In the arid, fossil-rich landscape of Arizona’s Petrified Forest National Park, a team of paleontologists stumbled across something unexpected. The experts found the fossilized jawbone of a pterosaur that may be the oldest ever found in North America.



The discovery came from a remote site that revealed not just one remarkable creature, but a whole ecosystem preserved in stone.



The study was led by scientists from the Smithsonian’s <a href="https://www.si.edu/museums/natural-history-museum">National Museum of Natural History</a> and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/pefo/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Petrified Forest National Park</a>. The research introduces a new pterosaur species alongside more than 1,000 other fossils.



Some of these include one of the world’s oldest turtle specimens. Together, the fossils paint a vivid picture of life just before one of Earth’s biggest mass extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-before-mass-extinction">Life before mass extinction</h2>



The pterosaur fossils come from rock layers that date back to the Late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-did-not-impact-dinosaur-abundance-in-the-triassic/">Triassic</a> period. During this time, ancient amphibians and crocodile-like reptiles lived side by side with animals that would go on to shape the future of the planet, including early turtles, frogs, and flying reptiles.



“The site captures the transition to more modern terrestrial vertebrate communities, where we start seeing groups that thrive later in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/">Mesozoic</a> living alongside these older animals that don’t make it past the Triassic,” said study lead author Ben Kligman.



This glimpse into prehistoric life is especially valuable because it dates to just before the end-Triassic extinction - about 201.5 million years ago - when massive volcanic eruptions dramatically altered Earth’s climate. 



The event wiped out roughly 75% of all species, paving the way for dinosaurs to rise to dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-hidden-by-ash">Fossils hidden by ash</h2>



Direct fossil evidence from just before this extinction is hard to come by. Few fossil-rich outcrops from this time exist, but Petrified Forest National Park is one of the rare exceptions. 



Known for its colorful layers of petrified wood and Triassic fossils, the park has long been a treasure trove for paleontologists.



One rock layer, called the Owl Rock Member, has proven especially important. It’s full of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/">volcanic ash</a>, which helped scientists date it precisely to around 209 million years ago. These are some of the park’s youngest rocks - but also among its least explored.



Study co-author William Parker explained that the Owl Rock exposures are tucked away in extremely remote areas. Few teams have been able to study them in detail.



In 2011, a research group led by Kay Behrensmeyer decided to take on the challenge. Braving the rugged terrain - complete with rattlesnakes and wild horses - they went in search of mammal-like fossils. 



What they found instead was a densely packed bonebed, full of life from a vanished world.



“That’s the fun thing about paleontology: you go looking for one thing, and then you find something else that’s incredible that you weren’t expecting,” said Kligman, who started working at the site during his PhD studies in 2018.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-life-buried-by-floods">Ancient life buried by floods</h2>



Back in the Triassic, this part of Arizona was located near the equator and sat in the center of the supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/">Pangaea</a>. 



The land was semi-arid, with winding river channels and a seasonal flood cycle. One of those floods likely buried the animals that are now preserved in the bonebed.



The fossil layer was so dense with tiny remains that collecting them onsite was impossible. Instead, researchers carved out large blocks of sediment, wrapped them in plaster, and brought them back to the lab.



Many of these blocks were sent to the Smithsonian’s FossiLab, where volunteers spent thousands of hours carefully exposing the bones. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fossils-major-clues">Small fossils, major clues</h2>



The rivers teemed with fish like coelacanths and freshwater sharks. Giant amphibians - some stretching over six feet long - swam through the streams. On land, armored herbivores and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodile-like-beast-was-a-terrifying-predator/">crocodile-like predators</a> ruled.



At the same time, smaller creatures were starting to make their mark. The team identified early frogs, relatives of today’s tuataras, and a turtle with spike-like armor that could fit in a shoebox. 



The remains of a small pterosaur were also hidden among the layers - just one part of a fossil record that shows how quickly new groups were emerging and spreading across Pangaea.



“This suggests that turtles rapidly dispersed across Pangaea, which is surprising for an animal that is not very large and is likely walking at a slow pace,” said Kligman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-that-perched-like-a-bird">Pterosaur that perched like a bird</h2>



One of the most exciting finds was a jawbone with teeth still in place. It belonged to a small pterosaur, one of the first vertebrates capable of powered flight. This early flier could have perched on a person’s shoulder.



The pterosaur fossil was uncovered by Suzanne McIntire, a volunteer who spent 18 years working in the FossiLab.



