Most galaxies we see today are quiet, well-structured, and orderly. But not all play by those rules. Some are wild, chaotic, and packed with stars that are forming at a furious pace. 



These rare, chaotic galaxies give astronomers a glimpse of what the universe looked like billions of years ago - and perhaps a hint of what's in store for our own Milky Way.



Astronomers from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> have taken a detailed look at these unusual chaotic galaxies, also known as luminous and ultra-luminous infrared galaxies, or LIRGs and ULIRGs. 



These are incredibly bright in the infrared spectrum and are often caught in the middle of a galactic collision.



This study, part of a larger project called the Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey (GOALS), includes data from space telescopes such as Spitzer, Hubble, Chandra, and GALEX - and now, for the first time, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) as well.



The results of the study were presented during a press briefing at the <a href="https://aas.org/meetings/aas246" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">246th meeting of the American Astronomical Society</a> on June 11. 



According to Sean Linden, a research associate at the University of Arizona <a href="https://astro.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steward Observatory</a>, the findings will be published in an upcoming edition of the Astrophysical Journal. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-collisions-cause-chaotic-galaxies">Cosmic collisions cause chaotic galaxies</h2>



LIRGs and ULIRGs are not common in the universe close to Earth. Only 202 have been found within 1.3 billion light-years of us. What makes them special is that they are actively merging. 



Two galaxies smash together, forming bizarre structures - double galactic centers, long tails of stars and, most notably, star-forming clumps that are far larger than anything in our galaxy.



"These galaxies are very clumpy, very different from the beautiful spiral galaxies that we see now, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>," said Linden. "And we know from cosmological simulations that these clumps were the building blocks of galaxies in the early universe."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/milky-way_andromeda_merger_illustration_UArizona_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/milky-way_andromeda_merger_illustration_UArizona_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows a stage in the predicted merger between our Milky Way galaxy and the neighboring Andromeda galaxy, as it will unfold over the next several billion years. In this image, representing Earth's night sky in 3.75 billion years, Andromeda (left) fills the field of view and begins to distort the Milky Way with tidal pull. Credit: NASA; ESA; Z. Levay and R. van der Marel, STScI; T. Hallas; and A. Mellinger" class="wp-image-1974007"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows a stage in the predicted merger between our Milky Way galaxy and the neighboring Andromeda galaxy, as it will unfold over the next several billion years. In this image, representing Earth's night sky in 3.75 billion years, Andromeda (left) fills the field of view and begins to distort the Milky Way with tidal pull. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA; ESA; Z. Levay and R. van der Marel, STScI; T. Hallas; and A. Mellinger</figcaption></figure>



In our galaxy, the largest clumps of new stars weigh about 1,000 solar masses. In LIRGs and ULIRGs, a single clump can hold a million times the mass of our Sun. And there are hundreds of thousands of these clumps in each galaxy.



"You can imagine a million Suns forming in one small, compact region, and within one of those galaxies, there are hundreds of thousands of such clumps," Linden explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chaotic-galaxies-act-as-star-factories">Chaotic galaxies act as star factories </h2>



Galactic mergers are messy. But in that chaos, galaxies give birth to stars at a much higher rate than usual. When two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies collide</a>, gas clouds compress, temperatures soar, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> kicks into overdrive.



"These clumpy structures build up over time until they become incredibly massive, and if we want to understand them and how they actually contribute to galaxies evolving throughout cosmic time, we need to study them in detail," Linden said.



This is exactly what the new JWST data makes possible. Earlier telescopes, like Hubble, had already spotted some of these clumps. But thick clouds of dust made it impossible to see what was going on inside them. 



JWST's infrared vision has now peeled back those layers, giving researchers their best look yet at the internal workings of these star factories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-chaotic-galaxies-crashed-and-clumped">When chaotic galaxies crashed and clumped</h2>



The universe used to be a more violent place. Billions of years ago, galaxies were packed closer together and collided more frequently. That meant more clumps, more chaos, and more extreme star formation.



