Digger wasps exhibit remarkable memory skills when managing their nests. These wasps create separate burrows for each egg, storing food inside and returning after a few days to provide more. 



They can remember the locations of up to nine nests simultaneously, despite the chaotic surroundings filled with hundreds of other females' nests. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-find-inside-the-eye-of-a-tiny-wasp-megaphragma-viggianii/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> rarely make mistakes, ensuring that each offspring receives adequate nourishment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digger-wasps-manage-multiple-nests">Digger wasps manage multiple nests</h2>



Mother <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-wasp-had-a-flytrap-for-snatching-its-victims/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> feed their young in age order, adjusting the sequence if one larva dies. 



They can also delay feeding larvae that received more food during the first visit. This intricate scheduling prevents starvation and ensures all larvae get sufficient food. 



“Our findings suggest that the miniature brain of an insect is capable of remarkably sophisticated scheduling decisions,” said Professor Jeremy Field, from the&nbsp;<a href="https://ecologyconservation.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a>&nbsp;on Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“We tend to think that something so small couldn’t do something so complex. In fact, they can remember where and when they have fed their young, and what they fed them, in a way that would be taxing even to human brains.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-episodic-memory-in-wasps">Episodic memory in wasps</h2>



Humans use episodic memory to recall past actions and adjust future plans. Professor Field suggests that wasps may use a similar mechanism to remember where and when they last fed each larva. 



Although the exact process remains unknown, the study indicates that these wasps can track multiple nests, the food given, and the timing of each feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-hunting-and-feeding-strategy">Caterpillar hunting and feeding strategy</h2>



Digger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-wasp-species-named-after-famous-thieves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> hunt caterpillars on heather plants, paralyzing them before placing them in burrows with eggs. The larva consumes the caterpillar as its first meal. 



Mothers then seal the burrow entrance and leave to either start a new burrow or continue feeding existing offspring. They return after two to seven days to check on the larvae. 



If a larva is dead, the mother lays a new egg and reorders the feeding schedule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-hundreds-of-nests">Navigating hundreds of nests</h2>



Despite nesting in nearly featureless sand with hundreds of other nests, mother wasps maintain exceptional spatial awareness. 



They use visual landmarks like stones to locate their nests with impressive accuracy. The study recorded just 1.5% of 1,293 food deliveries going to the wrong nest, emphasizing the precision of their navigation skills.



The researchers also tested the wasps by swapping caterpillars as mothers prepared burrows.



Wasps given larger caterpillars waited longer before providing more food, indicating a flexible feeding strategy based on larval needs. This adaptability helps manage resources effectively and supports the survival of the young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wasp-memory-nests-and-scheduling">Wasp memory, nests, and scheduling</h2>



Professor Field noted that memory is energetically expensive, requiring neural machinery to store and process information.



While many lab-based studies explore memory in controlled settings, this study demonstrates the ecological relevance of memory in the wild, showing why natural selection may have favored these capabilities.



The researchers used various experiments to explore wasp memory and scheduling. One experiment involved replacing food items in nests, testing whether wasps adjusted feeding schedules based on food size. 



Mothers given larger prey items delayed further feeding, initiating new nests sooner. This behavior allowed them to increase reproductive output without compromising larval survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-wasps-adjust-after-losing-a-nest">How wasps adjust after losing a nest</h2>



Mothers could remember up to nine active nests and adjust feeding schedules without revisiting nests. 



However, when larvae died, mothers replaced them with new eggs, moving these nests to the back of the feeding order. This strategy minimized energy loss and prevented resource wastage.



Fieldwork at Witley Common, UK, revealed that digger wasps evolved cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/an-8-year-olds-backyard-discovery-of-ants-wasps-changed-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> to counter parasitism and food scarcity. 



Parasitic flies pose a significant threat, laying eggs on wasp larvae. To minimize exposure, mother wasps avoid revisiting nests unless parasitism risk is low. This reduces the chances of parasites accessing vulnerable offspring. 



Additionally, food scarcity prompted wasps to develop efficient nest management. By remembering up to nine nests, mothers allocate food based on larval age without resampling, conserving time and resources. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-cognitive-traits">Evolution of cognitive traits </h2>



Researchers suggest that these memory and scheduling abilities may have laid the foundation for social behaviors seen in more advanced insect lineages. 



Managing multiple offspring, tracking nest locations, and adjusting feeding schedules align with the caregiving patterns observed in social insects like ants and bees. 



