<h2>Kevlar</h2>
a trademark of para-aramid synthetic fiber, is related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. DuPont developed Kevlar in 1965 and was first commercially used in the 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Its normal form is as a rope or a sheet of fabric that can be used as an ingredient in composite material components.

It is used in bicycle tires, racing sails, and body armor due to its high tensile strength-to-weight ratio. Twaron, produced in 1978, is a similar fiber with a similar chemical structure.

Kevlar is created in a synthesized solution from the monomers 1,4-phenylene-diamine and terephthaloyl chloride in a condensation reaction yielding hydrochloric acid as a byproduct. A patent war was ensued when Akzo used the process in the creation of Twaron.

Due to the use of sulfuric acid needed to keep the water-insoluble polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning, Kevlar production is expensive. Ultraviolet light can degrade and decompose Kevlar, known as UV degradation, and is therefore rarely used outside.
<h3>-</h3>
Once Kevlar is spun it has a tensile strength of about 3,620 MPa. The strength comes from the many inter-chain bonds while additional strength comes from aromatic stacking interactions between adjacent strands. Salts and other impurities can interfere with strand interactions and caution must be taken in order to keep it out of production. The structure is a lot like silk protein in that it is a relatively rigid set of molecules that tend to form mostly planar sheet-like structures.

The lower the temperature the stronger the Kevlar is while at a higher temperature the tensile strength is immediately reduced by about 10-20%. Kevlar is used in combat helmets, ballistic face masks, and Ballistic vests. It is also used in bulletproof facemasks, emergency service’s protection gear if it involves high heat, and in Kevlar body armor such as vest for police officers, security, and SWAT. It is used to manufacture gloves, sleeves, jackets, chaps, and other clothing articles designed to protect users from cuts, abrasions, and heat.

Many times it is used as an inner lining in bicycle tires to prevent punctures and also for fire poi wicks due to its excellent heat resistance. It is used in paraglider suspension lines and as a replacement to more expensive hemp bow strings.

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What is Kevlar?

Kevlar a trademark of para-aramid synthetic fiber, is related to...

Fermium is a synthetic, radioactive metallic element. It has the symbol Fm and atomic number 100. It is an element in the actinide series. It is named after nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi. Fermium became the eighth transuranic (having an atomic number greater than 92) element discovered. It was first discovered in 1952 by a team of scientists led by Albert Ghiorso. They found fermium-255 in debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion from Operation Ivy. Fermium-255 was created when uranium-238 combined with 17 neutrons in the intense temperature and pressure of the explosion. Findings of this compound were kept secret until 1955 due to tensions from the Cold War.
Only small amounts of fermium have ever been produced and isolated. Little is known about its chemical properties. Heavier fermium isotopes can be synthesized by bombardment of lighter elements (such as uranium and plutonium). The intense neutron bombardment needed to create fermium exists in thermonuclear explosions and can be replicated at laboratories such as the
High Flux Isotope Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. There are no known uses for fermium outside of research.
Fermium has 17 known radioisotopes, with the most stable being fermium-257 with a half-life of 100.5 days. The rest have half-lives of 3 days or less, with a majority of those with half-lives less than 3 minutes. Fermium has 1 meta state. The isotopes of fermium range in atomic weight from 242.073 (fermium-242) to 259.101 (fermium-259).
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What is Fermium?

Fermium is a synthetic, radioactive metallic element. It has the...

<h2>Einsteinium</h2>
is a metallic synthetic element with the symbol Es and atomic number 99. It became the seventh transuranic (atomic number higher than 99) element produced. It was named for Albert Einstein. Es is an element found within the actinoid series which includes Actinium. Though it has only been produced in small amounts, it has been accurately determined to be silver in coloration. Like all synthetic elements, einsteinium isotopes are highly radioactive and are extremely toxic. Besides research, einsteinium has no known uses.

Einsteinium does not occur naturally. The process of creating it starts with irradiation of plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor over a period of several years. This process produces plutonium-242 in the form of plutonium oxide and is then mixed with aluminum and formed into pellets. The pellets are also irradiated for one year in a nuclear reactor, after which another 4 months of irradiation is needed in a another reactor. The total process results in a mixture of californium and Es, which can then be separated.
<h3>-</h3>
Einsteinium was first recognized by Albert Ghiorso in 1952 of UC Berkeley. He was studying debris from the first hydrogen bomb test of November 1952. He discovered isotope einsteinium-253. His findings were not made public until 1955 due to tensions from the Cold War. More isotopes were produced at UC Berkeley using nuclear fusion reaction, then later with neutron irradiation of plutonium. In 1961, about .01 micrograms of Es-253 was produced which in turn was used to produce mendelevium. Roughly 1/10 thousandths of an ounce of einsteinium was produced over a 4 year period that started from about 105 ounces of plutonium.