"The universe used to be much more violent and extreme in the past, and it's now settling down," Linden said. "That's why these rare examples of extreme galaxies no longer exist in the local universe, because, by and large, most galaxies have settled down as well."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/galaxies_interacting_IRAS-09111-1007_UArizona_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/galaxies_interacting_IRAS-09111-1007_UArizona_1s.webp" alt="Two interacting luminous infrared galaxies, designated as IRAS 09111-1007, from the survey. The galaxies already passed through each other once and are coming back on a second approach. Credit: Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey" class="wp-image-1974005"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two interacting luminous infrared galaxies, designated as IRAS 09111-1007, from the survey. The galaxies already passed through each other once and are coming back on a second approach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey</figcaption></figure>



Even so, these rare chaotic galaxies offer astronomers a chance to study a phenomenon that has mostly disappeared from the modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-is-expanding-faster-than-science-can-explain-hubble-tension-physics-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>. They serve as a kind of time machine - letting us peek into how galaxies like ours might have looked long ago.



"In a sense, you look at the local universe, and it gives you information about what would have happened 10 billion years ago," said Linden.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-milky-way-meets-andromeda">When the Milky Way meets Andromeda</h2>



These observations might not just be a look into the past. They could also foreshadow the future. 



The Milky Way is on a slow-motion collision course with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-shows-signs-of-violent-past-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andromeda</a> galaxy. That merger will happen several billion years from now but, when it does, our quiet and orderly galaxy could roar back to life.



"As Andromeda gets closer and the pressure in the interstellar medium goes up, all of a sudden, the clumps that you will find that the Milky Way is forming will be more and more massive," Linden noted.



The survey also confirmed long-held predictions from computer simulations. Disk-shaped galaxies like the Milky Way form stars in small, scattered clumps. But when galaxies merge, they create larger clumps and more intense star-forming regions.



"We're now finding these massive clumps in the local universe," Linden said. "We are beginning to complete the picture by comparing, for the first time, observations of massive clumps from both the nearby and the distant universe."



These rare chaotic galaxies, once hidden behind thick veils of dust, are now offering scientists a clearer view of how cosmic structures behave under extreme conditions. 



Furthermore, with the help of JWST, researchers are uncovering how collisions and chaos shaped the universe we see today - and how they might shape what comes next.



Information from a University of Arizona <a href="https://news.arizona.edu/news/belly-beast-massive-clumps-reveal-star-factories-bygone-era-cosmos">press release</a>.



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Chaotic galaxies are star factories from another time

Most galaxies we see today are quiet, well-structured, and orderly. But not all play by those rules. Some are wild, chaotic, and packed with stars that are forming at a furious pace. These rare, chaotic galaxies give astronomers a glimpse of what the universe looked like billions of years ago - and perhaps a hint of what's in store for our own Milky Way. Astronomers from the University of Arizona have taken a detailed look at these unusual chaotic galaxies, also known as luminous and ultra-luminous infrared...

Bumblebees can force <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-memories-they-learn-to-forget/">plants</a> to speed up the production of flowers if they are struggling to find pollen, according to a new study. 

The researchers found that when pollen is scarce, bumblebees intentionally damage plant leaves by biting them to accelerate flowering.

This previously unknown strategy dramatically impacts the timing of flower production. According to the study authors, the plants bloom up to a month earlier as a result of the sustained injuries. 

Foteini Pashalidou is an expert in the Department of Environmental Systems Sciences at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zürich</a>. Pashalidou and her colleagues were studying how bees respond to plant odors when they discovered mysterious bite marks on some of the plants. 

In a research greenhouse, the experts found that bumblebees were cutting holes in the shape of half-moons into plant leaves. Upon further observation, the team recognized that bumblebees from food-deprived colonies were the most active participants in damaging the leaves.

Various flowering plants with distinctively-shaped holes from bumblebee bites were found to bloom up to 30 days earlier than plants which had not been exposed to bumblebees.

The researchers were not able to trigger the flower-stimulating effects by replicating the cuts themselves, which suggests there may be an unknown feature that is unique to the bees' strategy.

While the underlying mechanisms that link the bumblebee bites to premature flowering are not yet known, the findings indicate that bumblebee behavior may have a significant influence on the local availability of flowers.

Lars Chittka is a behavioral ecologist at Queen Mary University of London who wrote a commentary on the research. 

"Understanding the molecular pathways by which one could accelerate flowering by a full month would be a horticulturalist's dream," wrote Chittka.

He noted that bee saliva may contain chemicals that prompt flowering, similar to substances found in the saliva of plant-eating insects that signal plant defense responses.

Bumblebees and other pollinators support the reproduction of 90 percent of flowering plants. In turn, pollinators rely on flowering plants for food and nutrition. 