The study highlights how ecological pressures can drive the evolution of complex cognitive traits even in insects with tiny brains.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00509-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Wasp moms manage multiple nests with remarkable memory

Digger wasps exhibit remarkable memory skills when managing their nests. These wasps create separate burrows for each egg, storing food inside and returning after a few days to provide more. They can remember the locations of up to nine nests simultaneously, despite the chaotic surroundings filled with hundreds of other females' nests. The wasps rarely make mistakes, ensuring that each offspring receives adequate nourishment. Digger wasps manage multiple nests Mother wasps feed their young in age order, adjusting the sequence if one larva dies. They can also...

The complex networks of trails cleared by elephant tracks are important routes used by locals, tourists, scientists, and loggers to traverse the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/many-forests-will-never-be-forests-again-after-a-wildfire/">forest</a>. Researchers at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> are describing how drawing attention to the significance of these trails may lead to the development of more effective conservation approaches to protect African elephants.

"Think of elephants as engineers of the forests," said study co-author Professor Melissa J. Remis. "Elephants shape the landscape in many ways that benefit humans. We're talking thousands of miles of trails. If we think about the loss of elephants over time, then we will see the forest structure change and human activities also would shift."

Elephants trample over thick vegetation across dense forests in the Central African Republic's Congo Basin as they move from their foraging areas to open water sources where they hydrate, bathe, and socialize. If elephants start to disappear, the forest will grow over the trails, explained the researchers.

"The fabric and way of life of local communities, and even for the industries and conservation organizations that exist in African forests, have largely been shaped by elephant landscape design," said study co-author Carolyn A. Jost Robinson. "People rely on these elephant highways, and they also are invaluable at understanding and explaining the networks."

The experts are investigating how the effects of conservation affect humans, and what role biological anthropology can play. 

"Anthropologists are very famous for critiquing conservation but not always for coming up with effective solutions," said Professor Remis. "The area of conservation is dominated by biological sciences, and you can't make change just tending to ecosystems. Conservation messages focus on flagship species, like elephants, and rarely do they consider the knowledge or needs of people relying on or living with those species. Attention on both could help further conservation and human rights issues."

In particular, the research is focused on elephant trails leading to Dzanga Saline, a famous forest clearing with a large water source in the Congo area. The first time Professor Remis visited this region was for the purpose of studying gorillas. During her fieldwork, she learned that to gain a better understanding of the gorillas, you must also learn about the forest and other wildlife from the local residents who share the land with them.

"We're broadening the conversation about conservation," said Robinson. "When you see a picture in a magazine story about ivory trafficking and elephant hunting, it is unlikely that the article will capture the entire experience of the community, as well as tourists, researchers and companies with local interests. As part of this change - whether you want to talk about climate change, forest access or wildlife protection - these relationships have evolved and taken on new shapes. We looked back on years of data and stories and realized there was a story to tell."

By consulting with the local BaAka community, the scientists can collect relevant information about interacting and living with elephants that will better inform conservation strategies.

"We want this to be a model for showing how to get additional insights when addressing how to conserve forests in better collaboration with those people who rely on them for cultural and material sustenance," said Professor Remis. 

"Being able to tell their stories and share their deep knowledge about the area, and what closing off an elephant trail or part of the forest can due to cut off access to food, medicines or social networks, is usually not part of the conservation approach. We need to hear the BaAka in their own words."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15481433">American Anthropologist</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists turn to elephant trails for a new approach to conservation

The complex networks of trails cleared by elephant tracks are...

Scientists have discovered that the population numbers of Yosemite's spotted owls remained essentially the same after a megafire that destroyed one-third of their suitable habitat. According to the researchers, the success of these owls may be due to the unique structure and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/many-forests-will-never-be-forests-again-after-a-wildfire/">fire</a> management strategy of Yosemite.

The park provides prime habitat for the California Spotted Owl, which is listed as a Species of Special Concern by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife.

In 2013, a massive wildfire known as the Rim Fire burned 256,000 acres of the Stanislaus National Forest and Yosemite National Park. A new study from the <a href="https://www.birdpop.org/">Institute for Bird Populations</a> found that California Spotted Owl numbers and nesting rates remained stable in areas of the park that were burned by the megafire. 

Between 2015 and 2017, the researchers searched Yosemite for spotted owls, locating their territories and investigating their breeding status. The team used satellite data to examine habitats in the study area, including how severely they were burned.

