Imagine a world where animals, like humans, form friendships that endure for years. A world where alliances are forged not through blood ties but through acts of mutual aid. 



This world exists all across Earth, but especially with a bird species called African starlings. They engage in reciprocal "helping" behavior, a concept once thought exclusive to humans.



A new study led by Alexis Earl, a former PhD student at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> in Professor Dustin Rubenstein’s lab, has cracked open the complex social world of these birds. The findings challenge long-held assumptions that kinship alone drives cooperative behavior.



Instead, the study reveals that starlings form lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sparrows-have-fewer-friends-as-they-age-just-like-most-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendships</a>, built on the expectation that help given today will be returned tomorrow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-african-starlings-more-than-family-groups">African starlings: More than family groups</h2>



African starling societies are anything but simple. These aren’t just tight-knit family groups. They’re intricate networks of related and unrelated individuals, living together, helping each other, and occasionally switching roles. 



“Starling societies are not just simple families,” Rubenstein said. “They’re much more complex, containing a mixture of related and unrelated individuals that live together, much in the way that humans do.”



The research team observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> over 20 years at the Mpala Research Centre in Kenya. During 40 breeding seasons, they documented thousands of interactions among hundreds of birds. By collecting genetic data, they could trace familial ties and map out the social networks within each group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-help-non-relatives">Birds help non-relatives</h2>



The data revealed a striking pattern. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a> weren’t just helping relatives, they were helping non-relatives too.



And not just once - over and over again. These birds were forming relationships based on reciprocity, where the expectation wasn’t immediate repayment but long-term support.



Rubenstein emphasized the significance of these findings. “Many of these birds are essentially forming friendships over time,” he said. 



But why help a non-relative when a relative is nearby? For the starlings, the answer appears to lie in building a network of allies, a safety net that extends beyond family bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-reversals-and-unexpected-alliances">Role reversals and unexpected alliances</h2>



Starlings don’t stick to one role. They don’t remain helpers or breeders for life. Instead, they switch roles throughout their lifetimes, a phenomenon rarely seen in cooperative breeders. 



The researchers found that individuals frequently moved between helper and breeder roles, sometimes even after raising their own offspring.



This role-switching opened the door for reciprocal helping. A bird that helped another during one breeding season might later become a breeder and receive help from that same individual. 



The study tracked 528 helper-breeder pairs, and in 142 pairs, the same two birds swapped roles and helped each other over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-friendships-form-through-reciprocal-helping">Bird friendships form through reciprocal helping</h2>



Kin selection is a well-established concept in evolutionary biology. Helping family members ensures the survival of shared genes. But the researchers observed a different kind of bond in starlings - one based on reciprocity, not kinship.



Resident males typically helped relatives. Immigrant males, however, helped both kin and non-kin. In fact, the researchers found that the helping rate for reciprocating pairs was 242 percent higher than for non-reciprocating pairs. 



Clearly, these birds were forming alliances that went beyond genetic ties.



But kinship wasn’t entirely irrelevant. Resident females rarely became breeders, so they had fewer opportunities for reciprocal helping. Immigrant females, on the other hand, often moved between helper and breeder roles, forming bonds with specific non-relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-long-term-data">Power of long-term data</h2>



The depth of this study lies in its duration. Twenty years of observations, over 12,000 recorded helping interactions and more than 500 individual birds. 



This long-term dataset allowed the researchers to detect subtle patterns that would have been invisible in a shorter study.



Rubenstein believes these findings have broader implications. “I think this kind of reciprocal helping behavior is likely going on in a lot of animal societies, and people just haven’t studied them long enough to be able to detect it,” he said.



Without such extensive data, the role of reciprocal helping might have remained hidden beneath the more obvious kin-based helping patterns. The study underscores the importance of sustained observation in uncovering the intricacies of animal behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-animal-social-networks">Implications for animal social networks</h2>



Why would a bird help a non-relative, even when a relative is nearby? The answer may lie in the unpredictability of life in the African savannah. Food scarcity. Predator threats. Uncertain breeding success.



In such an environment, forming bonds with non-relatives could serve as a form of insurance. Birds that help today may receive help tomorrow when conditions worsen. It’s a strategy that maximizes survival, not just for the individual but for the entire group.



The researchers observed that these reciprocal bonds sometimes lasted for years. And in some cases, they were even stronger than bonds formed through kinship. 



By maintaining these alliances, birds could increase their chances of receiving support during critical breeding periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reciprocal-helping-in-other-birds">Reciprocal helping in other birds</h2>



This phenomenon isn’t limited to African starlings. Other bird species, such as green woodhoopoes and white-fronted bee-eaters, also exhibit reciprocal helping. However, the evidence of such behavior in non-relatives is rare.