As the temperatures rise and the days get longer in the spring, insects emerge from their winter hibernation just as plants begin flowering. 

The springtime synchronization of pollinators and flowering plants is critical for maintaining their symbiotic relationship. However, climate change is threatening to disrupt this delicate balance. 

For example, warmer winter temperatures may cause pollinators to wake up before the springtime bloom, leaving them without any source of food. 

Chittka pointed out how the newly described bumblebee behavior may help to mitigate some of the threats associated with global warming. 

"An encouraging interpretation of the new findings is that behavioral adaptations of flower-visitors can provide pollination systems with more plasticity and resilience to cope with climate change than hitherto suspected," said Chittka.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Hungry bumblebees bite plants to make them bloom early

Bumblebees can force plants to speed up the production of...

Despite concerns that climate change could reduce the ability of tropical forests to serve as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carbon-capture-and-storage-could-meet-global-climate-goals/">carbon</a> sinks, a new study reports that these ecosystems have the capacity to continue to store large amounts of carbon as temperatures rise. 

There is a tipping point, however, and greenhouse gas emissions must be reduced to avoid pushing tropical forests over a safe threshold. 

An international research team led by the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> set out to investigate how much carbon tropical trees can store in today's warming climate. The experts measured over half a million trees in 813 tropical forests. 

The study revealed that tropical forests are still storing large amounts of carbon under high temperatures. The researchers determined that these forests will continue to serve as critical carbon sinks up to an estimated threshold of 32 degrees Celsius in daytime temperature.

"Our analysis reveals that up to a certain point of heating, tropical forests are surprisingly resistant to small temperature differences. If we limit climate change they can continue to store a large amount of carbon in a warmer world," said study lead author Dr. Martin Sullivan.

"The 32 degree threshold highlights the critical importance of urgently cutting our emissions to avoid pushing too many forests beyond the safety zone."

"For example, if we limit global average temperatures to a 2°C increase above pre-industrial levels this pushes nearly three-quarters of tropical forests above the heat threshold we identified. Any further increases in temperature will lead to rapid losses of forest carbon."

The study is the first to analyze the long-term climate sensitivity of tropical trees based on direct observation of forests across the tropics. 

The research suggests that, in the long-term, temperature will have the greatest effect on forest carbon stocks by reducing tree growth. Drought will have the second largest influence by causing hydraulic failure and death.

According to the researchers, tropical forests have the capacity to adapt to some climate change, partly because of their high levels of biodiversity. Tree species that are more tolerant of new climate conditions will thrive and replace the less adaptable species over time. In order to maximize this potential, however, forests must remain intact.

"Our results suggest that intact forests are able to withstand some climate change. Yet these heat-tolerant trees also face immediate threats from fire and fragmentation," said study co-author Professor Beatriz Marimon. "Achieving climate adaptation means first of all protecting and connecting the forests that remain."

"The study indicates a heat threshold of 32 degrees Celsius in daytime temperature. Above this point tropical forest carbon declines more quickly with higher temperatures, regardless of which species are present."

"Each degree increase above this 32 degree threshold releases four-times as much carbon dioxide as would have been released below the threshold."

Reducing carbon emissions enough to keep tropical forests functioning as carbon sinks will be a challenge. 

&nbsp;

within the safety zone will be very challenging. Study author of the University of Leeds said: "Keeping our planet and ourselves healthy has never been more important. Right now, humanity has a unique opportunity to make the transition toward a stable climate," said study co-author Professor Oliver Phillips.

"By not simply returning to 'business as usual' after the current crisis we can ensure tropical forests remain huge stores of carbon. Protecting them from climate change, deforestation and wildlife exploitation needs to be front and centre of our global push for biosecurity."

"Imagine if we take this chance to reset how we treat our Earth. We can keep our home cool enough to protect these magnificent forests - and keep all of us safer."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Tropical forests can adapt, but they have their limits

Despite concerns that climate change could reduce the ability of...

A team of experts has discovered that sounds produced by European spiny <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hybrid-lobster-species-discovered-with-new-genetic-test/">lobsters</a> can be heard up to three kilometers away. 

The research may lead to the development of acoustic monitoring strategies to help conserve the lobsters, which are now dwindling as a result of overfishing. 

The European spiny lobsters emit loud broadband sounds called called “antennal rasps" by rubbing their antennas against a file that is located on each side of a plate below their eyes.