“What was exciting about uncovering this specimen was that the teeth were still in the bone, so I knew the animal would be much easier to identify,” McIntire said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pterosaur_Eotephradactylus-mcintireae_Arizona_illustration_credit-Brian-Engh_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pterosaur_Eotephradactylus-mcintireae_Arizona_illustration_credit-Brian-Engh_1s.webp" alt="An artist's reconstruction of the fossilized landscape, plants and animals found preserved in a remote bonebed in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. The newly described pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae is seen eating an ancient ray-finned fish alongside an early species of turtle and an early frog species, with the skeleton of an armored crocodile relative lying on the ground and a palm-like plant growing in the background. Credit: Brian Engh" class="wp-image-1977432"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An artist's reconstruction of the fossilized landscape, plants and animals found preserved in a remote bonebed in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. The newly described pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae is seen eating an ancient ray-finned fish alongside an early species of turtle and an early frog species, with the skeleton of an armored crocodile relative lying on the ground and a palm-like plant growing in the background. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Brian Engh</figcaption></figure>



The wear on the teeth gave scientists a clue about the pterosaur’s diet. It likely fed on armored fish that were common in the area. 



The new species was named Eotephradactylus mcintireae, which translates to “ash-winged dawn goddess." This title honors McIntire, who retired last year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-a-pterosaur">What exactly is a pterosaur?</h2>



Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that existed during the time of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaurs</a>. They were the first animals with backbones to evolve powered flight, well before birds or bats came on the scene.



Powered by skin stretched across an extended fourth finger, they ranged in size and shape from something no larger than a crow to giants with wings up to 30 feet or more.



Pterosaurs were not dinosaurs. They formed their own group of reptiles and possessed special adaptations for flight. Some flew above coastlines, while others preyed on fish or small land animals inland.



The new fossil contributes to what is known about those early birds and how they expanded around the globe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2505513122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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North America's oldest known pterosaur discovered in a petrified forest

In the arid, fossil-rich landscape of Arizona’s Petrified Forest National Park, a team of paleontologists stumbled across something unexpected. The experts found the fossilized jawbone of a pterosaur that may be the oldest ever found in North America. The discovery came from a remote site that revealed not just one remarkable creature, but a whole ecosystem preserved in stone. The study was led by scientists from the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History and Petrified Forest National Park. The research introduces a new pterosaur species alongside more...

When people think of mass extinctions, the first that may come to mind is the die-off of most of the dinosaurs. But more than 2 billion years ago, an event scientists are calling the “mass dying” nearly wiped out life on Earth entirely. More than 70% of living species vanished.

Now, a chemical study of ancient rocks from Canada’s Hudson Bay is giving researchers some insight into how the previously unknown mass dying occurred. 

Led by doctoral candidate Malcolm Hodgskiss of <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> and Dr. Peter Crockford of the <a href="https://weizmann.ac.il/">Weizmann Institute of Science</a>, the researchers studied barite, a sulfite mineral that contains a natural record of oxygen levels in the atmosphere. By looking at that oxygen record and sulphur and barium isotopes in the mineral, the researchers gained some insights about the mass dying. 

About 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago, according to that sulfite record, oxygen levels shot up in what is called the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-oxygen-boring-billion/">Great Oxidation Event</a>. The vast new supply of oxygen led to an explosion of life – not large animals like today, but mainly microorganisms. Then, about 2.05 billion years ago, three quarters of that minuscule life vanished in the mass dying.

"This shows that even when biology on Earth is comprised entirely of microbes, you can still have what could be considered an enormous die-off event that otherwise is not recorded in the fossil record," Hodgskiss said in a press release.

The researchers had hoped that the barite would give them some insight into life 2 billion years ago. They weren’t expecting to find evidence of the mass dying.

"The fact that this geochemical signature was preserved was very surprising," Hodgskiss said. "What was especially unusual about these barites is that they clearly had a complex history."

The discovery of the mass dying adds evidence to a theory known as oxygen overshoot. According to the theory, microorganisms added oxygen to Earth’s atmosphere through photosynthesis. As microorganism levels grew, more oxygen was produced – but eventually, the tiny creatures outgrew their resources and their numbers collapsed. 

Hodgskiss and Crockford were aided by researchers from <a href="https://www.nju.edu.cn/EN">Nanjing University</a>, the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado-Boulder</a> and the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>. The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1900325116">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 

Funding was provided by the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/polar-knowledge/fundingforresearchers/northern-scientific-training-program.html">Northern Scientific Training Program</a>, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/">National Geographic</a>, <a href="https://www.geosociety.org/">Geological Society of America</a>, the <a href="http://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/index_eng.asp">Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada</a>, the <a href="https://agi.org/">Agouron Institute</a>, the <a href="https://www.amphilsoc.org/">American Philosophical Society</a>, and through Stanford University’s McGee and Compton Grants.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Dr. Malcolm Hodgskiss, Stanford University

More than 2 billions years ago, 'mass dying' almost snuffed out life on Earth

When people think of mass extinctions, the first that may...