The researchers argue that reciprocal helping may be more common than previously thought. The problem is that detecting it requires long-term observation - years, even decades. And that kind of data is difficult to obtain.



In the case of African starlings, the data revealed that reciprocal helping relationships sometimes persisted for multiple breeding seasons. Birds that helped each other one year often maintained that relationship, swapping roles and continuing to support one another over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



What drives birds to choose specific partners for reciprocal helping? How do they recognize reliable allies? Are there cues - vocal signals, visual displays, prior interactions - that indicate trustworthiness?



The study raises more questions than it answers. The researchers plan to expand their observations to other species within the same environment. By doing so, they hope to determine whether reciprocal helping is a widespread strategy among cooperative breeders or a unique trait of African starlings.



Additionally, they aim to explore the impact of environmental factors on reciprocal helping. Does food scarcity strengthen these bonds? Do predator threats prompt birds to seek new allies?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-animal-cooperation">Redefining animal cooperation</h2>



The findings of this study challenge the conventional view that cooperative behavior in animals is driven solely by kin selection. While helping relatives remains a vital strategy, reciprocal helping may play an equally significant role in stabilizing social groups.



For the African starlings, reciprocal helping is a way to build alliances, secure support, and hedge against future uncertainties. It’s a strategy that mirrors human friendships - complex, enduring, and sometimes unpredictable.



“I think this kind of reciprocal helping behavior is likely going on in a lot of animal societies, and people just haven’t studied them long enough to be able to detect it,” Rubenstein said.



The study, published in Nature, provides a rare glimpse into the hidden world of animal friendships. It shows that even in the harsh and unpredictable environment of the African savannah, social bonds can form, endure, and evolve. 



And in the end, the birds that help today may just be the ones receiving help tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08958-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Birds observed exhibiting many behaviors that resemble human friendships

Imagine a world where animals, like humans, form friendships that endure for years. A world where alliances are forged not through blood ties but through acts of mutual aid. This world exists all across Earth, but especially with a bird species called African starlings. They engage in reciprocal "helping" behavior, a concept once thought exclusive to humans. A new study led by Alexis Earl, a former PhD student at Columbia University in Professor Dustin Rubenstein’s lab, has cracked open the complex social world of these birds. The...

Last year, I reported on the management of wild horses in the western US in a somewhat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-horses-western-us/">controversial article</a>.  At that time I promoted a western US with wild horses.  I still feel it’s an idea with some merit even if distasteful to many.  The problem is nuanced and complex with well-intentioned people who care about the land on both sides.  

Part of the issue is in the question of whether wild horses constitute a return of a species present in North America in deep time or the introduction of a non-native.  Either way, wild horses are here now and the United States has its share of quixotic efforts to eradicate non-native species. Invasive plants like <a href="https://www.discovermoab.com/tamarisk-tree/">tamarisk</a> seem to be thriving along the Colorado River and <a href="https://www.desertmuseum.org/invaders/invaders_buffelgrass.php">buffelgrass</a> can still be found in the Sonoran Desert despite countless volunteer hours and dollars spent.  Wearing Nutria fur has been promoted as a way to eradicate the invasive mammal from the southeastern wetlands by organizations like <a href="http://www.righteousfur.com/">Righteous Fur</a>.  Using fur for conservation is clearly an effort that pits environmental concerns against animal welfare.  

To my mind, the effort to eradicate species sometimes misses the point of wild ecosystems as well as the weight of Earth’s long history.  Horses were once before native to North America as well as camels and many other species. The history of life on Earth is a history of change.  

I’m not promoting introducing more species to the continent and if eradicating a destructive species is easy, it should be done.  The point is, we spend too much effort and money trying to change nature to our idealistic liking without reducing our own consumption and destructive caprice.  Wild Horses are unfairly targeted often when people ranching cows, sheep and other livestock on public lands are all but untouchable due to their financial influence.  

When it comes down to killing a horse or keeping a cow off public acres, the horse is going to die.  Not only horses but unquestionably wild animals like Bighorn sheep suffer from <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/50.15/wildlife-agricultural-interests-steer-colorados-wildlife-management">public grazing</a>.  If you ask the average American to forgo a hamburger, they’d probably kill the horse personally.  <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/national-burger-day-all-your-beefy-questions-answered-9693243.html">The Independent</a> reported that McDonald’s alone sells 75 burgers a second.  As a part of a greater fight over public lands, wildlife and the environment, the fight over wild horses is a side skirmish in a nasty war.  Earlier this month, <a href="https://americanwildhorsecampaign.org/media/bureau-land-management-drop-plans-sterilize-oregon-wild-horses">American Wild Horse Campaign</a> announced their victory in a lawsuit.

