52 and air pollution data that involved 4,414 participants in the same age group. 

The team looked at how many individuals suffered from more than three respiratory symptoms, such as chest wheezing or whistling, breathlessness when wheezing, wheezing or whistling without a cold, a tight chest when waking, or an asthma attack. 


The researchers calculated the average annual exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which was estimated from birth until age 18. The experts also calculated annual average exposure to “greenness” in a 100-meter zone around the home address during the same time frame. 

“These are preliminary results, but we found that exposure to greenness during childhood was associated with fewer respiratory symptoms in adulthood, while exposure to air pollutants in childhood was associated with more respiratory symptoms in adulthood and with late onset asthma,” said Dr. Kuiper.


The results varied across the different countries examined in the RHINESSA study. In Bergen, for example, exposure to PM2.5 and NO2 increased the likelihood of late onset asthma by up to 22 percent, while exposure to PM10 increased the likelihood of respiratory symptoms by 21 percent in Uppsala and by 23 percent in Bergen.

In Tartu, living close to a green space before the age of ten was associated with a 71-percent lower probability of wheeze. Living close to a green space between the ages of 11 and 18 was associated with a 29-percent lower probability of respiratory symptoms and a 39-percent lower probability of wheeze.


“We need to analyze these findings further before drawing any definite conclusions. However, it is likely that our findings will substantially expand our knowledge on the long-term effects of air pollution and greenness, enabling physicians, scientists and policy-makers to see the importance of exposure to pollution and access to green spaces, and helping to improve public health,” said Dr. Kuiper. 

“We will be conducting further analyses that include more centers that are taking part in the RHINESSA study, and we also want to expand analyses to look at the effects of exposure to air pollution and greenness across generations.”

“We believe that our results, seen together with previous results, will be of particular value for city planners and policy-makers; with increasing population density in the years to come it will be vital to include a decrease in air pollution exposures and an increase in access to green spaces in future city plans and societal regulations.”

The research was presented at the <a href="https://erscongress.org/">European Respiratory Society International Congress 2018</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nearby green spaces improve children’s respiratory health

A new study from the European Lung Foundation has revealed...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a> (NYU) have found that using verbs to encourage certain actions in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cleaning-products-gain-weight/">children</a> leads to more follow-through compared to the use of nouns. For example, asking a child to “help" or to “read" results in more persistence than assigning them names such as “helper" or “reader.”

The results of the study contradict those of research conducted in 2014 which demonstrated that asking children to “be helpers” instead of “to help” subsequently led them to help more.

The difference between the two studies is that the more recent analysis investigated the outcome when children experienced setbacks while assisting with tasks. The study findings highlight the link between language and perseverance among children.

Marjorie Rhodes is an associate professor in NYU's Department of Psychology and the study's senior author.

“The new research shows how subtle features of language can shape child behavior in ways not previously understood,” explained Professor Rhodes.

“In particular, using verbs to talk to children about behavior - such as ‘you can help’ - can lead to more determination following setbacks than using nouns to talk about identities - for instance, ‘you can be a helper.’”

The research team found that asking children between the ages of four and five to “be helpers” rather than “to help” led them to assist with more tasks, such as picking up crayons that had fallen on the floor or helping to open a box. This effect, however, backfired after children experienced difficulty while trying to be helpful.

In a series of experiments, the children were given the opportunity to help the experimenter clean up some toys after being asked either to “be helpers” or “to help.” 

The conditions were designed so that the children would experience difficulties, which represented those that young children deal with in everyday life, as they were trying to help. For example, when children picked up a box to move it to a shelf, the contents spilled all over the floor because the box fell apart.

The study revealed that children who had originally been asked “to help” were more persistent after any setbacks compared to those who were asked to “be helpers.”

After the setbacks, children asked “to help” were just as likely to assist with challenging situations that benefited only the experimenter as they were to participate in easy situations that also benefited themselves. Children asked “to be helpers,” however, rarely ever helped in the challenging situations that benefited only the experimenter after dealing with difficulties.

“This research shows how talking to children about actions they can take - in this case, that they can do helpful things -can encourage more persistence following setbacks than talking to children about identities that they can take on,” said lead author Emily Foster-Hanson.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14678624">Child Development</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Action verbs encourage children to be more persistent

Scientists at New York University (NYU) have found that using...