“Greater scientific understanding of animals has and undeniably will continue to raise some of the most important questions for us today regarding the scope and nature of morality,” says Peter Woodford, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.union.edu/">Union College</a> and coauthor of a new paper published in <a href="https://www.aibs.org/bioscience/">BioScience</a>. 

The new paper is an effort by an interdisciplinary group of scientists and scholars who are currently urging animal behavior scientists to increase their involvement in the animal ethics conversation.

“While it is commonplace for animal behavior scientists to emphasize the conservation implications of their work, other broader impacts related to the moral standing of animals are emphasized relatively less in their public outreach,” explains coauthor Christine Webb, an animal behavior scientist at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>. “However, scientists have a social responsibility to proactively engage with the ethical debates that are informed by their evidence.”

Today, the moral status of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/working-with-animals-mental-health/">animals</a> is becoming an increasingly visible topic within both developed and developing nations. It has spurred change in the academic, political, and legal fields as research and further insight gives us a better understanding of our responsibilities for how we represent and understand nature. 

Despite this, fields such as animal behavior science have been less integrated in this paradigm shift, despite the growing evidence that has been linked with animal ethics arguments.

The authors state that a greater integration between animal ethics and behavior communities may be valuable for both ethical and pragmatic reasons. 

Elise Huchard, a behavioral ecologist at the <a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/university-of-montpellier">University of Montpellier/CNRS</a> adds that further integrating science and philosophy “may encourage scientists to embark on new research about the nature of animal minds, question the anthropocentric legacy of behavioral studies, and enrich other aspects of their scientific practices through a more careful consideration of animal interests and subjectivity.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Mark Whiten

Scientists call for increased focus on animal ethics

“Greater scientific understanding of animals has and undeniably will continue...

Massive wildfires are the new normal. 

Whether they’re deliberately set – like the flames burning through the Amazon rainforest – or sparked by accident or natural events like lightning strikes, enormous wildfires have become a part of yearly life. 

In 2018, four wildfires in California burned more than 930,000 acres combined, destroyed more than 20,000 structures and killed 100 people. Most of that destruction was from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/camp-fire-is-the-most-destructive-in-californias-history/">Camp Fire</a> that ripped through Paradise and surrounding towns so quickly that residents had no chance to flee. California wasn’t alone; fires burned throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-burning-two-million-acres/">western U.S.</a>

In British Columbia, more than 3.3 million acres burned. That beat the 3 million acres that burned in that province in 2017.

In 2017, 44 people were killed and more than 8,000 structures burned in California’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-california-wine-country/">North Bay fires</a>. A blaze in Montana spread to 1.2 million acres before early rain and snow in September contained it. Oregon saw <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Oregon_wildfires">more than 1,000 fires</a> in 2017.

Kansas saw the largest fire in its history in 2016 – the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/grass-fires-char-kansas-and-oklahoma/">Anderson Creek Fire</a>, which also burned in Oklahoma. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/enormous-wildfire-in-fort-mcmurray/">Fort McMurray Fire</a> in Canada was the costliest disaster in the country’s history, with nearly 100,000 people evacuated. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tennessee-wildfires-threaten-dollywood/">Great Smoky Mountains wildfires</a> in Tennessee killed 14 people, the deadliest wildfires in the eastern U.S. since 1947. 

North America isn’t the only region seeing an increase in massive wildfires. Fires are raging out of control in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-fires-devastating-impacts/">Brazilian Amazon</a> and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-environment-wildfire/indonesian-police-investigate-palm-oil-companies-over-forest-fires-ministry-idUSKCN1VJ1BS">across Indonesia</a> – in both cases, believed to be deliberately set by growers seeking to clear land for farming – and across <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/nasa-images-show-africa-has-five-times-more-wildfires-burning-amazonheres-why-theyre-1456382">Africa</a> and in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Siberia_wildfires">Siberia</a>, <a href="https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/2019/08/30/firefighters-make-progress-as-swan-lake-fire-grows-to-nearly-162000-acres/">Alaska</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Canary_Islands_wildfires">Canary Islands</a>. <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2019/04/responders-quickly-extinguish-one-of-koreas-largest-wildfires/">South Korea</a> saw one of the most massive wildfires in its history in April, and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_wildfires">United Kingdom</a> saw a remarkably early series of fires this spring.

Fires killed more than 100 people in Portugal and Spain in 2017 – <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_2017_Portugal_wildfires">66 in June</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_2017_Iberian_wildfires">49 in October</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Attica_wildfires">2018 Attica wildfires</a> killed 102 in Greece.

Some scientists are linking the massive wildfires to climate change – and they’re only going to get worse, they say.