The lawsuit takes place in Oregon, where U.S. District Court Judge Michael W. Mosman issued a preliminary injunction blocking the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) from experimenting with sterilization of wild mares.  The bureau cancelled the planned sterilization experiments after the injunction.  The experiments were planned to take place in the Warm Springs Management Area with the purpose of removing excess horses from the area herd.  

The American Animal Welfare Institute, American Wild Horse Campaign and others claimed the surgery to be inhumane.  The bureau’s refusal to allow independent veterinarians’ access to horses to observe recovery or the installation of video cameras to monitor the horses was cited.  

<a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/environment/index.ssf/2018/11/oregon_judge_stops_blm_from_st.html">Oregon Live</a> reported that the animal advocacy groups in question promote the use of a temporary contraception administered by dart to manage horse populations.  The problem is that this solution falls short of curtailing wild horse populations. 

<a href="https://www.opb.org/mustangs/">Oregon Public Broadcasting</a> reports that when the 1971 Wild Horse and Burro Act was made law, there were an estimated 17,000 wild horses and burros living in 10 western states.  Today, the BLM estimates the population of wild horses and burros at 40,605. The BLM estimates that the environment can sustainably support only 26,677 wild horses.  The consequences of an overpopulation of horses could be starvation, disease and environmental degradation.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Bureau-of-Land-Management-backs-out-of-plan-to-sterilize-wild-horses.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-1863562" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Bureau-of-Land-Management-backs-out-of-plan-to-sterilize-wild-horses-1024x682.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="466" /></a>

In Oregon, a holding pen for captured wild horses was expanded in 2013 to hold 800 animals, once held 1200.  The pen holds horses offered for adoption. After three adoption efforts per horse, the animals are moved to long term facilities where they live out the remainder of their lives in captivity in places like Kansas or Oklahoma.  The number of ‘wild’ horses now in captivity exceeds the number now in the wild, 49,768 are in holding, according to <a href="https://www.opb.org/mustangs/index.html">Oregon Public Broadcasting</a>.  

The number of horses the BLM manages for is determined as part of its balance to maintain land for wildlife, grazing, recreation and other uses, not just for wild horses.  Rather than a natural balanced reached in any population, each is maintained to give room to the others, wild creatures being forced to give space to livestock. 

The BLM, the main management agency for wild horses, also leases 155 million acres of land for livestock grazing and actively improves the land for livestock at a cost to taxpayers.  <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/grazing/pdfs/CostsAndConsequences_01-2015.pdf">The Center for Biological Diversity</a> reports that grazing on public lands has cost the government a billion dollars over a decade.  Grazing fees for the BLM are only $1.41 per AUM for 2018 compared to $1.87 AUM for 2017 (AUM is the amount of forage to support one head of livestock for a month).  

The cost for management of wild horses is also ridiculously high but the focus is on limiting their numbers. According to the <a href="http://www.wildhorserange.org/taxpayer-dollars.html">National Horse &amp; Burro Rangeland Management Coalition</a>, the BLM spent $82.567 million on wild horse and burro management in the Fiscal Year 2017.  It seems a little strange that private agriculture would cost the government money and it’s unnecessary that management of wild horses costs as much as it does.  About half the money spent on wild horse and burro management goes to the running of long term holding facilities for the animals. 

The <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/13511/chapter/2">National Academies Press</a> issued a report showing that much of the BLM’s management of wild horses and burros is based on faulty science and bad data.  The report showed that the BLM’s estimation of populations was not scientifically rigorous and that the agency consistently estimated below actual populations.  The report also found that management techniques are making the problem worse. 

Horses are removed from the land before reaching a carrying capacity which would naturally limit populations.  Because the carrying capacity is never reached, populations continue to grow at a dizzying pace.  Increased competition over forage the report says actually naturally limits horse populations. In the end, it all comes back to population control.  BLM surgical intervention may be cruel as some claim but surely, a fight for food and starvation is as well. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Bureau of Land Management backs out of plan to sterilize wild horses

Last year, I reported on the management of wild horses...

A lowly marine creature known for living in colonies that resemble <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/star-ascidian-botryllus-schlosseri/">flat sheets of fuzzy flowers or stars</a> has a blood-forming system remarkably similar to our own, according to a new study. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> conducted the research which was published in the journal Nature. 

The researchers discovered that the marine invertebrate Botryllus schlosseri have blood stem cells that are similar to the cells in mammalian blood which sheds light on the evolution of human blood. 

“The mammalian and Botryllus blood-forming systems also share hundreds of homologous genes, even though the two species are separated by over 500 million years of evolution,” said Benyamin Rosental, an author of the study. 