There are 19 known radioisotopes of Es. The most stable is einsteinium-252 with a half-life of 471.7 days. Es-254 has a half-life of 275.7 days. The remaining isotopes have half-lives of less than 40 days, with almost all of those less than 40 hours. Einsteinium also has three meta states. The isotopes range in atomic weight from 240.069 (einsteinium-240) to 258.100 (einsteinium-258).

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What is Einsteinium?

Einsteinium is a metallic synthetic element with the symbol Es...

<h2>Europium</h2>
is a chemical element with the symbol Eu and atomic number 63. It is named after the continent Europe. Eu is the most reactive of the rare earth elements. It rapidly oxidizes in air. Europium ignites in the air at around 302 degrees Fahrenheit. It is quite pliable (bendable). Although it was first discovered by Paul Ãƒâ€°mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1890, it is usually credited to French chemist Eu ne-Anatole Demaray, who suspected samples of the discovered samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896, and was able to isolate europium in 1901.

Europium caused a revolution in the 1960s when it was discovered that Eu-doped yttrium red phosphor enhanced the picture in the color television industry. There also was a mad dash to obtain the limited supply of Eu on hand in monazite processors (Eu content in monazite was roughly 0.05%). Luckily, europium-rich bast site deposits (0.1% Eu content) at Mountain Pass. California contained enough of the element to sustain the industry. Prior to europium, the color-TV red phosphor was very weak. The other colors had to be muted to maintain color balance.
<h3>-</h3>
Europium is not found naturally as a free element. Many minerals are found that contain traces of europium, with the most popular minerals being monazite and bast site. Europium is also included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to help understand the process that form igneous rocks. The Eu anomaly is used to help reconstruct the relationships of compounds in igneous rocks. Europium in small amounts happens to be the activator of bright blue fluorescence in samples of fluorite. Fluorite found in Weardale, England was given its name due to the fluorescence, although it was not discovered until much later that europium was determined to be the cause of its brilliance.

Europium has been used in many commercial applications including its use to dope glass to make lasers, and for screening for Down Syndrome and other genetic diseases. So it is being studied as a possible use in nuclear reactors. It is used for its red phosphor in color televisions, computer monitors, and fluorescent lamps. Europium is also used in the anti-counterfeiting phosphors in Euro banknotes.
<h3>-</h3>
Europium that occurs naturally is composed of 2 isotopes. Also Eu-151 and Eu-153. Eu-153 is the most abundant (52.2% natural abundance). 35 artificial radioisotopes have been also characterized, with the most stable being Eu-150 with a half-life of 36.9 years. Eu-152 has a half-life of 13.516 years, and Eu-154 has a half-life of 8.593 years. All of the remaining isotopes have half-lives of less then 4.8 years and most of those have half-lives of less than 12.2 seconds. Europium has 8 meta states.

The toxicity of Eu and its compounds is not fully understood, but there are no indications that it is highly toxic compared to other heavy metals. Eu metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard. Europium has no known biological role.

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What is Europium?

Europium is a chemical element with the symbol Eu and...

<h2>Curium</h2>
is a synthetic radioactive chemical element with the symbol Cm and atomic number 96. This transuranic (atomic number greater than 92) element of the actinide series is produced by bombarding plutonium with helium ions. Curium does not occur naturally. A few commercial applications utilize the production of Cm, but someday it may be useful in other areas including radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Curium is silvery-white in color and is chemically reactive. It was named for Marie Curie and her husband Pierre.

Curium was first synthesized in 1944 at UC Berkeley by a team of scientists. Its chemical qualities were identified at the University of Chicago. It was the third transuranic element to be discovered even though it is fourth in the actinoid series. The discovery of both Cm and americium were kept confidential due to the fact they were closely related to the Manhattan Project. The discoveries were first published on a radio show for kids, before they were officially presented on November 11, 1945 by the American Chemical Society. Curium was first produced in its elemental form in 1951.
<h3>-</h3>
Curium’s potential as a fuel for radioisotope thermoelectric generators has been significantly studied. The isotope Cm-242 can generate up to 120 watts of thermal energy per gram. However, because of its short half-life, the desirability to use Cm-242 on a large scale as a power source is questionable. Cm-243 has a half-life of 30 years and even though it cannot produce as much wattage as Cm-242, ii is possible that it could make an ideal fuel. Its only drawback is that it produces large amounts of gamma and beta radioactive emissions.