A team of experts led by Youenn Jézéquel set up eight underwater microphones between 0.5 and 100 meters away from the lobsters. Overall, the researchers recorded 1,560 antennal rasps that were produced by 24 spiny lobsters in the Bay of Saint Anne du Portzic, France. 

The study, which is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, revealed that the sound projections varied significantly with body size. 

The largest lobsters were detected in recordings captured at the farthest distance of 100 meters. Sounds emitted by the smallest individuals were detected up to 10 meters away, while those from average-sized individuals were captured at distances up to 50 meters. 

After taking into account the loss of sound intensity and the background noise that was present during the experiment, the researchers estimate that antennal rasps from large lobsters could be detectable up to 400 meters away. 

Furthermore, the experts theorize that under conditions with low background noise, the largest European spiny lobsters could actually be heard as far as three kilometers away. 

The findings sugest that antennal rasps could be used to detect and monitor populations of spiny lobsters from exceptional distances. 

According to the study authors, non-invasive tools such as acoustic monitoring are needed to better manage this vulnerable species.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Spiny lobsters communicate up to 3 kilometers away

A team of experts has discovered that sounds produced by...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-created-corals-with-a-higher-heat-tolerance/">Corals</a> do not always turn white after bleaching, but often produce bright neon colors. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a>, scientists have determined that this mysterious transformation is a sign that the corals are fighting to survive. 

As a result of accumulated heat stress, coral animals expel the algae that live in their tissues. The corals have a symbiotic relationship with these algae, or zooxanthellae, and need them to survive. 

Once the algae are lost, the coral skeleton shines through its once colorful tissues in a process known as coral bleaching. The corals typically turn solid white in this process, but some have been found to emit glowing colors. 

To investigate, researchers conducted a series of experiments at the University of Southampton's Coral Reef Laboratory.

The experts discovered that during "colorful bleaching" events, corals produce a type of sunscreen that appears as a colorful display. Beyond protection from the sun, the bright colors may encourage the coral symbionts to return.

Professor Jörg Wiedenmann is the head of the Coral Reef Laboratory.

"Our research shows colorful bleaching involves a self-regulating mechanism, a so-called optical feedback loop, which involves both partners of the symbiosis," explained Professor Wiedenmann. 

"In healthy corals, much of the sunlight is taken up by the photosynthetic pigments of the algal symbionts. When corals lose their symbionts, the excess light travels back and forth inside the animal tissue -reflected by the white coral skeleton." 

"This increased internal light level is very stressful for the symbionts and may delay or even prevent their return after conditions return to normal."

"However, if the coral cells can still carry out at least some of their normal functions, despite the environmental stress that caused bleaching, the increased internal light levels will boost the production of colorful, photoprotective pigments." 

"The resulting sunscreen layer will subsequently promote the return of the symbionts. As the recovering algal population starts taking up the light for their photosynthesis again, the light levels inside the coral will drop and the coral cells will lower the production of the colorful pigments to their normal level."

The researchers believe that corals which undergo colorful bleaching likely experienced mild or brief episodes of heat stress rather than extreme events.

"Bleaching is not always a death sentence for corals, the coral animal can still be alive. If the stress event is mild enough, corals can re-establish the symbiosis with their algal partner," explained Dr. Cecilia D'Angelo. 

"Unfortunately, recent episodes of global bleaching caused by unusually warm water have resulted in high coral mortality, leaving the world's coral reefs struggling for survival."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Corals put up a colorful shield after bleaching

Corals do not always turn white after bleaching, but often...

A new study from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> (ICL) has found that carbon capture and storage could be far more efficient in meeting global <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-turning-the-coast-of-antarctica-green/">climate</a> goals than what was previously realized. 

Carbon capture and storage is one of the key strategies described by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to limit global warming to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels for the rest of this century.

According to IPCC reports, CCS would be an effective approach to lowering emissions if used alongside other interventions, such as renewable energy.

Using computer models, the IPCC simulated around 1,200 scenarios that would support global climate goals. The majority of these scenarios relied on the use of carbon capture and storage. 

The ICL study has now revealed that storing up to 2,700 gigatons (Gt) of CO2 would be enough to meet the IPCC's global warming targets. Previous studies have established that there is more than 10,000 Gt of storage space available for CCS globally.