"A new normal makes it sound like we've arrived in a new position and that's where we're going to be," Dr. Michael Mann of <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State University</a> told <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/are-devastating-wildfires-a-new-normal-its-actually-worse-than-that-climate-scientist-says/">CBS News</a> last year. "But if we continue to burn fossil fuels and put carbon pollution into the atmosphere, we are going to continue to warm the surface of the Earth. We're going to get worse and worse droughts and heat waves and superstorms and floods and wildfires."

Several scientists told <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2019/08/21/wildfires-july-hottest-month-ever-fires-rage-across-globe/2070418001/">USA Today</a> that they believed rising global temperatures – and the accompanying drought and other extreme weather – are linked to the current raging fires around the world. 

“In these conditions, it is easier for wildfires to grow and to be more long-lived,” Dr. Mark Parrington, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/">European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</a>, told USA Today.

The number of wildfires in the Amazon has actually been down in recent years, but the current fires quickly raged out of control, he said.

Worldwide, the number of acres burned each year is actually <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/90493/researchers-detect-a-global-drop-in-fires">on the decline</a>, in part due to the development of previously wild lands removing opportunities for slash and burn agriculture. But fires are popping up at unusual times – like February in the UK – and in unusual places, like the Arctic. And when they do rage out of control, they are breaking records for size and destructiveness. 

“This year has been unprecedented for wildfires in the Arctic,” Dr. Carly Phillips of the <a href="https://whrc.org/">Woods Hole Research Centre</a> told the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24332452-800-the-pyrocene-has-begun-how-to-tackle-a-world-of-raging-wildfires/">New Scientist</a>. 

A record amount of carbon dioxide has been released in the Arctic this year, especially in Russia, the <a href="https://atmosphere.copernicus.eu/">Copernicus Atmospheric Monitoring Service</a> reports.

And that’s worrisome because the Arctic is essentially a giant, frozen tinderbox. The frozen part has been key in the past. Fires just didn’t take off there. But if the area melts and dries out a bit, it could go up in smoke. 

“The north is a big tinder box, but it’s been limited from burning by the climate,” Dr. Merritt Turetsky of the <a href="https://www.uoguelph.ca/">University of Guelph</a> told the New Scientist. “If you remove those climatic constraints, all those fuels are ready to go.”

The effects that all that smoke, soot and released carbon could have globally isn’t known yet. But scientists are hoping that world governments and their fire agencies will work together to protect not just people and property from massive wildfires, but areas with “old carbon” such as the Arctic. If they don’t, scientists say, the effects on the climate could be devastating.

“What happens in the Arctic doesn’t stay in the Arctic. Pollution can carry thousands of miles away,” Elizabeth Hoy at <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> said.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Massive wildfires are flaring up all over the world

Massive wildfires are the new normal.  Whether they’re deliberately set...

A team of engineers and psychologists at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> explored what factors affect how human touch perceives softness and designed materials that replicate different levels of this perceived feeling. 

In doing so, the team proved that it’s possible to design tactile materials and haptic interfaces to apply to technologies such as electronic skin, prosthetics, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/robotic-exosuit-walking-running/">medical robots</a>.

"We provide a formula to recreate a spectrum of softness,” said co-leader Charles Dhong, an assistant professor in biomedical engineering at the <a href="https://www.udel.edu/">University of Delaware</a> and former postdoctoral fellow at UC San Diego. “In doing so, we are helping close the gap in understanding what it takes to recreate some aspects of touch.”

To begin, Dhong and his colleagues first examined indentation depth (how deep a finger can press into a material) as well as the contact area between material and fingertip, as these are the first two parameters to change as a fingertip presses into an object. 

To test how these parameters work independently, the team engineered nine elastomeric slabs, each one of which had its own ratio of indentation depth to contact area, and differed in the amount of surface micropatterning (consisting of bunches of raised microscopic pillars that allow fingertips to press deeper without changing the contact area), thickness, and stiffness (measured by Young’s modulus). They then tested the slabs on human participants.

"By creating these micropatterned surface structures, we produce discontinuous regions of contact where the finger presses in that are much smaller than the shadow it would cast on the surface," said co-corresponding author Darren Lipomi, a professor of nanoengineering at UC San Diego.

The 15 human participants were instructed to identify the softer slab when presented with a pair of slabs. They were then asked to rank the nine slabs from softest to hardest. The slabs that were thicker, had barely any micropatterning, and had the lowest Young’s modulus were perceived as being softer than others.

Dhong, Lipomi, and colleagues were also able to create equations based on the results of their experiments. These equations can calculate how soft or hard a material will feel based on its thickness, Young’s modulus, and micropatterned areas.

"What's interesting about this is that we've found two new ways to tune the perceived softness of an object — micropatterning and changing the thickness," Dhong said. "Young's modulus is what scientists typically turn to in terms of what's soft or hard. It is a factor, but now we show that it's only one part of the equation."

After experimenting, the researchers concluded that the perception of softness is a basic sensation, not a mashup of several sensations.