There are 19 known radioisotopes of Cm. The most stable is Cm-247 with a half-life of 1.56 x 107
years. Cm-248 has half-life of 3.40 x 105 years. Cm-250 – 9000 years and Cm-245 – 8500 years. The remaining isotopes have half-lives of less than 30 years, and most of these under 33 days. Curium has four meta states. The isotopes of curium range in atomic weight from 233.051 u (Curium-233) to 252.085 u (Curium-252).

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What is Curium?

Curium is a synthetic radioactive chemical element with the symbol...

<h2>Actinium</h2>
is a radioactive chemical element. The symbol for Actinium is Ac and the atomic number is 89. Actinium was discovered in 1899 by French chemist André-Louis Debierne. It was the first non-primordial radioactive element to be isolated. Ac is amongst a group of 15 similar elements within the periodic table that make up the actinoid series. This substance was also independently discovered by Friedrich Oskar Giesel in 1902 and named it emanium in 1904. In 1904 he named it emanium. After comparisons were made, Debierne’s name actinium was retained because of seniority. The name actinium is derived from the Greek “aktis” or “aktinos”, meaning ray or beam.

Actinium is a silvery, metallic element. It is also extremely radioactive and glows in the dark with a pale bluish hue. Ac is similar in chemical behavior to the rare lanthanum element. It is difficult to distinguish Ac from other similar rare earth elements. Ion chromatography and solvent extraction was used for separation of this element. There are only a few known compounds of actinium. AcF3, AcCl3, AcBr3, AcOF, AcOCl, AcOBr, Ac2S3, Ac2O3 and AcPO4 are all similar to lanthanum compounds and these compounds are generally found in the oxidation state of +3.
<h3>-</h3>
Actinium in the natural state is composed of 1 radioactive isotope, Ac-227. Ac227 has a half-life (the time it takes for one half of the atoms of a given radioactive substance to decay or disintegrate) of 21.772 years. There are 36 other radioisotopes found in Ac, most having half-lives of less than a minute. The atomic weight of isotopes in actinium range from 206 u (Ac-206) to 236 u (Ac-236).

Actinium is also found in uranium ore in minute amounts. Actinium metal has been produced by reducing Ac fluoride using lithium vapors at temperatures between 2012 and 2372 degrees Fahrenheit. Ac is about 150 times more radioactive than radium. So this radioactivity makes it a valuable source for energy. Ac-225 is used in medicine and is common in radio-immunotherapy for TAT (Targeted Alpha Therapy).

Ac-227 is extremely radioactive and is considerably far more dangerous than plutonium. Ingesting even tiny amounts would be fatal.

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What is Actinium?

Actinium is a radioactive chemical element. The symbol for Actinium...

<h2>Aluminum</h2>
(or aluminium) is a soft, lightweight, silvery metal. It is an element in the boron group on the periodic table of elements, with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. On the earth’s crust, aluminium is the most abundant metal, and the third most abundant of all elements on the earth’s crust, after oxygen and silicon. It accounts for 8% of the weight of the Earth’s solid surface.
Because aluminium is a highly reactive metal, it doesn’t occur in nature in a pure form. Aluminum forms a high-energy chemical bond with oxygen, so pure aluminium can only be found in environments that lack abundant oxygen. On the Earth’s crust, aluminium is found in over 270 minerals, the most common of which is bauxite ore. Since it is so reactive, aluminium is useful as a catalyst or additive in chemical mixtures.

One of aluminium’s special properties is that it is able to resist corrosion. This is because a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide forms when the metal is exposed to air; this layer prevents the additional oxidation that would otherwise cause rust.
<h3>-</h3>
Aluminum is a good thermal and electrical conductor. It is a lightweight metal, having about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is ductile and malleable, which means it can be easily machined, cast, and extruded. Under normal circumstances, aluminiumis not soluble in water or alcohol. Aluminum also has a high reflectance, making it useful for mirrors. In addition, because aluminium retains its full silvery reflectance in powdered form, it is often used for silver paints.

Aluminum easily forms alloys with elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese and silicon. Today, many metal materials that are referred to as “aluminum” are actually alloys. Aluminum foil, for example, is usually an alloy of 92% to 99% aluminum. Because of their high strength-to-weight ratio, aluminum alloys are important for the aerospace industry and other areas of transportation and building.