The study also revealed that the current rate of growth in the installed capacity of CCS is on track to meet some of the climate targets identified by the IPCC, but that efforts should focus on maintaining this growth while identifying enough underground space to store CO2.

Carbon store and capture involves trapping CO2 at its source, such as fossil-fuel power plants, and storing it underground so that it is not released into the atmosphere. 

Prior to this study, however, the amount of storage space needed for widespread CCS was not entirely clear.

Beyond estimating the space needed for CCS at 2,700 gigatons or less, the research is the first to show that there has been 8.6 percent growth in CCS capacity over the past 20 years.

"Nearly all IPCC pathways to limit warming to 2°C require tens of gigatons of CO2 stored per year by mid-century," said study lead author Dr Christopher Zahasky.

"However, until now, we didn't know if these targets were achievable given historic data, or how these targets related to subsurface storage space requirements."

"We found that even the most ambitious scenarios are unlikely to need more than 2,700 Gt of CO2 storage resource globally, much less than the 10,000 Gt of storage resource that leading reports suggest is possible. Our study shows that if climate change targets are not met by 2100, it won't be for a lack of carbon capture and storage space."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/journals/journal/ee">Energy &amp; Environmental Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Carbon capture and storage could meet climate goals

A new study from Imperial College London (ICL) has found...

A new study has revealed that global CO2 <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/commercial-airliners-can-help-monitor-co2-emissions/">emissions</a> dropped by 17 percent in early April as a result of limited human activities during the COVID-19 pandemic. 

An international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> found that during the peak of COVID-19 lockdown measures, daily carbon dioxide emissions dropped to levels that have not been observed since 2006. 

Compared to the average daily levels in April of last year, CO2 emissions declined by 17 million tons.

"Population confinement has led to drastic changes in energy use and CO2 emissions. These extreme decreases are likely to be temporary though, as they do not reflect structural changes in the economic, transport, or energy systems," said study lead author Professor Corinne Le Quéré.

"The extent to which world leaders consider climate change when planning their economic responses post COVID-19 will influence the global CO2 emissions paths for decades to come."

Nearly half of the decline in emissions, measured on April 7, can be attributed to reductions in vehicle, train, and ship traffic. A large decline in power generation and industrial activities accounts for 43 percent of the decrease in daily global emissions.

Among individual countries, emissions fell by an average of 26 percent. The findings suggest that social responses alone will not be enough to reach zero emissions. 

"Opportunities exist to make real, durable, changes and be more resilient to future crises, by implementing economic stimulus packages that also help meet climate targets, especially for mobility, which accounts for half the decrease in emissions during confinement," said Professor Le Quéré.

"For example in cities and suburbs, supporting walking and cycling, and the uptake of electric bikes, is far cheaper and better for well-being and air quality than building roads, and it preserves social distancing."

The impact of COVID-19 lockdowns will lower this year's overall emissions by around 4 to 7 percent compared to 2019, depending on the duration of confinement. 

If mobility and economic activity return to normal by mid-June, the decline in emissions will be around 4 percent. If some restrictions remain in place worldwide until the end of the year, the decline will be around 7 percent.

This annual drop in emissions is comparable to what is needed on a year-on-year basis over decades to achieve the climate targets of the UN Paris Agreement.

"The drop in emissions is substantial but illustrates the challenge of reaching our Paris climate commitments," said study co-author Professor Rob Jackson of Stanford University. "We need systemic change through green energy and electric cars, not temporary reductions from enforced behavior."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Global CO2 emissions drop by 17 percent during pandemic

A new study has revealed that global CO2 emissions dropped...

In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a>, experts set out to investigate the complex decision-making process of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/studies-urgently-needed-on-the-impacts-of-covid-19-in-animals/">animals</a> during shelter selection. 

When animals choose a home, they make choices based on factors such as safety and security, just like humans. Unlike humans, however, the exact reasons why animals select certain shelters are not clear.

The researchers designed a model to help unravel the mystery of what various animals prefer when seeking out a space to call home. 

Study co-first author Dr. Aneesh Bose noted that the choices animals make, especially when it comes to choosing a home, can have major implications for their livelihood.

"A shelter can serve many ecological roles, a place to rear babies, hide from predators, perform social behavior," said Dr. Bose. "But just looking at the choices animals make doesn't give us a correct answer of what they want because they are constrained by what's available to them."