"What surprised me, primarily, was not that owls were still present, but they were still present in the same numbers and still successfully setting up territories and breeding," said study lead author Lynn Schofield. 

The researchers found that the owls had avoided the most severely burned areas, but still resided in territories within the fire's perimeter.

While California Spotted Owls managed to tolerate the Rim Fire, Schofield warned that not all fires are created equal. Fire suppression efforts since the 1970s have minimized fire activity in Yosemite, and the park's forests have not been commercially logged since the early 1900s, which creates a very unique forest structure.

"In Yosemite there is a diversity of forest habitat," said Schofield. "This means the Rim Fire burned with a diversity of severities creating a range of post-fire habitat for owls to choose from." 

The study authors noted that in portions of the adjacent Stanislaus National Forest that were also burned by the Rim Fire, the severity was more uniform, and this was likely due to the contrasting logging and fire management system.

High intensity "megafires" like the Rim Fire are expected to become more frequent in the Sierra Nevada, which poses one of the biggest conservation threats to the California Spotted Owl. 

The study findings indicate that Yosemite's owl population has greatly benefited from the park's fire management strategy, as well as from the diverse habitats that have been preserved here. 

"At Yosemite, restoring fire to its natural role is one of our management priorities," said study co-author Sarah Stock, a wildlife ecologist at Yosemite. "It's gratifying to see that this strategy is paying off for the park's wildlife."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/forest-ecology-and-management">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Spotted owls greatly benefit from Yosemite's fire management strategy

Scientists have discovered that the population numbers of Yosemite's spotted...

Cat owners are often perceived as being quiet and introverted, but a new study shows that there is much more to the story. A new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has identified different types of cat owners, ranging from "freedom fighters" to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/support-from-land-owners-could-protect-endangered-species/">wildlife</a> advocates.

Based on survey responses of cat owners, the researchers determined that they fall into five categories. While some cat lovers believe cats should roam free without restrictions, others are more "conscientious caretakers" that feel responsible  for their cat's impact on wildlife.

People who are primarily focused on cat safety fall into the category of "concerned protectors," while "tolerant guardians" dislike their cat's hunting but tend to accept it. Meanwhile "laissez-faire landlords" are mostly unaware of any issues around cats roaming and hunting.

In the UK, conservation organizations are increasingly concerned about the number of animals killed by domestic cats. Even though some cats do not kill wild animals, and most kill very few, the number of victims can quickly accumulate with a population of around 10 million cats.

The Exeter team has launched a research project called "Cats, Cat Owners and Wildlife" with the goal of identifying ways that owners can best manage their cats while protecting wildlife.

According to the researchers, their findings demonstrate the need for diverse management strategies that reflect the differing perspectives of cat owners.

"Although we found a range of views, most UK cat owners valued outdoor access for their cats and opposed the idea of keeping them inside to prevent hunting," said lead author Dr. Sarah Crowley.

"Cat confinement policies are therefore unlikely to find support among owners in the UK. However, only one of the owner types viewed hunting as a positive, suggesting the rest might be interested in reducing it by some means."

"To be most effective, efforts to reduce hunting must be compatible with owners' diverse circumstances."

Dr. Sarah Ellis said the finding that many UK cat owners actually care a great deal about wildlife conservation, including their cat's impact, suggests that some owners are receptive to employing cat-friendly ways of reducing hunting.

"The right interventions could improve wildlife conservation efforts, maintain good cat mental-wellbeing, and at the same time improve the cat-human relationship," said Dr. Ellis.

"This would be especially true for 'tolerant guardians' and 'conscientious caretakers' by reducing the internal conflict of loving an animal that often hunts other animals they also care about."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.esa.org/frontiers-in-ecology-and-the-environment/">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>

.---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Some cat owners care about their pet's impact on wildlife conservation

Cat owners are often perceived as being quiet and introverted,...

A new study provides unprecedented details about the true size of Megalodon, the legendary <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sharks-have-vanished-from-20-percent-of-coral-reefs/">shark</a> that dominated the ocean up until about three million years ago. Megalodon was more than double the size of a Great White with a dorsal fin that was the height of a full-grown human.

Experts at <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/">Swansea University</a> and the University of Bristol used different mathematical methods to quantify the size and proportions of the extinct shark. To do this, they compared Megalodon to living relatives with similar features. The researchers confirmed that Megalodon grew to a length of 16 meters, or 52 feet, and weighed up to 100 tons. 