Irving Weissman, a senior author of the study, even suggested that the blood stem cells of  Botryllus schlosseri may be a “missing link” between vertebrate and invertebrates. 

Botryllus does not spend its whole life a part of a colony but instead attaches itself to a rock and joins colony after spending time as a tadpole. 

Once part of a colony, the invertebrate shares a bloodstream with the other Botryllus’ organisms in the colony and stem cells are shared and transported throughout the colony within the public blood supply.

Upon further examination, the researchers found that Botryllus has an incubator for special cells like blood stem cells called a niche, and within the colony, the stem cells naturally gravitate toward the niche. 

The researchers isolated the Botryllus blood stem cells and found 327 similar genes between mammals and Botryllus that are responsible for blood formation. 

“Blood stem cells in mammals are hard to find and, when found, it's very hard to follow what is going on in the blood stem cell niche,” said Ayelet Voskoboynik, a senior author of the paper. “Botryllus is a translucent organism, so we can easily spot the niche and visually follow the migration of each type of cell from one part of their body to the other.”

Botryllus colonies offer an excellent opportunity for further research and could help provide insight into the immune system and what causes an organism to accept or reject foreign cells, as a Botryllus’ success relies on whether or not a colony accepts it. 

“With its primitive but effective immune system, Botryllus may also give us insights into how we can boost our own immune responses to pathogens and cancer,” said Voskoboynik. “But in addition to any practical benefits this research may produce, we are delighted to explore this important guidepost on the path to understanding the evolution of vertebrates, and of their blood-forming and immune systems. Isn't that what curiosity-driven science is supposed to do

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lowly sea creature sheds light on the evolution of human blood

A lowly marine creature known for living in colonies that...

Approximately 187 million years before dinosaurs were wiped out, the largest mass extinction in the history of the planet took place. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> and Stanford University may have just solved the mystery of what caused the “Great Dying.” Their study reveals that the mass extinction was triggered by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-industrial-revolution/">global warming</a>, which left marine animals unable to breathe. 

Also known as the Permian extinction, the event killed off 96 percent of all plants and animals. Ancient fossils from the seafloor show a thriving and diverse marine ecosystem, followed by a layer of corpses. 

Prior to this study, scientists had long debated what exactly caused the oceans to become so toxic. Experts theorized that the inhospitable conditions may have resulted from the high acidity of the water, metal and sulfide poisoning, a complete lack of oxygen, or simply higher temperatures.

For the current investigation, the researchers combined models of ocean conditions and animal metabolism with published lab data and paleoceanographic records. They determined that the metabolism of the animals sped up as the temperatures rose, and the warmer waters could not hold enough oxygen for them to survive.

“This is the first time that we have made a mechanistic prediction about what caused the extinction that can be directly tested with the fossil record, which then allows us to make predictions about the causes of extinction in the future,” said study first author Justin Penn.


The global warming experienced during the Great Dying was initiated by a series of massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia. When the researchers ran a climate model based on the conditions of the Earth during the Permian, they determined that the oceans had temperatures and oxygen levels similar to those found on our planet today. 

“Under a business-as-usual emissions scenarios, by 2100 warming in the upper ocean will have approached 20 percent of warming in the late Permian, and by the year 2300 it will reach between 35 and 50 percent,” said Penn. “This study highlights the potential for a mass extinction arising from a similar mechanism under anthropogenic climate change.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

The Earth’s deadliest mass extinction was caused by global warming

Approximately 187 million years before dinosaurs were wiped out, the...

Bullfighting continues in Spain despite growing opposition. For many people, the country of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/125-million-dinosaur-fossil-found-spain/">Spain</a> evokes images of a majestic matador waving a crimson red cape next to a stomping bull. What this scene does not portray is the immense cruelty and pain the bull suffers during the bullfight, ending only when the bull is ultimately slaughtered. While Spanish bullfighting has traditionally been a symbol of local culture and pride, citizens are increasingly rejecting the practice.

Bullfighting has a deep history in the country of Spain. The first known bullfight traces as far back at 711 A.D. and was romanticized in the 1900s by Ernest Hemingway who inspired a wave of travelers to watch a bullfight firsthand. 

Travelers attending a bullfight may come unprepared for the grotesque scene. Images of bullfighting across the U.S. rarely go beyond the waving capes, elegant costumes and stampeding bulls. Contrary to what pop culture portrays, bulls are not agitated by the color red, in fact they are actually color blind to the color. It is believed that the capes are red to hide the vast amount of blood transferring from the bull to the cape.