It is challenging to study shelter selection in the wild because many traits in nature are linked. For example, a larger shelter like a burrow or a den could be better for rearing off-spring, but a bigger shelter entrance leaves animals more exposed to predators.

However, many animals are unable to physically modify these spaces, so it is too difficult to decipher an animal's shelter preferences in the wild.

The team used CT scanning, 3D modeling, and 3D printing to create artificial shelters with precise differences in order to reveal the traits that were most desirable to animals. 

The study was focused on a species of shell-dwelling cichlid fish from Lake Tanganyika, Africa. By scanning the snail shells that the fish use as shelters, the experts were able to create 3D models of the shells.

The models were 3D printed to create shell replicas, and then they were offered to fish in a series of experiments.

"The innovation of our study is that we have been able to 3D print a biological structure with precisely controlled dimensions, rather than using samples of real shells, which are limited in how they can be manipulated," explained study co-lead author Johannes Windorfer. "And that way we escape the confines of the natural world."

The fish showed preferences for shells with dimensions that do not typically exist in nature. They chose shells that were fully intact and either enlarged, lengthened, or had widened apertures. 

The researchers discovered that the fish were able to distinguish chirality, the direction of coiling, and always selected shells with the same chirality as those that exist in their natural habitat. 

The study revealed that some of the structural features were made a priority over others. The fish were found to prefer shell intactness over length, and shell length over entrance size.

"Our ultimate goal is to understand why animals choose the things they do, so first we have be certain we know what they choose," said study senior author Dr. Alex Jordan.

"For example, I choose my beer based on taste, and I don't really care about the bottle it comes in. But someone watching me might notice that all my favorite beers come in green bottles, and conclude I prefer green bottles."

"If we are to avoid making the same mistake in animal behavior, we need to figure out a different way. Our study shows how you can experimentally dissociate linked traits and gives us a very powerful experimental framework to explore the ultimate basis of animal decision-making."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/rspb/for-authors">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists explore the basis of animal decision-making

In a new study led by the University of Konstanz,...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/logging-intensified-the-risk-and-severity-of-australian-wildfires/">Australia</a> is often perceived as being an idle continent, but a new study suggests that the region is much more geologically active than expected. 

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/">University of Melbourne</a> have found evidence that Australian mountains are much younger than previously thought, and they are still growing. 

The experts determined that the Eastern Highlands of Victoria, including skiing destinations like Mt. Baw and Mt. Buller, only date back about 5 million years. Prior to this study, these mountains were estimated to be 90 million years old. 

John Engel is one of four experts in the School of Earth Sciences who analyzed stalagmites, stalactites, and speleothems in the nearby Buchan Caves. The analysis revealed new clues about the age and activity of the mountains.

"At least 250 meters of additional height in the East Victorian Highlands appears to have been gained in the last few million years," said Engel.

With the guidance of Parks Victoria Rangers, the scientists visited 10 caves. They collected small fragments of speleothem "rubble," which were later analyzed in the lab using radiometric U-Pb dating.

"Our research shows a clear trend between the oldest speleothem and height in the landscape," said Engel. 

"The data suggests that the Buchan region has been steadily uplifting at a rate of 76 meters every million years, beginning at least 3.5 million years ago and continuing today. This means that some speleothems have been sitting in dark caves undisturbed for 3.5 million years."

The cause of the recent uplift is not yet clear, but the researchers believe it may be explained by tectonic activity. 

"The Australian and Pacific plates share a common boundary and many of the forces involved at this boundary may be propagated into the Australian plate as tectonic stress. Some of this tectonically-induced stress is then released as uplift of the mountains in South East Australia."

"This is why East Gippsland may still feel effects related to these tectonic forces. This subtle modification of classical plate tectonic theory can help explain the frequent, small earthquakes observed along South East Australia," explained Engel.

He said that while mountains like the Himalaya and the Swiss Alps are admired for their aesthetic appeal, uncovering the secret stories surrounding when and how mountains form provides a layer of appreciation as well as an active field of research for geologists.

"Our research showcases a new - and rather unique - method for measuring the uplift of mountains," said Engel. 

"This technique of using speleothem is likely to also work in other caves across the world for regions with 'recent' tectonic activity, offering geologists great opportunities to share more stories about these impressive and unchanging features of our landscape."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology">Geology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Secrets of Australian mountains found deep in caves

Australia is often perceived as being an idle continent, but...