The most powerful shark living today, the Great White, bites with a force of two tons and grows to be over six meters long. At more than twice this length, Megalodon had a bite force of more than ten tons. This incredible force is evident in fossil teeth, which are bigger than a human hand.

"I have always been mad about sharks. As an undergraduate, I have worked and dived with Great Whites in South Africa - protected by a steel cage of course. It's that sense of danger, but also that sharks are such beautiful and well-adapted animals, that makes them so attractive to study," said lead author Jack Cooper.

"Megalodon was actually the very animal that inspired me to pursue palaeontology in the first place at just six years old, so I was over the moon to get a chance to study it. This was my dream project. But to study the whole animal is difficult considering that all we really have are lots of isolated teeth."

Previous studies have only compared Megalodon with the Great White, but the current study includes other modern sharks as well. 

"Megalodon is not a direct ancestor of the Great White but is equally related to other macropredatory sharks such as the Makos, Salmon shark and Porbeagle shark, as well as the Great white," said study co-author Dr. Catalina Pimiento. "We pooled detailed measurements of all five to make predictions about Megalodon."

"Before we could do anything, we had to test whether these five modern sharks changed proportions as they grew up," explained study co-author Professor Mike Benton. "If, for example, they had been like humans, where babies have big heads and short legs, we would have had some difficulties in projecting the adult proportions for such a huge extinct shark.

According to Professor Benton, the team was surprised and relieved to discover that the babies of all these modern predatory sharks start out as little adults, and their proportions do not change as they grow.

"This means we could simply take the growth curves of the five modern forms and project the overall shape as they get larger and larger - right up to a body length of 16 meters," said Cooper.

The results of the analysis suggest that a Megalodon with a length of 16 meters had a head that was 4.65 meters long, a 1.62-meter dorsal fin, and a tail that was around 3.85 meters tall.

"The estimates of body dimensions of this extinct species have the potential to inform future anatomical, physiological, and ecological reconstructions," wrote the researchers.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Actual size of legendary shark Megalodon has been revealed

A new study provides unprecedented details about the true size...

It is widely accepted that our childhood social experiences shape our <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/grooming-behavior-exposes-the-complex-social-lives-of-dairy-cows/">behavior</a> as adults, and that events we may not even remember can have lifelong effects. A recent study from the <a href="http://first.fchampalimaud.org/en/the-foundation/champalimaud-centre-unknown/">Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown</a> is shedding new light on this phenomenon, suggesting that the very earliest stages of life have the greatest impact on behavior.

Experiments with zebrafish revealed that social experiences during the first week of development impacted future behavior. The fish are not even considered social at the larval stage, so this was completely unexpected. 

"Social experiences greatly define subsequent social behavior. Lack of such experiences, especially during critical phases of development, can severely impede the ability to behave adequately in social contexts," wrote the researchers. "To date, it is not well characterized how early-life social isolation leads to social deficits and impacts development."

For the investigation, zebrafish larvae were raised either in regular groups or alone in a dish. Later, high-speed video tracking was used to precisely measure swim movements as the fish interacted.

"It was previously thought that the effects of early-life social experience could only be seen at an age when the animal shows attraction to social stimuli, but we have shown that, in zebrafish, the effects can already be observed earlier," said study lead author Antonia Groneberg. 

"Normally, larvae move away from other close-by larvae, but we have found that larvae raised in isolation tend to react with a stronger escape swim, even when the other larvae are located at a larger distance." 

"By removing inputs from different senses and testing artificial stimuli that mimic another fish, we found that isolation-raised fish showed stronger reactions to local water vibrations."

In the next phase of this project, the researchers will study the brain activity of the zebrafish. "Using live imaging, we can record activity throughout the whole brain, from areas that process sensory stimuli to those that control behavior," said study co-author Michael Orger. 

"We are working towards a framework of collective behaviour in which we include the information on how the brain processes the information about the environment and about neighbouring conspecifics," added principal investigator Gonzalo de Polavieja.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Are we shaped by social experiences in the earliest phase of life?

It is widely accepted that our childhood social experiences shape...

After NOAA scientists placed satellite tags on 26 loggerhead sea turtles in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-may-hold-200-million-tons-of-microplastics/">Atlantic</a> Ocean in 2011, 18 of the turtles ended up in the direct path of Hurricane Irene. The study reveals intriguing details about how both adult and juvenile sea turtles behave in extreme weather conditions.

The tagged turtles were located in the Mid-Atlantic Bight (MAB), a coastal region that spans southern Massachusetts down to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. 