Aluminum has nine isotopes, though only two of them occur naturally. Aluminum isotopes are useful in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites.
Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth’s crust, have aluminum as one of their important components. Aluminum also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel and turquoise. In addition, the metal plays an important role in the formation of certain gemstones. Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium or cobalt, cause the formations of rubies and sapphires. Pure Al2O3, known as Corundum, is one of the hardest materials known.
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Almost all metallic aluminum is produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3-2x). There are large deposits of bauxite in Australia, Brazil, Guinea and Jamaica, but most of the ore mined today comes from Ghana, Indonesia, Jamaica, Russia and Surinam. In order to extract the aluminum, an energy-intensive process called smelting is necessary. Compared to most other metals, aluminum is difficult to extract from ore, because of the high energy needed to reduce aluminum oxide.

Historically, aluminum was once considered a precious metal. In fact, Napoleon III is rumored to have given a banquet where his most honored guests were given aluminum utensils. In the nineteenth century, aluminum was as expensive as silver. The Washington Monument, dedicated in 1884, has a 100-ounce aluminum capstone, which at the time was the largest single piece of aluminium cast.

Major efforts to recycle aluminium began in the late 1960s, when the aluminium beverage cans became extremely popular. Aluminum is 100% recyclable, and today recovering the metal through recycling is important in the aluminium industry. In order to recycle aluminium, the scrap must be melted. This requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminum from ore, although up to 15% of the input material is lost as dross (an ash-like oxide).
<h3>-</h3>
Aluminum is the most widely used metal after iron, with global production at 31.9 million tones in 2005. Some of the uses for aluminium metal include transportation (bikes, cars, planes), packaging (cans, foil, etc.), construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.), cooking utensils, street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, and photographic equipment.

The metal was first produced in 1825 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He produced an impure form of the metal by reacting anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. However, Friedrich WÃƒÂ¶hler is usually given credit for isolating aluminium. He conducted a similar experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium to yield aluminium.

What Is Aluminum?

Aluminum (or aluminium) is a soft, lightweight, silvery metal. It...

82240203 - americium element symbol on hexagonal black icon

<h2>Americium</h2>
is a synthetic radioactive metallic element. The symbol for Americium is Am and the atomic number is 95. It is an actinide that was first isolated by Glenn T. Seaborg in 1944 while attacking plutonium with neutrons. It became the fourth transuranic (having an atomic number greater than 92) element to be discovered. It was named for the Americas. Am is widely used in commercial smoke-detectors and different types of industrial gauges.

Americium in its pure state has a silvery/white luster. In a dry area at room temperature it begins to slowly tarnish. In air it becomes AmO (Am-oxide). When it reacts with hydrogen it becomes AmH2. Unlike uranium, Am is hard to oxidize above the +3 oxidation state when in a liquid solution. However difficult, it still can be oxidized into +4 compounds. Americium is more silvery than plutonium and more pliable than uranium. It is not considered a weapons grade material as its critical mass is much larger than more readily obtainable plutonium or uranium.

There are eighteen radioisotopes found in Am. The most stable is Am-243 with a half-life (the time it takes for one half of the atoms of a given radioactive substance to decay or disintegrate) of 7,370 years. Am-241 has a half-life of 432.2 years. All other radioactive isotopes found in Am have a half-life less than 51 hours. Am also has 8 meta states. Americium’s isotopes range in atomic weight from 231.046 (Am231) to 249.078 (Americium-249).
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Americium has several uses and is the only synthetic element to be used in household devices, mostly smoke detectors as Am-241. The amount of americium found in a new smoke detector is 9 billionths of 1 ounce or 0.28 micrograms. This amount decreases over time as the americium decays into neptunium. The americium in smoke detectors contain about 3% neptunium after 19 years, and 5% after 32 years. Americium-241 is also used in the medical and industrial field.

Gamma ray emissions from Am-241 can be used in radiography analysis and for quality control in manufacturing industrial gauges. These gamma ray emissions have also been used to provide accurate diagnosis of thyroid function. Am-241 can be combined with beryllium or lithium for other uses. 241AmBe is used in moisture/density gauges for quality control in highway construction. Other uses for americium include logging applications, nuclear propulsion and possibly as a neutralizing agent in plutonium reactor fuel rods to make the fuel unusable for nuclear weapons.

Americium emits both alpha and gamma radiation. Alpha decay is three times as active as the decay of radium. This substance is considered a serious health hazard.

What is Americium?

Americium is a synthetic radioactive metallic element. The symbol for...