Researchers at the <a href="https://uiowa.edu/">University of Iowa</a> have revealed that spring rainfall stirs up microscopic particles of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-pollen-protects-bees/">pollen</a> that linger in the air for hours after rainfall subsides. 

This is an unexpected discovery, and disappointing news for allergy sufferers, because spring rains are expected to offer some relief from high pollen counts.

The experts found that tree pollen fragments remain airborne for up to 11 hours after heavy rains. The microscopic granules can enter deep into the lungs, potentially triggering an allergic reaction or respiratory effects. 

The findings are based on direct measurements of pollen fragment concentrations during and after spring rains in 2019.

"Our results show that while pollen grains decrease substantially during rain, peak concentrations of submicron pollen fragments occur during rain events and then persist for several hours," said study co-author Professor Elizabeth Stone.

"People who are sensitive to pollen in season should avoid going outdoors during rain events, especially thunderstorms, and for several hours afterward."

Pollen grains tend to rupture when exposed to humidity. The grains are pulled up to the cloud base in the storm's updraft, and then propelled back to the ground in the downdraft and falling rain.

Pollen fragments, however, are much smaller than pollen grains and do not settle as easily. While pollen grains are 20 to 100 microns in size, tiny pollen particles are less than 2.5 microns.

During the peak tree pollen season in April and May of 2019, the researchers set out to obtain direct measurements during and after various rainfall events in Iowa City, Iowa. 

The team documented pollen concentrations for a variety of weather conditions, ranging from light rains to a severe thunderstorm that produced a tornado. 

"Our study shows clearly that rain decreases intact pollen concentrations. But it can also increase pollen fragments," said Professor Stone. "The interesting thing about the pollen fragments is the really high concentrations only last for a short period of time, primarily when it's raining and during the peak of the storm."

The researchers determined that pollen fragment concentrations remained suspended in the air for anywhere from 2.5 to 11 hours after spring rainfall. The heavier the rains, they found, the longer the particles will linger. 

"People who are susceptible or have allergies to pollen in season should consider rain events and especially thunderstorms to be a potential source of allergenic particles that could have negative respiratory impacts on them," said Professor Stone. "My advice would be to stay indoors during and in the hours following rains and thunderstorms in the pollen season that they're allergic to."

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/estlcu">Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Spring rainfall is an unexpected source of pollen

Researchers at the University of Iowa have revealed that spring...

Exercise boosts blood flow to two key regions of the brain associated with memory. Experts at <a href="https://www.utsouthwestern.edu/">UT Southwestern</a> discovered this critically important process while mapping changes that occurred in the brains of older adults after one year of aerobic <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/children-exercise-more-when-parents-consider-their-interests/">exercise</a>. 

Remarkably, the study showed the exercise-induced blood flow improved cognition among older adults with memory issues. These findings have major implications for future Alzheimer's disease research.

A growing collection of studies has established a link between exercise and higher cognitive functioning, including research that suggests exercise can improve memory. 

The experts set out to understand what happens during exercise that could produce these brain health benefits. 

The team documented changes in long-term memory and cerebral blood flow in 30 participants who were at least 60 years of age and had memory problems. Half of the study participants engaged in 12 months of aerobic exercise training, while the other half were only trained in stretching.

After one year, the memory scores of the exercise group improved by 47 percent compared with minimal change in the control group.

At the beginning and end of the study, brains scans were performed on individuals in the exercise group while they were at rest.

The brain imaging revealed increased blood flow into the anterior cingulate cortex and the hippocampus, which play important roles in memory function.

Dr. Binu Thomas is a senior research scientist in Neuroimaging at UT Southwestern.

"Perhaps we can one day develop a drug or procedure that safely targets blood flow into these brain regions," said Dr. Thomas. "But we're just getting started with exploring the right combination of strategies to help prevent or delay symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. There's much more to understand about the brain and aging."

In a previous study on adults without memory issues, Dr. Thomas showed that aging athletes have better blood flow into the cortex than older adults who are sedentary. 

The new research is significant because it maps the long-term cognitive improvement in adults at a high risk of developing Alzheimer's disease.

More than 5 million Americans have Alzheimer's disease, and that number is expected to triple by 2050.

"We've shown that even when your memory starts to fade, you can still do something about it by adding aerobic exercise to your lifestyle," said Dr. Thomas.