"This means softness is a primary ingredient of the human sense of touch. It's like how we have RGB for color displays," Lipomi said. "If we can find the other 'pixels of touch,' can we combine them to make any tactile image we want? These are the fundamental things we would like to know going forward."

This study is published in <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/fizkes

Engineers develop materials that replicate the feeling of softness

A team of engineers and psychologists at the University of...

Ancient rodent teeth help to map out Miocene mouse migration. Raquel López-Antoñanzas, from the <a href="http://www.isem.univ-montp2.fr/fr/">Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution</a> in Montpellier, France, and colleagues unearthed fossils of a new species of prehistoric murine — the mammalian group that includes mice, rats, and their kin — in Lebanon. 

These fossils are the first physical evidence that the first dispersal of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-mouse-blood-improved-memory-learning/">mice</a> from Asia to Africa took place via the Levant.

Archaeologists believe murinae, the largest subfamily of mammals, originated in southern Asia about 16 million years ago. However, the route and timing of the first murine dispersal has remained a mystery until now.

By analyzing the fossil’s teeth, which were excavated from the Lebanese site in 2013 and 2018, López-Antoñanzas and team were able to identify them as belonging to a previously unknown species. They named the new species, similar to the oldest populations of Progonomys known, which lived about 10.5 to 11 million years ago, Progonomys manolo (P. manolo).

P. manolo may be one of the earliest representatives of Progonomys, which was the first mouse to migrate out of southern Asia. In fact, researchers believe that P. manolo is most likely responsible for spreading Progonomys populations to Africa.

During the dental analysis of various Progonomys species, researchers saw how their teeth changed throughout the course of evolution with later species showing broader molars, suggesting a switch from an omnivorous diet to a herbivorous one during the shift from the moist middle Miocene era to the dry Late Miocene.

Finding the P. manolo fossil is a huge breakthrough for those studying the migration of the Progonomys, as it’s the first piece of evidence that the genus did, in fact, move through the Arabian Peninsula, therefore the “Levantine Corridor” is as important for mammal migration as researchers have believed it to be.

This new discovery is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-47894-y">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Rudmer Zwerver

Ancient rodent teeth help to map out Miocene mouse migration

Ancient rodent teeth help to map out Miocene mouse migration....

Study finds that genes influence sexuality, but there is no ‘gay gene’. There is no single gene that determines sexual orientation, but a new study has found several genetic variations that may influence sexual behaviors. 

The large scale genome-wide association study puts to bed once and for all the idea of a “gay gene,” but shows that same-sex behavior is a part of natural human diversity. 

“In fact, this study provides further evidence that diverse sexual behavior is a natural part of overall human variation,” the <a href="https://geneticsexbehavior.info/what-we-found/">researchers explain</a>. “Our research is intended to improve our understanding of the genetic basis of same-sex sexual behavior. It should not be misconstrued to disparage LGBTQ people.”

The study was conducted by an international group of researchers in collaboration with activists and advocacy groups to help answer the question of why people differ in sexual behaviors.

DNA data from the UK Biobank, the genetic testing company 23andMe, the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, Molecular Genetic Study of Sexual Orientation, and The Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden were reviewed and analyzed for the study. 

By combining several large-scale studies, the researchers focused on what role genetics might play in shaping certain <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/same-sex-marriage-anti-gay-bias/">same-sex behaviors</a>. 

Data from 477,522 individuals were included in the research, and participants provided DNA samples as well as answers to questions on sexual identity, number of same-sex encounters, and sexual attraction. 

The researchers identified five genetic variants associated with same-sex behavior. 

“By incorporating DNA and personal information from nearly half a million people, our study is the first to include enough people to be able to link specific genetic variants and same-sex sexual behavior with demonstrable statistical confidence,” the researchers wrote. 

This is the first time such genetic markers have been identified. However, it’s important to note that the human genome is made up of millions of genetic markers, each with its own small contribution to different behaviors. 

The researchers also made sure to emphasize that the genetic variants are linked only to same-sex behaviors and that the study is not focused on identity or orientation.

While these variants were linked to same-sex behaviors, none of them clearly predicted these behaviors and only accounted for eight to 25 percent of the genetic variation in same-sex behavior for men and women. 

There are several limitations to the study, including that much of the data relied on self-reported information and that there are other non-genetic environmental factors that must be considered.

“It just shows us that same-sex sexual behavior is much more complex than this idea of having just one gene influencing it all,” Eric Vilain, director of the <a href="https://childrensnational.org/research-and-education/center-for-genetic-medicine-research">Center for Genetic Medicine Research at Children’s National Health System</a>, told the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2019/08/29/theres-no-gay-gene-genetics-are-linked-same-sex-behavior-new-study-says/">Washington Post</a>. “It shows that there are genetic factors, which we had suspected long ago … but it also shows those genetic factors do not tell the whole story.”