81352516 - astatine from periodic table

<h2>Astatine</h2>
is a radioactive chemical element. The symbol for Astatine is At and its atomic number is 85. At is the heaviest halogen discovered. It was first produced by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross Mackenzie, and Emilio Segrè in 1940. Although At is produced by radioactive decay in nature, it is typically found only in miniscule amounts due to its short half-life (the time it takes for one half of the atoms of a given radioactive substance to decay or disintegrate). Trace amounts are also found in natural minerals. Astatine is currently Earth’s rarest element (only one ounce is contained within the entire planet’s crust).

Astatine has been confirmed to behave chemically similar to that of other halogens, including iodine. It is believed that this highly radioactive element might accumulate in the thyroid gland like iodine. Astatine is thought to be more metallic than iodine. Researchers at the Brookhaven National Laboratory have performed experiments measuring reactions involving astatine; however, this research is very limited as astatine is extremely rare (which is a consequence of its extremely short half-life). Its most stable isotope has a half-life of 8.3 hours. Astatine reacts with other elements such as sodium and hydrogen (forms hydrogen astatide). At is far less reactive than iodine, and is the least reactive of all the halogens.
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Astatine comes from the Greek word astatos, meaning “unstable”. Scientists tried finding the element that followed iodine in the halogen group of the periodic table for a long time. The unknown substance was called Eka-iodine before its discovery in 1931 at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (Auburn University). Its discovery led to the elemental name alabamine (Ab) for a few years. This discovery was later determined to be a mistake. The name Dakin was proposed for this element in 1937 and also Helvetium when a Swiss chemist discovered element 85 in 1940. Not until three years later would the element become known as astatine.

As astatine is recognized as the rarest element on the planet by the Guinness Book of World Records. At any given time there is less than one ounce of At within Earth’s crust, due to its relatively short half-life. Astatine is produced by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles. Once the longer lived At-209 – At-211 compounds are obtained, it is distilled by heating it in the presence of air.

Astatine is typically synthesized in microscopic amounts and studied intensively before it reaches its inevitable radioactive disintegration. Concentrated amounts of astatine compounds are normally diluted with large amounts of iodine, which acts as a carrier, to provide sufficient material for laboratory testing. These compounds are being studied for potential use in nuclear medicines. Astatine may form ionic bonds with other elements such as sodium. Astatine also reacts with hydrogen and forms hydrogen astatide (HAt). When this form dissolves in water, it forms hydroastatic acid.
<h3>-</h3>
Astatine has 33 isotopes, all of which are radioactive. The range of their mass is from At-191 to At-223. It also occurs in 23 meta-stable states. The shortest lived known isotope in astatine is At-213, with a half-life of 125 nanoseconds. The shorter lived isotopes have no practical uses, but the heavier compounds have some medical uses. At-211 is used in radiation therapy. In the treatment of tumors in humans, scientific studies have shown that alpha-emitting radiocolloid can be effective without causing toxicity to normal tissue. By comparison, beta-emitting colloids do not prevent the growth of malignant cells. These results have tremendous implications for the development and use of alpha-emitters for the treatment of cancerous tumors.

Since astatine is radioactive, it should be handled carefully. But because of its extreme rarity, it is very unlikely the general public will ever be exposed. Astatine is a halogen, and precautions are necessary. Although it is reactive, it shares similar chemical qualities with iodine.

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What is Astatine?

Astatine is a radioactive chemical element. The symbol for Astatine...

82240205 - berkelium element symbol on hexagonal black icon

<h2>Berkelium</h2>
is a synthetic radioactive metallic element. It has the symbol Bk and the atomic number 97. It is also an actinoid found in the actinide series (which includes actinium). Berkelium was first synthesized by bombarding americium with helium ions. It was named after the University of California, Berkeley. This was the fifth transuranic element to be synthesized. This silvery metal easily oxidizes in air at elevated temperatures and is readily dissolvable in mineral acids.

Berkelium was first produced by Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso, Stanley G. Thompson, and Kenneth Street at UC Berkeley in December 1949. The first time Bk was produced in a pure visible amount was in 1958. This element and its compounds have literally no uses outside of basic research and also has no biological role.
There are also 19 known radioisotopes of berkelium. The most stable is Bk-247 with a half-life of 1380 years. While the other fairly stable isotopes are Bk-248 (half-life 9 years) and Bk-249 (half-life 330 days). All the other radioactive isotopes have a half-life of less than 5 days, and the majority of them less than 5 hours. Berkelium has two meta states. The isotopes range in atomic weight from 235.057 (Bk-235) to 254.091 (Bk-254).
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Bk-249 is also the most widely used isotope of berkelium produced in large quantities in nuclear reactors. The production of Bk-249 requires 11 successive neutron captures on uranium-238 without any nuclear fission or alpha-decay. Because of this, Bk-249 can only be produced in small amounts at a time. Berkelium-249 is quickly transformed into Bk-250 if is remains inactive in a thermal reactor. It will then decay into californium-250 or curium-245.