Yogurt has long been branded as a healthy food option that can help maintain weight and proper digestion. Eaten for everything from breakfast to dessert, yogurt contains healthy bacteria and is a good source of nutrition. 

However, a number of yogurt products, especially those marketed to children, often contain high sugar and fat contents despite the national dietary guidelines that recommend low-fat and low-sugar dairy products.

The average consumer shopping at the local supermarket isn’t always aware of the fat and sugar contents of their food and simply buy what the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermarkets-eat-fewer-calories/">grocery store keeps in stock</a>. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://physicalsciences.leeds.ac.uk/info/5/school_of_food_science_and_nutrition">School of Food Science and Nutrition at the University of Leeds</a> in the UK conducted a study that compared yogurt products with the national dietary guidelines to see how much more sugar and fat was included.

The study was published in the journal BMJ Open. 

900 yogurts and yogurt products were analyzed for the study, all of which were available from five major UK online supermarket chains. 

The researchers divided the products into eight categories: children's, dairy alternatives, desserts, drinks, flavored, fruit, natural/Greek, and organic.

A product’s sugar and fat content were classified depending on European Union regulations. If a yogurt product had a fat content of 3 grams/100 grams or less and five or fewer grams of total sugar/100 grams, it was considered low fat and sugar. 

Besides the greek yogurts, most of the other yogurts were above the low sugar threshold. 

The products meant for children had the least amount of low sugar items which is a cause for concern because obesity rates among children are climbing both in the US and UK. 

Sugar levels in the yogurt products ranged from 16.4g/100 g to 10.8 g/100 g. Fat content varied and was either above or below the recommended threshold. 

The study confirms that supermarkets carry foods that contain much higher levels of sugar and fat than is recommended, and not just in yogurts.

“While yogurt may be less of a concern than soft drinks and fruit juices, the chief sources of free sugars in both children and adults' diets, what is worrisome is that yogurt, as a perceived 'healthy food,' may be an unrecognized source of free/added sugars in the diet,” the researchers wrote of their study. “Not all yogurts are as healthy as perhaps consumers perceive them, and reformulation for the reduction of free sugars is warranted.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandettte@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Most yogurt products contain more sugar than is recommended

Yogurt has long been branded as a healthy food option...

Lately, drug overdoses have been in the frequently, as the opioid crisis continues to wreak havoc on many communities, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rivers-polluted-cocaine-eels/">cocaine</a> use seems to once again be back in vogue. At this point, any sort of treatment for drug abuse or accidental overdoses would be welcome. Luckily, a new gene therapy for drug addiction from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a> – reported in <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a> – has shown promise at reducing cravings for cocaine and protecting against overdoses in mice.

The enzyme butyrylcholinesterase, or BChE, has been known for decades to destroy cocaine in the bloodstream by breaking it down into its harmless byproducts. However, this enzyme does not act fast enough or stay in the bloodstream long enough to help individuals addicted to the drug. But in making this new treatment, the researchers rewrote DNA in mouse skin stem cells to make them produce a modified form of BChE that is over 4,000 times more potent than the natural enzyme.

Laboratory tests showed that mice fitted with implants containing clumps of these engineered cells lost their appetite for cocaine and were able to survive massive overdoses of the drug, which killed 100% of mice without implants. 

“Compared to other gene therapies, our approach is minimally invasive, long term, low maintenance and affordable. It’s very promising,” says lead researcher Ming Xu, a professor of anesthesia and critical care at the University of Chicago.

Xu believes that this new therapy has the potential to become the first intervention approved for treating cocaine addiction. Further studies suggest that human-size implants would be able to release BChE for 20 to 30 years, protecting addicts for decades. Xu also reports that there have been no obvious side effects observed thus far.

&nbsp;

While more research needs to be done before this therapy can be tested in human trials, the results so far are promising. Xu’s research team is also working on similarly engineered cells to treat alcohol and nicotine addiction, and are expected to begin research on therapy for opioid addiction as well. 

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New breakthrough may lead to cure for cocaine addiction

Lately, drug overdoses have been in the frequently, as the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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