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/365/6456/eaat7693">Science. </a>

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/lazyllama

Study finds that genes influence sexuality, but there is no ‘gay gene’

Study finds that genes influence sexuality, but there is no...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/">University of Sheffield</a> have discovered the potential to make white sustainable paint using recycled plastic waste by mimicking the structure of the Cyphochilus beetle's scales, which contain one of the brightest whites found in nature. 

According to the researchers, the new paint would not only have a much lower carbon footprint, but could also help to tackle the challenge of recycling <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-ban-on-single-use-plastics/">single-use plastics</a>.

The brilliant white shade of the Cyphochilus beetle is not created by pigments, but by the nanostructure of its tiny scales. The team has managed to reconstruct and refine this scale structure in the lab using inexpensive materials. The technique used to recreate the nanostructure could be used to produce a sustainable alternative to titanium dioxide in white paint.

"In the natural world, whiteness is usually created by a foamy, Swiss cheese-like structure made of a solid interconnected network and air. Until now, how these structures form and develop and how they have evolved light-scattering properties has remained a mystery," said study lead author Dr. Andrew Parnell.

"Having understood these structures we were able to take plastic and structure it in the same way. Ideally, we could recycle plastic waste that would normally be burnt or sent to landfill, structure it just like the beetle scale and then use it to make super white paint. This would make paint with a much lower carbon footprint and help tackle the challenge of recycling single-use plastics."

The study revealed that the foamy structure of the beetle scales had the ideal proportion of empty spaces to optimize the scattering of light. 

Currently, nanoparticles of titanium dioxide are used in white paint because they can strongly scatter visible light. However, titanium dioxide is harmful to the environment, contributing to nearly 75 percent of white paint's carbon footprint.

"This research answers long-standing questions about how the structure inside these scales actually form and we hope these lessons from nature will help inform the future of sustainable manufacturing for paint," said study co-author Dr. Stephanie Burg.

The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/commschem">Nature Communications Chemistry</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Wuttipon

The structure of beetle scales could help scientists create sustainable paint

Scientists at the University of Sheffield have discovered the potential...

Researchers from the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> have detected brain waves similar to those found in preterm babies in lab-grown, stem cell-crafted, miniature brains, which are about a million times smaller than developed <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-brains-impulsive-behavior/">human brains</a>. 

These findings are published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-stem-cell/fulltext/S1934-5909(19)30337-6">Cell Stem Cell</a>.

"The level of neural activity we are seeing is unprecedented in vitro," said biologist Alysson Muotri, from UC San Diego. "We are one step closer to have a model that can actually generate these early stages of a sophisticated neural network."

These mini brains, called cerebral organoids, are grown from human pluripotent stem cells placed in a culture that mimics the ideal environment for brain development. The stem cells separate and organize themselves into 3D structures resembling that of a human brain. 

However, until now, none of the prior models developed functional neural networks similar to that of a human brain. These networks show up when neurons mature and interconnect, and are essential for most brain activities.

"You can use brain organoids for several things, including understand normal human neurodevelopment, disease modeling, brain evolution, drug screening, and even to inform artificial intelligence," Muotri said.

Muotri and team redesigned the procedure for growing stem cells in order to allow for neuron development. Their redesign resulted in more mature organoids that began to show bursts of brain waves at about two months old. The older they grew, the more regular the brain waves became.

[caption id="attachment_1877175" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/cross-section.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1877175" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/cross-section.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="650" /></a> Cross-section of a brain organoid, Image Credit: Muotri Lab/UCTV[/caption]

The team then trained a machine learning algorithm with recorded brain waves from several premature babies between six and nine-and-a-half months old in order to compare these brain waves to those of their organoids. 

The algorithm successfully predicted how many weeks the organoids had developed in culture, therefore suggesting that the organoids and human brain have a similar growth trajectory. But, it should be noted that these organoids are unlike human brains in that they do not have consciousness.

"The organoid is still a very rudimentary model — we don't have other brain parts and structures,” Muotri said. “So these brain waves might not have anything to do with activities in real brains. It might be that in the future, we will get something that is really close to the signals in the human brains that control behaviors, thoughts, or memory. But I don't think we have any evidence right now to say we have any of those."

The hope is that these organoids will be able to help scientists better understand neural network diseases and diagnoses like autism, epilepsy, and schizophrenia. But in order to get there, scientists may face roadblocks when it comes to the discussion of ethics.