Berkelium accumulates in the skeletal system and the radiation from it can cause red blood cell damage. The maximum amount of berkelium the average human can live with in their skeletal system is 0.4 nanograms or 4 billionths of a gram (less than 1 trillionth of an ounce).

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What is Berkelium?

Berkelium is a synthetic radioactive metallic element. It has the...

82240207 - californium element symbol on hexagonal black icon

<h2>Californium</h2>
is a metallic chemical element. It has the symbol Cf and the atomic number 98. This is a radioactive transuranic (atomic number greater than 92) element. Californium is used for starting nuclear reactors, optimizing coal power plants, the treatment of cancer, and oil drilling. It was first produced by bombarding curium with helium ions. It was first synthesized in 1950 at UC Berkeley. Californium was the 6th element found with an atomic number higher than 92. It was named after the American state of California and for UC Berkeley. Since the discovery of Californium in 1950, only 0.28 ounces of the compound Cf-252 have been produced in the USA. In 1958, the United Kingdom supplied the USA with plutonium which was used for producing the compound.

Californium also has 20 known isotopes. The most stable is Cf-251 with a half-life of 898 years. Cf-249 has a half-life of 351 years, and Cf-250 has a half-life of 13 years. The remaining isotopic compounds only have half-lives no greater than 2.7 years. Most of those only have a half-life of less than 20 minutes. The isotopes of californium range in atomic mass from 237.062 ( Cf-237) to 256.093 ( Cf-256). Although californium is not found naturally on Earth, it occurs elsewhere in the universe. Californium was included in the fallout of a United States hydrogen bomb test on November 1, 1952. Other elements that were among the fallout were plutonium and einsteinium.
<h3>-</h3>
Cf-252 is highly radioactive and very harmful. Cf-249 and most of the other isotopes of californium are produced by exposing berkelium to intense neutron radiation in a nuclear reactor. There is no biological role for californium, and few compounds have been produced and studied. Californium oxide, californium trichloride, and californium oxychloride are a few of the produced compounds.

There are some applications that readily use californium’s radioactive nature; however, due to its difficulty of being produced on a large scale, widespread use is quite rare. Some of its uses are ignition of some nuclear reactors, calibration of instrumentation, treatment of certain cancers, radiography of aircraft structures, and portable metal detectors. It is also used in neutron moisture gauges and analytical equipment in gold prospecting. The compound Cf-252 is used for detecting ground water movement. In October 2006 it was also announced that there were made attempts to produce ununoctium by bombarding Cf-249 atoms with calcium-48 ions. This became the heaviest element ever synthesized.

The compound Cf-251 has been seen as a potential use for nuclear weapons as it has very low critical mass, high lethality rate, and short period of toxicity to the environment as opposed to other radioactive elements. Some of its possible uses in weaponry are seen as inhumane and therefore may not be implemented.

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What is Californium?

Californium is a metallic chemical element. It has the symbol...