Bullfighting is an inherently violent spectacle. A traditional Spanish bullfight is divided into three parts. In the first part, referred to as “tercio de varas”, a picador who is riding a horse stabs the bull multiple times in the neck. These strikes can cause significant damage to the bull who can lose <a href="http://colvetcadiz.org/index.php?option=com_docman&amp;task=doc_view&amp;gid=40&amp;Itemid=209">up to 18%</a> of his blood and lose mobility in his head. 

In the second part, “tercio de banderillas,” the bull is stabbed in the shoulders with six harpoons. Finally, in “tercio de muerte” the bull is killed. The matador stabs the bull in the chest with a sword, causing profuse bleeding and suffocation while the bull chokes on his own blood. The matador may even cut the ears and tails off the still conscious animal as a trophy.

The cruelty involved in bullfighting is even worse than what is on full display in the arena. According to <a href="http://www.stopbullfighting.org.uk/facts.htm">Stop Bullfighting</a>, “The bull has wet newspapers stuffed into his ears; vaseline is rubbed into his eyes to blur his vision; cotton is stuffed up his nostrils to cut off his respiration and a needle is stuck into his genitals… In addition to this, drugs are administered to pep him up or slow him down, and strong laxatives are added to his feed to further incapacitate him. He is kept in a dark box for a couple of days before he faces the ring.”

When the bull enters the arena, he is not the violent, aggressive creature spectators expect, but rather a disoriented and scared animal trying to escape.

As animal advocacy organizations have worked to expose the realities of bullfighting, local Spaniards have become increasingly disillusioned with the practice.

A<a href="https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/bullfighting-spain"> 2015 Ipsos MORI poll</a> found that only 19% of Spaniards stated they supported bullfighting while two-thirds of respondents said they were not proud to be living in a country where bullfighting is a cultural tradition. In a 2016<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-017-9700-9"> study</a> of over 2,500 Spanish citizens, researchers found that the majority of citizens did not like bullfights and the great majority did not attend or watch the events. The results illustrate shifting cultural perceptions of the practice in Spain. Women and young people were concerned with animal welfare while rural people were more likely to support bullfighting than urban people.

It’s not just the locals who are distancing themselves from bullfighting. Tourist attendance at bullfights is seeing declines as animal advocacy campaigns gain more traction. In 2008, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269285581_Bullfighting_and_Tourism?enrichId=rgreq-330239a664553fc7b32118f9d9bf97ac-XXX&amp;enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTI4NTU4MTtBUzozNjAyMjA4MjUwMTQyNzJAMTQ2Mjg5NDc0NTM3MA%3D%3D&amp;el=1_x_3&amp;_esc=publicationCoverPdf">89% of British citizens</a> stated they would not visit a bullfight during their holidays.Bullfighting continues in Spain despite growing opposition

A<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286800286_A_quantitative_investigation_of_tourists'_ethical_attitudes_toward_animal-based_attractions"> study</a> on tourists’ ethical attitudes towards animal-based attractions found that tourists rated bullfighting as the least acceptable attraction, placing it above animal racing, rodeos and circuses.

Declines in attendance is having an effect on the bullfighting industry. The number of bullfights in Spain <a href="https://qz.com/112234/an-internal-crisis-is-causing-spains-beloved-bullfighting-industry-to-bleed/">declined</a> by 40% in five years. With tourists becoming more aware and young people shifting away from bullfighting, the future is likely to be bleak for the blood sport. Yet, the practice still continues. Regional bans have been passed but to the dismay of many, a ban on bullfighting in Catalonia was overturned in 2016. The judges cited the importance of preserving cultural heritage in their decision.

This refrain is commonly used by proponents of bullfighting who see the practice not only as part of their culture but also as an art form. Bullfighting is a difficult political issue in Spain with many politicians still standing strong in supporting the practice. 

It may be a long time before bullfighting is banned in Spain but changes in tourists’ attitudes towards bullfighting could create significant positive change. Once people learn about the cruelty and violence, the decision to forgo on a bullfight should be easy.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Bullfighting continues in Spain despite growing opposition

Bullfighting continues in Spain despite growing opposition. For many people,...

Mountain Gorilla (Humba family)

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> (UniSA) and Zoos Victoria are urging people to recycle their old <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/blue-light-smartphones-damages-eyes/">cell phones</a>. The experts are warning that a link exists between hoarding unused mobile phones and the dramatic decline of gorilla populations in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

In the past year, 400 million people around the world have stored away old cell phones in their homes. Most people are unaware that this contributes to the destruction of Grauer gorilla habitats.


As part of a national campaign operating in Australian zoos, the researchers analyzed the progress of the “They're Calling On You” mobile phone recycling project run by Zoos Victoria, which has been ongoing for six years. 

The program is focused on educating zoo visitors about the value of recycling discarded phones to extract special metals from them. In the DRC, mining for these same metals is not only destroying gorilla habitats but is also funding wars and human rights abuses.