Study lead author Leah Crowe is a contract field biologist at the <a href="https://nefsc.noaa.gov/">NOAA Northeast Fisheries Science Center</a>.

"Hurricanes are some of the most intense weather events loggerheads in the mid-Atlantic experience, and we thought it was worth investigating how turtles in our dataset may be influenced by these dramatic environmental changes," said Crowe.

"It was a perfect storm situation in terms of location, timing, and oceanographic conditions. We found that the turtles responded to the changes in their habitat in different ways."

The satellite tags recorded the turtles' location and dive behavior, as well as sea-surface temperatures for just over a year. 

The data showed that the turtles aligned themselves with surface currents and moved northward during the hurricane, which was likely to conserve energy.

After the storm, turtles that stayed in their familiar foraging areas were observed diving for at least an hour, compared with dives that lasted  less than 30 minutes before the hurricane. In addition, turtles that left their foraging areas moved south much earlier than usual after the hurricane passed.

"Loggerheads experience environmental changes in the entire water column from the surface to the bottom, including during extreme weather events," said Crowe. "This study was an opportunistic look at turtle behavior during a hurricane. Their behavior makes loggerheads good observers of oceanographic conditions where they forage."

Previous studies have found that loggerheads are  sensitive to changes in water temperatures throughout the water column. Hurricanes cause the water layers to mix, which creates cooler surface temperatures. This mixing disrupts the boundary layer between warm surface waters and colder, deeper waters, known as the thermocline.

The researchers found that ocean temperatures recorded by the satellite tags were consistent with observations from weather buoys and autonomous gliders operating in the region.

"We determined that as the storm passed, the tagged turtles altered their dive behavior and movement patterns," wrote the study authors.

"These observed changes in behavior can provide insight into turtle reactions to other perturbations. The turtle-borne tags also recorded the environmental changes to the water column as the hurricane passed through the MAB, highlighting these data as a valid resource for weather forecasting models alongside other in situ data sources."

The study showed that turtle behavior did not return to normal within two weeks after the storm.

"The long-term cumulative effects of a changing climate and the increase in intensity of hurricanes and other storms is something that needs to be looked at. Changes in sea turtle movements and behavior can affect abundance estimates and management decisions," said Crowe. "This study reminds us that turtles live in a dynamic environment, and we cannot assume their behavior will be consistent throughout space and time."

The researchers concluded that future analysis of turtle behavior should consider the dynamic environments in which they live.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://movementecologyjournal.biomedcentral.com/">Movement Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Sea turtles recorded their own behavior during a hurricane

After NOAA scientists placed satellite tags on 26 loggerhead sea...

Ocean acidification is threatening the stability of the world's tropical <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sharks-have-vanished-from-20-percent-of-coral-reefs/">reefs</a>. Experts at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> report that the "glue" that holds the Great Barrier Reef together is being weakened by rising levels of carbon dioxide.

Calcified deposits known as microbialites are formed by microbes that live within reef formations. The deposits bind and stabilize the reef framework, creating a strong scaffold that is used by corals and other reef builders to colonize and grow

The researchers analyzed historical samples from the Great Barrier Reef and found that these calcified scaffolds become thinner and lose their strength as acidity rises and pH levels fall. 

While previous studies have produced some evidence of this phenomenon the past, the current study is the first to show that the destabilizing effects of ocean acidification are impacting reefs worldwide.

"For the first time we have comprehensively shown that the thickness of this geologic 'reef glue' correlates with changes in ocean pH and dissolved carbon dioxide," said study lead author Zsanett Szilagyi.

Looking at the fossil record, the researchers determined that the thickness of reef crusts are a reliable indicator of ocean acidification going back at least tens of thousands of years.

"We haven't had such a complete and high-resolution record before. And this geologic study shows that as oceans became more acidic, this is reflected in the thickness of these reef crusts," said study co-author Professor Jody Webster.

In the past, the reef scaffolding was more abundant than the corals and algae that grow on and around them. These crusts display variations in thickness over time, yet continue to serve as the structural support for reefs.

"This means they are really good indicators of changes in environmental conditions of our oceans," said Professor Webster.

The scientists identified a variation in thickness from 11.5 centimeters 22,500 years ago to about 3 centimeters 12,000 years ago along younger parts of the Great Barrier Reef.

The results of testing from 17 reefs across the globe show that the thinning of reef crusts coincides with pH dropping below 8.2 right up to modern times.