"As a scientist, I want to get closer and closer to the human brain," Muotri said. "I want to do that because I see the good in it. I can help people with neurological conditions by giving them better treatments and better quality of life. But it's up to us to decide where the limit is. It might be that the technology is not ready yet, or we don't know how to control the technology. This is the same kind of discussion around CRISPR in babies, and that's why we have ethics committees to represent all parts of the society."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Muotri Lab/UCTV

Lab-grown miniature brains produce brain waves

Researchers from the University of California, San Diego have detected...

For the first time, researchers have identified a protein in the skin that detects cold temperatures. The study was focused on the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans. The team discovered that, without the receptor protein, the worms became completely insensitive to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/colder-temperatures-emotion-driven-purchases/">cold temperatures</a>. 

Study senior author Professor Shawn Xu is an expert at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> Life Sciences Institute. 

"Clearly, nerves in the skin can sense cold. But no one has been able to pinpoint exactly how they sense it," said Professor Xu. "Now, I think we have an answer."

Receptor proteins within the sensory nerves of the skin can detect when temperatures drop and signal information about this environmental change to the brain. The system works the same for humans as it does for the tiny, millimeter-long worm C. elegans.

"When you step outside and you sense it's too cold, you're going to take action to get back to a warmer environment as soon as you can," explained Professor Xu. "When the worms sense cold, they also engage in avoidance behavior - moving away from cold temperatures, just like humans."

Unlike complex organisms, however, C. elegans have a simple, extensively-studied genome and a short lifespan. This makes them the ideal model for investigating sensory responses.

According to Professor Xu, previous searches for a cold receptor have been unsuccessful because researchers were focusing on specific groups of genes that are related to sensation, which is a biased approach. The team in Professor Xu's lab took an unbiased approach by looking across thousands of random genetic variations to determine which affected the worms' responses to cold temperatures.

When temperatures dipped below 18 degrees Celsius, worms that were missing the glutamate receptor gene glr-3 no longer responded. This gene is responsible for making the GLR-3 receptor protein, which the researchers discovered is required for the worms to sense cold.

The study also revealed that the glr-3 gene is evolutionarily conserved across species, including humans. The researchers introduced the mammalian version of the gene to mutant worms lacking glr-3 and found that it rescued their cold sensitivity. 

The team also introduced the worm, zebrafish, mouse, and human versions of the genes to cold-insensitive mammalian cells. Every version of the gene caused the cells to become sensitive to cold temperatures.

"For all these years, attention has been focused on this gene's function in the brain. Now, we've found that it has a role in the peripheral sensory system, as well," said Professor Xu. "It's really exciting. This was one of the few remaining sensory receptors that had not yet been identified in nature."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Rido

The very first cold-sensing protein has been identified in the skin

For the first time, researchers have identified a protein in...

According to a new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.crick.ac.uk/">Francis Crick Institute</a>, healthy cells that are in the immediate vicinity of a tumor become more stem cell-like and promote the spread of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sugary-drinks-cancer/">cancer</a>.

In the lab of Ilaria Malanchi, the experts used a state-of-the-art technique which they developed to study the tissue surrounding a tumor, which is called the tumor microenvironment. This region is known to have a strong influence on the growth of cancer, as well as its response to treatment.

"Our new technique allows us to study changes to cells in the tumor microenvironment with unprecedented precision," said Malanchi. "This helps us to understand how these changes relate to tumor growth and metastasis, allowing us to develop better strategies to treat the disease."

"We discovered that non-cancerous cells in the tumor microenvironment regress back into a stem-cell like state, and actually support cancer growth. By corrupting its neighbors, cancer transforms its local environment to support its own survival."

The method used by the team is based on the modification of cancer cells to release a cell-penetrating fluorescent protein that is absorbed by neighboring cells. These color-labeled cells can be identified and compared to other "unlabeled" cells that have not made contact with the tumor. 

In mice, the researchers used this approach to study the cells around breast cancer that had spread to the lungs. It was then confirmed by Alessandro Ori's lab at the Fritz Lipmann Institute that labeled cells had produced different proteins compared to unlabeled cells.

The experts discovered that labeled lung cells developed stem cell-like features that were not observed in lung cells outside of the tumor microenvironment. When the labeled cells were mixed with tumor cells in a 3D culture in the lab, they were found to boost tumor growth, which indicates that they help the cancer survive and spread.

To further investigate the behavior of the cells, the researchers collaborated with Joo-Hyeon Lee at the Wellcome Trust/MRC Stem Cell Institute, who used the cells to grow mini-lungs.

This experiment revealed that healthy lung cells formed mini-lungs that were mostly made up of alveolar epithelial cells, which allow for gas exchange. On the other hand, the labeled cells collected from the tumor microenvironment formed mini-lungs that contained a wider range of cell types.

"To our amazement, we found that cells receiving proteins from adjacent cancer cells obtained stem-cell-like features," explained Lee. "They could change their fate to become different cell types. It demonstrates the powerful influence that cancer exerts over its neighboring cells, making them liable to change easily."