Study lead author Dr. Carla Litchfield is an expert on great apes and a conservation psychologist at UniSA. She explained that there is less incentive to mine gorilla habitats if these “conflict” elements can be obtained from old mobile phones. 

“For every 30-40 mobile phones that are recycled, on average, one gram of gold can be recovered,” said Dr. Litchfield. “Just as mobile phone sales are soaring, and gold content is increasing in some smartphones, natural sources of gold are expected to run out by 2030."

By the year 2035, it is estimated that 8,000 tons of precious metals will be wasting away in unused cell phones across Germany alone.

“Hoarding is problematic since precious metals are not extracted and returned to the circular economy, creating the need to mine these metals in wilderness areas,” said Dr. Litchfield.

“The other issue is that if people do discard their old phones, most dispose of them in their household waste, ending up in landfill, where they leach toxic metals.”


The population of Grauer gorillas in the DRC has declined by as much as 93 percent, according to recent estimates. The species is now listed as Critically Endangered, with less than 4,000 individuals remaining in the wild.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Creative Commons

Recycling old mobile phones can help save endangered gorillas

Researchers at the University of South Australia (UniSA) and Zoos...

The Stenopterygius ichthyosaur, an ancient marine reptile that inhabited the oceans during the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tiny-fossil-jurassic-crocodiles/">Jurassic Period</a>, had many traits in common with dolphins and whales. However, given that species are not close relatives, these shared traits have puzzled scientists.

But now, a new study is helping to shed light on the biological traits of the Stenopterygius ichthyosaur. 

An international team of researchers, led by Johan Lindgren from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> in Sweden, conducted a thorough molecular and microstructural analysis of a Stenopterygius fossil that dates back nearly 180 million years. The research was published in the journal Nature.

“Ichthyosaurs are interesting because they have many traits in common with dolphins, but are not at all closely related to those sea-dwelling mammals,” said Mary Schweitzer, a co-author of the study. “We aren't exactly sure of their biology either. They have many features in common with living marine reptiles like sea turtles, but we know from the fossil record that they gave live birth, which is associated with warm-bloodedness. This study reveals some of those biological mysteries.”

[caption id="attachment_1863527" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/This-ancient-marine-reptile-had-more-in-common-with-whales.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1863527" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/This-ancient-marine-reptile-had-more-in-common-with-whales-1024x821.jpg" alt="An ancient marine reptile that inhabited the oceans during the Jurassic period had many traits in common with dolphins and whales." width="700" height="561" /></a> Image Credit: Johan Lindgren[/caption]

The fossil is exceptional and researchers were even able to extract soft tissue samples and study the cells of the marine reptile.

“Both the body outline and remnants of internal organs are clearly visible,” said Johan Lindgren. “Remarkably, the fossil is so well-preserved that it is possible to observe individual cellular layers within its skin.” 

Researchers identified microstructures that held pigments within the reptile's skin and even traces of the liver. The study is the first of its kind to find evidence that ichthyosaurs had insulating layers of blubber like whales. 

“This is the first direct, chemical evidence for warm-bloodedness in an ichthyosaur, because blubber is a feature of warm-blooded animals,” said Schweitzer. 

The results suggest that even though Stenopterygius ichthyosaur was a reptile, it had much more in common with whales and dolphins including dark coloring on top to help camouflage from predators, warm-bloodedness, and blubber. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

This ancient marine reptile had more in common with whales

The Stenopterygius ichthyosaur, an ancient marine reptile that inhabited the...

Even in an era when the highest reaches of the atmosphere and the lowest depths of the ocean are accessible to industrious scientists, some relatively large animals escape notice. Whether because of their remote habitats or cryptic habits, they haven’t worked their way into the public imagination as other charismatic megafauna have. 

It’s sort of astounding, really. The internet is saturated with cute animal photos geared at feeding a culture addicted to the dopamine hits they elicit. You’d think that every remotely charming creature known to man would have gotten its viral moment in the sun at this point. Everything from the dumbo octopus to the Japanese dwarf flying squirrel has ridden the so-called “cute response” to greater levels of renown.

Ethologist Konrad Lorenz called this the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/in_visible_culture/Issue_9/issue9_genosko.pdf">Kindchenschema</a>—the set of proportions that lead humans to believe an infant or another animal is cute. Among these factors are a large head, stubby limbs, and chubby cheeks. A few critters still wait in the wings, prime-time ready but still relatively obscure. The Tibetan sand fox (Vulpes ferrilata), a small canid native to the Tibetan Plateau of China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India, is one of them. A more charming ambassador for the region hasn’t emerged since the Dalai Lama. And this one doesn’t spout irritating platitudes. 