"Previous studies have given us glimpses as to how these microbial crusts respond to changes in their environment. What is new in our study is that we measured more than 700 well-dated microbialite samples from the International Ocean Discovery Program on the Great Barrier Reef and combined this with a meta-analysis of 17 other reef records from around the world," said Professor Webster.

"This allowed us to assess global-scale changes in microbialite development over the past 30,000 years. And, frankly, the findings are a stark warning sign for the dangers of rapid acidification of oceans."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14390485">Marine Ecology </a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Ocean acidification could cause coral reefs to fall apart

Ocean acidification is threatening the stability of the world's tropical...

Fruit flies use eye movements to control their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-with-darker-wing-feathers-have-increased-flight-efficiency/">flight</a> with a reaction speed that is about 30 times faster than the blink of a human eye. With a new understanding of this incredible ability, scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> will apply the rapid flight control techniques of fruit flies to the field of mechanical engineering. 

"If you are able to study flies doing what they do best - flying - you can find some incredible engineering solutions that already exist in biology," said study first author and doctoral student Benjamin Cellini.

Professor Jean-Michel Mongeau, director of the Bio-Motion Systems Lab, worked with Cellini to determine how fruit flies use eye movements to quickly coordinate their wings in response to what they are seeing. 

Even though our eyes are not on the back of our head like flies, humans can also execute a stabilizing gaze in which we zero in on a target with our eyes.

"But that is a challenging, complex problem to understand, how are we and other animals able to do that so well?" said Professor Mongeau. "My lab is interested in active sensing, which is a branch of engineering and biology that studies how sensor movement, like eyes scanning a room, can enhance sensing itself."

According to the researchers, understanding how animals like flies use active eye movements to control flight could greatly enhance robotics. 

Most robots have stationary sensors, which means sensing and movement are not interconnected. The flight control of robots has great potential for improvement if the efforts of visual sensors could be coordinated.

The team's investigation revealed that the eyes of the fruit fly were able to react four times faster than its body or wings. These reactions were strongly associated, which confirms that flies rely heavily upon eye movements to coordinate their wing movements.

"We've shown that their eyes can control and stabilize their vision better than we originally thought, by reducing motion blur," said Cellini. "Like in sports, they teach baseball players to follow the ball with their eyes to reduce blur and increase batting performance."

Professor Mongeau said one of the most significant findings is that fly eyes slow down visual motion signals to the brain to enhance their flying behavior.

The researchers believe unlocking the secrets of the biological world could have broad implications for technology.

"In engineering, you are taught to apply principles from mathematics and physics to solve problems," said Cellini. "If you want to build a robot to fly on Mars, you can use engineering concepts to provide potential solutions. But we don't always have to develop ideas from scratch; we can also seek inspiration from nature."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Fruit flies use their eyes to control flight at incredible speeds

Fruit flies use eye movements to control their flight with...

As humans build more roads and dispose of more trash high in the mountains, scavengers are outcompeting alpine species like the Arctic fox in its own territory. A greater abundance of roadkill and litter draws red foxes and other <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beetles-escape-in-frog-feces-after-being-swallowed/">scavengers</a> into the mountains from lower boreal areas, creating more competition for food. 

"More cabins, more tourism and increased car traffic means more litter and more roadkill. For the red fox, the crow and other scavengers, it means more tempting food," said study co-author Lars Rød-Eriksen, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nina.no/english">Norwegian Institute for Nature Research</a>.

The researchers investigated how wildlife may be affected by highways across three sites in Norway using camera traps and snow tracking.

"We found that the red fox uses the road both to find food and to move from place to place. Especially in the winter, using the roadways is easier than travelling across the snowy terrain," said Rød-Eriksen.

"Using tracks in the snow and game cameras, we were able to document that the density of red foxes increases the closer to the road one gets. The more litter and food waste they have access to, the greater the number of red foxes that find their way to the area."

For Arctic foxes, the opposite pattern of behavior was observed.

"A lot of trash means few Arctic foxes. We found that the Arctic fox doesn't tend to stay close to the road. This is probably not because they aren't attracted to the road, but because the presence of the red fox makes them keep their distance."

The Arctic fox prefers small rodents, but will still eat trash when it is available. However, Rød-Eriksen noted that the red fox is bigger and dominates in the competition between the two species. 

"There are also examples of red foxes that have killed Arctic foxes. Increased access to food enables the red fox to establish itself in the high alpine zone. The search for food is especially intense in late winter."