99.93%,Fine,Dysprosium,Isolated,On,White,Background

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<p>Dysprosium is a chemical element with the symbol Dy and atomic number 66. It is part of a group of elements known as the rare earth elements.</p>
<p>Despite their name, rare earth elements, including dysprosium, are quite abundant in the Earth's crust. Dysprosium is a soft, silver-colored metal that is highly magnetic and valuable for various technological applications.</p>
<h2>Where dysprosium is found</h2>
<p>Dysprosium is not found as a free element in nature. Instead, it is usually found in minerals such as xenotime and monazite.</p>
<p>These minerals contain other rare earth elements as well. To obtain dysprosium, scientists use processes like solvent extraction and ion exchange to separate it from other elements.</p>
<h2>How dysprosium is used</h2>
<h3>In technology</h3>
<p>One of the most important uses of dysprosium is in the creation of powerful permanent magnets. These magnets are essential for many modern technologies, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Wind turbines:</strong> The magnets help convert wind energy into electricity.</li>
<li><strong>Electric vehicles:</strong> Dysprosium improves the performance and efficiency of the motors.</li>
<li><strong>Smartphones and computers:</strong> The magnets are used in hard drives and other components.</li>
</ul>
<h3>In medicine</h3>
<p>Dysprosium also plays a role in medical imaging. It is used in some MRI machines (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) to enhance the quality of the images. This helps doctors see inside the human body with greater detail.</p>
<h2>Why dysprosium is important</h2>
<p>Dysprosium is an essential element in modern technology and various industries. Its unique properties make it invaluable for several high-tech applications. Here are some reasons why dysprosium is so important:</p>
<h3>High magnetic strength</h3>
<p>One of the key features of dysprosium is its high magnetic strength. This property is crucial for making powerful permanent magnets. These magnets are used in a wide range of applications, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Electric Vehicles (EVs)</strong>: Dysprosium-enhanced magnets are vital for the motors in EVs, making them more efficient and powerful.</li>
<li><strong>Wind Turbines</strong>: The magnets help convert wind energy into electricity more effectively, contributing to renewable energy solutions.</li>
<li><strong>Electronics</strong>: Dysprosium magnets are used in hard drives, speakers, and other electronic devices, enhancing their performance and reliability.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Heat resistance</h3>
<p>Dysprosium has excellent heat-resistant properties. This makes it ideal for use in high-temperature environments where other materials might fail. For instance:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Industrial Motors</strong>: Dysprosium helps maintain the performance of motors and generators that operate at high temperatures.</li>
<li><strong>Aerospace Applications</strong>: Components made with dysprosium can withstand extreme temperatures, making them suitable for use in aircraft and spacecraft.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Role in green technology</h3>
<p>As the world moves towards more sustainable energy sources, dysprosium plays a critical role in this transition. It is a key component in technologies that reduce our reliance on fossil fuels:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Wind Energy</strong>: Dysprosium is essential for the efficient operation of wind turbines, a major source of clean energy.</li>
<li><strong>Electric and Hybrid Vehicles</strong>: The efficiency of EVs and hybrids relies heavily on dysprosium-enhanced magnets, contributing to lower carbon emissions and reduced air pollution.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Enhancing medical technology</h3>
<p>Dysprosium is also important in the medical field. It is used in some advanced imaging technologies, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>MRI Machines</strong>: Dysprosium can be used in contrast agents that improve the quality of images produced by MRI machines, helping doctors diagnose and treat medical conditions more accurately.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Industrial and commercial applications</h3>
<p>Beyond technology and medicine, dysprosium has several industrial and commercial uses:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Lighting</strong>: Dysprosium is used in the production of certain types of lighting, including high-intensity discharge lamps.</li>
<li><strong>Nuclear Reactors</strong>: Dysprosium is used as a control material in nuclear reactors due to its ability to absorb neutrons.</li>
</ul>
<p>From enhancing the efficiency of electric vehicles and wind turbines to improving medical imaging and industrial applications, dysprosium plays a crucial role in advancing technology and promoting sustainability.</p>
<h2>Challenges in obtaining dysprosium</h2>
<p>Obtaining dysprosium is not straightforward due to several significant challenges. These challenges include environmental concerns, technical difficulties, and geopolitical issues.</p>
<h3>Environmental concerns</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Mining Impact</strong>: Extracting dysprosium involves mining minerals like xenotime and monazite. Mining operations can lead to habitat destruction, soil erosion, and water pollution. This environmental impact is a major concern for both local communities and global ecosystems.</li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Toxic Byproducts</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: The processes used to extract dysprosium from minerals can produce toxic byproducts. These include radioactive waste and harmful chemicals, which must be carefully managed to prevent environmental contamination.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>Technical difficulties</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Complex Extraction Process</strong>: Dysprosium is usually found mixed with other rare earth elements, making it difficult to isolate. The extraction process involves multiple steps, including crushing the ore, using acids or solvents to dissolve the minerals, and separating dysprosium through methods like solvent extraction and ion exchange.</li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Cost and Efficiency</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: The extraction and refining processes are expensive and energy-intensive. Developing more efficient and cost-effective methods is an ongoing challenge for scientists and engineers.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>Geopolitical issues</h3>
<ul>
<li><strong>Supply Concentration</strong>: The majority of rare earth elements, including dysprosium, are mined and processed in a few countries, notably China. This concentration of supply can lead to geopolitical tensions and supply chain vulnerabilities.</li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Trade Restrictions</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: Geopolitical factors can lead to trade restrictions or export controls, impacting the global availability and price of dysprosium. Countries reliant on imports for their technology industries may face shortages or increased costs.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3>Sustainable solutions</h3>
<p>To address these challenges, researchers and industry leaders are exploring several strategies:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Recycling</strong>: Developing methods to recycle dysprosium from used electronics and other products can reduce the need for new mining operations and lower the environmental impact.</li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Alternative Materials</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: Scientists are investigating alternative materials that can replace dysprosium in certain applications, reducing dependency on this rare earth element.</span></li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Improved Mining Practices</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: Implementing more sustainable mining practices and stricter environmental regulations can help minimize the negative impacts of dysprosium extraction.</span></li>
<li><strong style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">Diversifying Supply Sources</strong><span style="font-size: revert; color: initial;">: Encouraging exploration and development of new rare earth element deposits in different parts of the world can reduce geopolitical risks and create a more stable supply chain.</span></li>
</ul>
<p>By addressing these challenges, we can ensure a more sustainable and reliable supply of dysprosium for the future, supporting the continued advancement of technology and green energy solutions.</p>
<h2>Fun facts about dysprosium</h2>
<ul>
<li>Dysprosium was discovered in 1886 by a French chemist named Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran.</li>
<li>The name "dysprosium" comes from the Greek word "dysprositos," which means "hard to get."</li>
<li>Dysprosium is often mixed with other elements to create special materials, like terfenol-D, used in sensors and actuators.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Dysprosium and the future of technology</h2>
<p>In summary, dysprosium is a fascinating element that plays a vital role in our modern world. From powering green energy solutions to enhancing medical technology, its unique properties make it a key player in advancing technology and improving our lives.</p>
<p>By understanding and managing its extraction and use, we can continue to benefit from this remarkable rare earth elements.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>