Highly adapted to the harsh climate of its home, the fox is swathed in luxurious grey-gold fur. (It’s Latin name means “iron-grey side.”) It’s so furry, in fact, that it appears almost cartoonish. With its slitted eyes and slyly smirking expression, it looks like a CGI fox that ought to be voiced by Benedict Cumberbatch or Cate Blanchett. 

And those cheeks—if those fluffy jowls don’t fit into the Kindchenschema, I don’t know what does. Known to Western science since the mid 19th century (1842), <a href="https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.com/&amp;httpsredir=1&amp;article=2455&amp;context=himalaya">when British diplomat Brian Hodgson described it</a>, along with many other animals of Kathmandu, where he was stationed, the Tibetan sand fox is still relatively poorly studied. That is perhaps true of most of the animals that share its remote highland habitat. 

Sometime called the “roof of the world,” the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/denisovans-harsh-tibetan-plateau/">Tibetan Plateau</a> is surrounded by mountains, including the Himalayas, and supports a relatively small population of pastoralist nomads. It is significant to humans in that it hosts the headwaters of many of Asia’s major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, Yangtze, and Mekong. Among the few to have studied the wildlife of the area is biologist George B. Schaller, who <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=AFGG7CKX7qQC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PR7&amp;dq=tibetan+sand+fox&amp;ots=rnz2ppoW0C&amp;sig=Zrc9Wg_Ah2C6CeyQwk0-3tpKeRE#v=onepage&amp;q=tibetan%20sand%20fox&amp;f=false">recalls running over a Tibetan sand fox</a> when it bolted in front of his truck. The unfortunate fox was found to have swallowed a whole pika.

It is the fox’s relationship to the pika, specifically the plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae), that is best studied. In fact, most Tibetan sand foxes have been found in the vicinity of pika colonies. These lagomorphs—relatives of rabbits—appear to be its preferred prey species, with studies of fox feces finding pika remains in nearly all of them. When pikas are scarce, they will also eat plateau zokors (Eospalax fontanierii) and other small rodents, birds, insects, plants, including Ephedra berries, and even carrion left by wolves and bears. 

Just as their <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/281/1787/20140893.short">close relative</a> the Arctic fox follows polar bears, hoping to scavenge from their kills, Tibetan sand foxes are known to follow brown bears (Ursus arctos). However, they’re not usually after carrion, which is a last resort for them. Instead, they’re hoping to prey upon pikas fleeing from the bears, who dig up their burrows. This relationship sits on the border between kleptoparasitism and mutualism—while the bear doesn’t necessarily gain anything from the relationship, neither does it lose anything. It would be unlikely to catch the pikas fleeing from their other exits anyway.

Interestingly, the Tibetan sand fox shares much of its range with the similarly sized red fox (Vulpes vulpes). However, because the red fox is a more generalist predator and prefers to hunt at night, as opposed to the crepuscular and occasionally diurnal habits of the Tibetan sand fox, there appears to be little competition between the two species.

While the IUCN lists the species as being of “<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/23061/46179412">least concern</a>,” suggesting relatively stable populations, and CITES doesn’t bother with a mention, the Tibetan sand fox is actually at some risk due to its reliance on the pika. Since 1958, extensive government campaigns have sought to poison the pika due to the notion that its burrowing habits degrade rangeland used for pasturing livestock. Luckily, because most of these poisoning efforts are conducted on foot by inexperienced workers, they have been only sporadically effective. 

Though they may occasionally be preyed upon by wolves and birds of prey, one of their other main threats appears to be human-related as well. Stray and feral dogs are known to take foxes, which are substantially smaller and thus easy prey. As if this weren’t bad enough, these dogs may then transmit a fatal tapeworm infestation back to human settlements. 

Tibetan sand foxes are the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aleksei_Chmura/publication/228643387_Den_Habitat_Characteristics_of_Tibetan_FoxesVulpes_ferrilata_in_Shiqu_County_Sichuan_Province_China/links/554793980cf2b0cf7acd50dc.pdf">primary hosts of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis</a>; pikas may also serve as intermediate hosts. This cestode <a href="https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/rg.327125708">causes alveolar echinococcosis (AE)</a>, a disease in which tapeworms infect the liver and other organs, damaging them beyond repair if not detected early enough. It can be fatal. Though no programs aimed specifically at controlling foxes due to the risk they pose to humans as a zoonotic vector, it is a situation worth monitoring. 

With its unusual lack of territoriality and tendency to mate for life, this adorable canid is Pixar fodder just waiting to be harvested. Let’s not let what happened to the recently extinct Spix’s macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii), star of the animated Rio, happen to the Tibetan sand fox. It would be a shame to lose this species before its habits—and its importance to its ecosystem—are fully known. 