Crows are usually the first to spot food, but they sometimes help foxes by guiding them to specific foraging locations. However, the crows often  cause problems by finding and consuming prey before the foxes ever arrive, as noted by the study authors.

"The red fox has existed in the mountains before. But it's an invasive species and can disrupt the natural alpine ecosystem if it establishes itself there permanently, like it seems to be doing now. The Arctic fox is already an endangered species, and it seems likely that the red fox is impacting other alpine species as well, such as ptarmigan, that are ground nesters. We call it a cascade effect when several species are affected."

Rød-Eriksen said it will be easier to tackle the littering problem than the issue of roadkill.

"Information campaigns can inform people about the consequences of throwing out and leaving trash and food scraps behind. A lot of people probably don't give any thought to how littering can negatively impact wildlife. Other countries have stricter legislation against littering. Maybe Norway should also consider it. Personally, I think it would be effective."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Human activities help scavengers take over the habitats of Arctic foxes

As humans build more roads and dispose of more trash...

A new study has revealed that American mastodons migrated back and forth over long distances, and this movement was driven by the extreme climate changes of the Pleistocene. The researchers found that mastodons who expanded their range all the way into the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-has-been-greatly-underestimated/">Arctic</a> became much less genetically diverse. As a result, these populations were less able to adapt to environmental changes, which contributed to their extinction.

Study co-author Ross MacPhee is a senior curator in the Department of Mammalogy at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>.

"Today, you might think that it's great to see animals like brown bears in northern Canada and the Arctic islands, well beyond their historical range. They are obviously benefitting, just like these mastodons did for a time, as a result of natural climate change," said MacPhee. "But that benefit can be very limited. It's important to realize that what we might think is beneficial change at one level for some species is not necessarily all that good for others."

In their day, mastodons were among the largest animals on the planet. Mastodons were related to modern-day elephants and extinct mammoths, which they closely resembled.

The species went extinct about 11,000 years ago, along with many other animals such as mammoths, giant sloths, and sabre-toothed cats. While the exact cause of these extinctions remains unclear, the most prevalent theory is that the Earth warmed up at the end of the Pleistocene too quickly for many large mammals to fully adapt.

In previous studies, scientists found that mastodons had a large range across northern regions based on fossil evidence. However, it remained unclear whether the animals migrated in and out of their northern destinations, or simply arrived and never left. 

For the current investigation, an international team of experts used the fossilized teeth, tusks, and bones of 33 mastodons to reconstruct complete mitochondrial genomes. The analysis showed that the animals traveled extreme distances in response to warming climate conditions and melting ice sheets.

"The genetic data show a strong signal of migration, moving back and forth across the continent, driven, what appears to be entirely by climate," said study co-author and evolutionary geneticist Hendrik Poinar.

Beginning about 2.6 million years ago, the Pleistocene was characterized by cold glacial periods interspersed with warmer periods with retreating ice sheets. During the warmer interglacial periods, regions that were previously frozen developed into forests and wetlands with new foraging opportunities, which enticed animals like mastodons to move northward.

"These mastodons were living in Alaska at a time when it was warm, as well as Mexico and parts of Central America. These weren't stationary populations, the data show there was constant movement back and forth," explained Poinar.

According to the researchers, understanding how different types of Pleistocene-era mammals responded to extreme climate transitions - both genetically and ecologically - will provide valuable information on how climate change is affecting modern-day species in the north.

"By looking genetically at these animals which lived for the last 800,000 years, we can actually see the make-up of these populations that made it up to the north," said study lead author Emil Karpinksi. "It's really interesting because a lot of species presently, like moose and beaver, are rapidly expanding their range northwards by as much as tens to hundreds of kilometers every century."

When the scientists conducted a genetic analysis on the mastodons that moved in and out of the Arctic, they discovered very low genetic diversity among these populations.

"That is always a danger signal for vertebrate species," said study co-author Dr. Grant Zazula. "If you lose genetic diversity, you are losing the ability to respond to new conditions. In this case, they were not up there long enough to adapt to northern conditions when they cycled back to cold."

"Analysis of DNA preserved in these fossil mastodon bones gives us so much more information on how these now-extinct beasts lived and died in comparison to what we know based on traditional paleontological approaches. These data hold the key to our understanding of how ancient animal communities like mastodons adapted to changes in the past, and provide clues to how arctic ecosystems will respond to future warming scenarios."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Mastodons migrated over extreme distances in response to climate change

A new study has revealed that American mastodons migrated back...