The researchers hope that their new technique will be utilized in future studies to gain further insight into the local changes triggered by cancer which help it to survive, spread, and develop resistance to treatments.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://nature.com">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/fusebulb

Cancer cells have a transformative impact on neighboring cells

According to a new study by researchers at the Francis...

The jellyfish is one of the most delicate animals on Earth. Jellyfish are 95 percent water and the thin gelatinous layers that make jellyfish so mysterious and beautiful to watch as they float in the ocean also make them incredibly difficult to study. 

What little researchers have been able to glean from jellyfish has paved the way for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-kill-toxin-genes/">several important discoveries</a>, including a protein that could help slow aging. 

The ability to study jellyfish safely without damaging or tearing their delicate dermis layer is important, but most underwater research tools that marine biologists can use are cumbersome and heavy. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> and the <a href="https://www2.cuny.edu/">City University of New York</a> have developed a new kind of ‘gripper’ that can gently capture and release jellyfish, opening up new research opportunities to study jellyfish in their native habitats. 

The gripper has six thin hollow strips made of silicone which are meant to serve as fingers. 

The strips are attached to a small rectangular “palm,” and as the strips fill with water, they curl up, exerting just enough pressure to keep a jellyfish contained in its grasp but gentle enough to ensure the jellyfish is unharmed. 

“Our ultra-gentle gripper is a clear improvement over existing deep-sea sampling devices for jellies and other soft-bodied creatures that are otherwise nearly impossible to collect intact,” said Nina Sinatra, Ph.D., the first author of the study. “This technology can also be extended to improve underwater analysis techniques and allow extensive study of the ecological and genetic features of marine organisms without taking them out of the water.”

After testing the gripper at the New England Aquarium, the device was successful in capturing jellyfish and keeping them in place until released. 

More tests revealed that the gripper could open and close around 100 times before showing any signs of wear. 

The researchers are continuing to refine the technology, but so far the gripper has promising potential is solving a major problem for marine biologists hoping to unlock the mysteries of jellyfish. 

“Marine biologists have been waiting a long time for a tool that replicates the gentleness of human hands in interacting with delicate animals like jellyfish from inaccessible environments,” said David Gruber, Ph.D., a co-author of the study. “This gripper is part of an ever-growing soft robotic toolbox that promises to make underwater species collection easier and safer, which would greatly improve the pace and quality of research on animals that have been under-studied for hundreds of years, giving us a more complete picture of the complex ecosystems that make up our oceans.”

The team published their findings in the journal Science Robotics.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/HelloRF Zcool

New gripper device allows researchers to study jellyfish safely

The jellyfish is one of the most delicate animals on...

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Burial sites offer an inside look into the lives of our ancient ancestors and provide clues into how societies formed and evolved through the ages. 

From a tomb or burial site, researchers may be able to determine how a person died, what diseases and parasites they were susceptible to, their status in society, and many other clues into the lives and social structures of early communities. 

One elaborate burial site discovered in 2016 at the Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B settlement of Ba’ja in Southern Jordan offers clues into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/families-buried-together-stone-age/">Neolithic social structures</a> and the development of hierarchies in early farming communities. 

More specifically, due to the seemingly important status of the individual buried at the site, the researchers suggest that burial sites can provide insight into early leadership and the different pathways to power for people. 

An international team of archeologists, anthropologists, and neuroscientists that are part of the Ba’ja Neolithic Project hosted at the <a href="https://www.fu-berlin.de/en/index.html">Free University of Berlin</a> conducted a thorough investigation of the gravesite and its construction. 

The burial site dates back to between 7,500 and 6,900 BC, making it around 9,000 years old. The construction was elaborate, and buried alongside the individual in the grave were exotic items which suggest that the individual was a person of status who was involved in trade.  

The close proximity of the grave to other less complicated and elaborate graves shows that even though this person was important, they were buried with people who were less prestigious.

Was this individual a leader who held power over the rest of the community or a person of excellence and prestige, set apart but still buried collectively with the rest of the community? 

With the formation of complex societies, there arose opportunities for leadership, but how exactly people rose to prominence within these early societies is not well known. 

In this case, the beads and exotic items associated with trade likely set the individual in the gravesite apart, giving him a place of status in society. 

Graves, like the one discovered at Ba’ja can help piece together the early evolution of leadership within the social contexts of a given society. 

“We suggest that leadership can be understood only by studying the social contexts and the pathways to power (not only the burials of extraordinary individuals),” the researchers said. “In fact, studying rich tombs to interpret social structures has been done before, but our new approach emphasizes the social environments of leadership.”

The researchers published their findings in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0221171">PLOS ONE</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Ana al'ain

Burial site provides clues into the social structures of early human communities

Burial sites offer an inside look into the lives of...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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