"Cerebral blood flow is a part of the puzzle, and we need to continue piecing it together. But we've seen enough data to know that starting a fitness program can have lifelong benefits for our brains as well as our hearts."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.j-alz.com/">Journal of Alzheimer's Disease</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Exercise boosts blood flow to the brain and improves memory

Exercise boosts blood flow to two key regions of the...

The coastal regions of Antarctica are set to turn green as a result of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/experts-reconstruct-the-evolution-of-rice/">climate change</a>, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>. 

For the investigation, the researchers created a large-scale map of microscopic algae that blooms in the surface of the snow along the Antarctic Peninsula. 

The experts determined that the "green snow" will become more widespread as temperatures rise. 

Study author Dr. Matt Davey is an expert in Cambridge's Department of Plant Science.

"This is a significant advance in our understanding of land-based life on Antarctica, and how it might change in the coming years as the climate warms," said Dr. Dewey. "Snow algae are a key component of the continent's ability to capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis."

The researchers measured the green snow algae using satellite data and field observations over two summers.

The individual alga are just microscopic in size, but the blooms are so large they are visible from space. 

The green snow, which is particularly prevalent along the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, emerges in areas where average temperatures are just above zero degrees Celsius during the summer months of November to February. 

The study revealed that the excrement of marine birds and mammals serves as a natural fertilizer that fuels the growth of the algae. More than half of the blooms were located within five kilometers of a penguin colony. 

"We identified 1,679 separate blooms of green algae on the snow surface, which together covered an area of 1.9 km2, equating to a carbon sink of around 479 tons per year," said Dr. Davey. 

"As Antarctica warms, we predict the overall mass of snow algae will increase, as the spread to higher ground will significantly outweigh the loss of small island patches of algae," said study lead author Dr. Andrew Gray.

The researchers said that the total amount of carbon stored in Antarctic snow algae is likely to be much larger, considering that red and orange algae also absorb CO2 that was not measured in this study. 

The research highlights the important role that microscopic algae play in Antarctica's carbon cycle.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Climate change is turning the coast of Antarctica green

The coastal regions of Antarctica are set to turn green...

A giant armored <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rockfish-leave-chesapeake-bay-at-a-specific-length/">fish</a> that lived 380 million years ago used a feeding strategy similar to that of modern-day basking sharks, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>.

During the late Devonian period, Titanichthys was one of the largest predators in the sea. While its exact size is not clear, scientists have estimated that the fish exceeded five meters in length. Just like the basking shark today, Titanichthys had a massive jaw that was over a meter in length. 

Titanichthys lived alongside another large placoderm fish, Dunkleosteus, which had a lower jaw full of fangs and crushing plates. By contrast, the lower jaw of Titanichthys was narrow and lacked sharp edges for cutting. 

Titanichthys has been presumed to have been a suspension-feeder, which is a fish that simply opens its mouth and swims slowly to capture lots of prey. However, there is no fossilized evidence to confirm this theory.

The Bristol team set out to investigate by comparing the lower jaw of Titanichthys with those of other species. 

"We have found that Titanichthys was very likely to have been a suspension-feeder, showing that its lower jaw was considerably less mechanically robust than those of other placoderm species that fed on large or hard-shelled prey," explained study lead author Sam Coatham. "Consequently, those feeding strategies would probably have not been available for Titanichthys."

The study was focused on Titanichthys fossils found in the Moroccan part of the Sahara Desert by study co-author Christian Klug, a researcher at the University of Zurich. 

The team tested the resilience of the jaws by using a technique called Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to evaluate how likely each jaw was to break when force was applied virtually.

The researchers found that the lower jaw of Titanichthys was much less stress-resistant and much more likely to break compared to the lower jaws of other placoderm species, such as Dunkleosteus. This means that Titanichthys would have not been able to feed on larger prey.

Further analysis revealed that Titanichthys exhibited stress patterns along its jaw that are similar to those found in the suspension-feeding basking shark.

"Our methods could be extended to identify other such species in the fossil record and investigate whether there were common factors driving the evolution and extinction of these species," said Coatham.

"We suggest a link between oceanic productivity and the evolution of Titanichthys, but this should be investigated in detail in the future. An established link could have implications for our understanding of the conservation of modern suspension-feeders."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Ancient armored fish had a modern feeding strategy

A giant armored fish that lived 380 million years ago...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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