Wintering waterbirds are being forced out of their feeding areas by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bat-drones-pollinate-crops/">drones</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.bto.org/">British Trust for Ornithology</a> (BTO). The researchers found that ducks, geese, swans, and other waterbirds are easily startled away by drones, which reduces their feeding time and wastes energy.

Drone technology is rapidly becoming less expensive and more widespread. Drones are now being used for many different purposes, ranging from recreational photography to package delivery. 

The increasing amount of drone traffic in close proximity with wild birds is creating new challenges for their protection. Disturbances caused by drones may even affect rare and endangered species.

In the most extreme cases, birds may abandon a foraging spot altogether and shift to new areas where food is less available or where predators are more abundant. 

During the cold winter months, large numbers of waterbirds arrive in Britain from the Arctic. Drone disturbance could be particularly harmful during this time, which falls right before the breeding season. 

For their investigation, the BTO scientists flew a drone toward waterbird flocks in various coastal, farmland, and freshwater habitats. As one of the researchers navigated the drone at standard speed and height in the direction of the flock, another team member observed the flocks through a telescope. Any responses to the approaching drone - alarm calls, signs of heightened alert, and taking flight - were documented. 

The study revealed that larger flocks were more likely to take flight, and were also more likely to move farther away from the drone disturbance, compared to smaller flocks. This is likely due to the fact that it only took the response of one sensitive bird flying away from the drone for the rest of the flock to follow. 

The research also showed that the habitat itself had a strong influence on how birds responded to drones. For example, birds across inland areas where human activities are more common were very unlikely to respond to drone disturbances. On the other hand, waterbirds in  coastal habitats were highly likely to respond.

"While we expected that the drone would cause large flocks to flush, we were surprised that birds hardly seemed to respond to the drone at all at those inland lochs where there was already lots of human activity taking place," said study lead author David Jarrett. "Hopefully this research can be used to help inform guidance and regulations on drone use in proximity to wild birds."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bto.org/our-science/publications/bird-study">Bird Study</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Drones are becoming a threat to waterbirds

Wintering waterbirds are being forced out of their feeding areas...

Secrets of past warming help protect future ecosystems. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>, an international team of scientists has identified past global warming events similar to those anticipated in the coming decades. By analyzing the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-in-smaller-habitats-is-underestimated/">biodiversity</a> impacts of climate warming in the past, experts can get a better understanding of what will happen in the future.

"Conservation biologists are taking full advantage of the long-term history of the planet as recorded in paleo-archives, such as those gathered by the team, to understand biological responses to abrupt climate changes of the past, quantify trends, and develop scenarios of future biodiversity loss from climate change," said study lead author Damien Fordham.

"Studying locations in regions such as the Arctic, Eurasia, the Amazon and New Zealand can yield knowledge of how climate has changed and how this has impacted plants and animals," said study co-author Professor Dorthe Dahl-Jensen.

"Using advanced new methods, including the use of DNA to map biodiversity and precise methods for dating climate change, we have taken advantage of opportunities to find precise causalities. The past climate changes are similar to those that we expect in coming decades."

The researchers mapped the prevalence of species based on fossil data archives. This analysis showed how individual plant and animal species, as well as entire ecosystems, responded to historical temperature increases.

"During large climate shifts of the past, such as the warming from the last ice age to our current interglacial period 11-18,000 years ago, Arctic temperatures have increased by more than 10 degrees Celsius. This is a warming of the same magnitude as the UN predicts can occur in the future, as is described in IPCC reports and forecasts," explained Professor Dahl-Jensen.

The study revealed that some species, such as antelope, were able to migrate northward in response to global warming. Species like the Arctic fox, however, were not able to reach suitable habitat and were wiped out.

The findings can be used to predict how plants and animals will respond to future climate warming, and which species will become most threatened with extinction.

The research also indicates that many ecosystems are able to adapt to sudden climate change, even when migration is not an option. It is important to acquire more knowledge and better promote healthy ecosystems in the future.

"We have gained access to completely new knowledge about how ecosystems, plants and animals have responded to temperature increases similar to those that we are confronted with today and will be in the future," said study co-author Professor Anders Svensson. 

"We can use this knowledge to be at the forefront of protecting and conserving biodiversity. It provides knowledge for us to protect the species that remain."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Secrets of past warming help protect future ecosystems

Secrets of past warming help protect future ecosystems. In a...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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