<p>-----</p>



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What is Dysprosium?

Dysprosium is a chemical element with the symbol Dy and...

74053530 - erbium element symbol

<h2>Erbium</h2>
is a chemical element with the symbol Er and atomic number 68. Erbium is a rare, silvery-white metallic lanthanide (an element having an atomic number between 57 and 71). It is found solid in its natural state and is commonly found with several other elements in the mineral gadolinite. It is found in Ytterby, Sweden. Erbium was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843. Mosander separated yttria from gadolinite into three compounds he called erbia, terbia, and yttria. Erbia and terbia, however, were confused at that time. After 1860, terbia was renamed erbia, then after 1877 what was known as erbia, was renamed terbia. Erbium-oxide was isolated in 1905, and pure Er metal wasn’t produced until 1934. It wasn’t until the 1990s that Er-oxide would be cheap enough to be used as a colorant in art glass.

Erbium is never found as a free Earth element in nature. It is found bound to monazite sand ores. It was historically difficult to separate rare earth metals from one another until the invention of ion exchange techniques in the 1950s. This made it also cheaper to produce pure metals and their compounds. The principal sources of Er come from the minerals xenotime, euxenite, and gadolinite. It has also been found recently in the clays of southern China. Two-thirds of the ore produced in China, though, is yttrium. Only about 5% is erbia. The total concentration of Er found in the Earth’s crust is less than one ounce per ton of earth
Erbium in its pure state is pliable (easily shaped).
<h3>-</h3>
It is very soft, yet stable in air. It does not oxidize as quickly as other rare-earth metals. The salts of Er are rose colored. The oxidized state of Er is called erbia. Erbium doesn’t have any known biological roles although it does stimulate metabolism. Erbium can be used as an optical medium, or for lasers and optical amplifiers. Er is ferromagnetic (highly magnetic to various alloys) below -425 degrees Fahrenheit. Between -425 and -315 degrees Fahrenheit it becomes antiferromagnetic (atoms point in opposite directions), and at temperatures above -315 degrees Fahrenheit, Er becomes paramagnetic (less magnetic than ferromagnetic).

Naturally occurring erbium has 6 known stable isotopes. Er-166 is the most abundant (33% natural abundance). It has 29 radioisotopes with the most stable being Er-169 with a half-life of 9.4 days. The rest have half-lives less than 50 hours, with most having half-lives less than 4 hours. The majority of theses have half-lives less than 4 minutes. Er has 13 meta states. The isotopes of Er range in atomic mass from 142.9663 to 176.9541.
<h3>-</h3>
Erbium is used in several applications. It is commonly used as a photographic filter, and a metallurgical additive. It is used in nuclear technology as a nuclear poison. Er is commonly used in its erbia state as a colorant for glass, cubic zirconia, and porcelain. It is also used in sunglasses and cheap jewelry.
Er compounds have little to moderate toxicity, although their toxicity has yet to be investigated in detail. The dust form of metallic erbium presents a fire and explosion hazard.

Photo Copyright and Credit

What is Erbium?

Erbium is a chemical element with the symbol Er and...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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