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://www.ourbreathingplanet.com/tibetan-sand-fox/">Our Breathing Planet</a>

Reynard of the steppes: The Tibetan sand fox

Even in an era when the highest reaches of the...

An alarming new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has found microplastics in the guts of all seven species of sea turtles. The researchers examined more than 100 sea turtles across three different oceans.

In collaboration with Greenpeace Research Laboratories, the team looked for synthetic particles less than 5 millimeters in length, including microplastics, which were discovered to be present in all of the turtles.

The most common synthetic particles found were fibers that may have originated in clothing, cigarette filters, ropes, or fishing nets.

“The effect of these particles on turtles is unknown,” said lead author Dr. Emily Duncan. “Their small size means they can pass through the gut without causing a blockage, as is frequently reported with larger plastic fragments.”

“However, future work should focus on whether microplastics may be affecting aquatic organisms more subtly. For example, they may possibly carry contaminants, bacteria or viruses, or they may affect the turtle at a cellular or subcellular level. This requires further investigation.”

Overall, more than 800 synthetic particles were found in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-flippers-hands/">sea turtles</a>, but this number is estimated to be about 20 times higher due to the fact that the experts only tested a small portion of the gut in each animal. 

While it is not yet clear how the turtles ingest the particles, the contaminants likely originate in polluted seawater and sediments.

“It really is a great shame that many or even all of the world's sea turtles have now ingested microplastics,” said study senior author Professor Brendan Godley. “At the moment, this is not the main threat to this species group but it is a clear sign that we need to act to better govern global waste.”

Dr. Penelope Lindeque of Plymouth Marine Laboratory added, “While this study has been successful, it does not feel like a success to have found microplastic in the gut of every single turtle we have investigated.”

“From our work over the years we have found microplastic in nearly all the species of marine animals we have looked at; from tiny zooplankton at the base of the marine food web to fish larvae, dolphins and now turtles.

"This study provides more evidence that we all need to help reduce the amount of plastic waste released to our seas and maintain clean, healthy and productive oceans for future generations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microplastics found in the guts of every sea turtle species

An alarming new study led by the University of Exeter...

A new study published December 4th in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2006841">PLOS Biology</a> proves that, as humans alter local environments for their own use, local iconic species are lost and replaced with more common species.

The study, led by Tim Newbold from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> and Andy Purvis from the <a href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum in London</a>, used data from 81 countries provided by more than 500 researchers around the world. Newbold and Purvis found that when humans modify an environment for farming, housing, or urbanizing purposes, we negatively affect the naturally-occurring species in that area. 

Those lost unique animals and plants are soon replaced with species that are able to populate modified environments — species that can be found in many different places globally, like pigeons within cities and rats on farming land.

"As humans, we place great value on animals and plants that are confined to particular locations," said Newbold. "We travel around the world to see animals like tigers in Asia or rhinoceroses in Africa, and animals and plants are often our national emblems."

However, Newbold notes that as humans continue to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-bodies-increasingly-polluted/">change and shape environments</a> that hosted unique species, we are actually favoring the development and spread of common species while losing animals and plants that make global environments so unique.

Newbold and Purvis’ findings show how important wildlife conservation is and how humans need to be more aware of how specific animals and plants play into their ecosystem function. The researchers hope to use this new revelation and apply it to their understanding of how human-caused climate change may also be lending a hand in the disappearance of local iconic species and the spread of cosmopolitan ones.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

With human interference, local species are replaced by common ones

A new study published December 4th in the journal PLOS...

According to scientists at <a href="http://www.usu.edu/">Utah State University</a> (USU), one out of every four bee species in the United States is found in Utah, and there are more bee species across the state than most others in the country. About half of these species live within the former boundaries of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/trump-grand-staircase-escalante/">Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument</a>, which is shrinking due to legislation that was passed last year.

“The monument is a hotspot of bee diversity,” said Joseph Wilson, an associate professor in USU's Department of Biology. 

Last month, along with several other scientists, Professor Wilson reported on 660 bee species identified in the protected region. A follow-up study was conducted to examine the impacts from the reduction of the monument. The researchers found that 87 percent of the 660 bee species still exist within the reduced boundaries of the monument. 

“But that leaves about 84 species no longer inhabiting protected land,” said Professor Wilson. “This includes some new, undescribed species, as well as ‘morphospecies,’ which are unique individuals that don't match known species.”

Furthermore, some species that are only known to exist in the Mojave Desert are now among the bees outside of the protected area.

“This is significant because these are 'edge' populations,” said Professor Wilson. “That is, in the face of climate change, they could be the first to go extinct as the region gets hotter and drier, or the area could provide a refuge for populations of the same species now inhabiting the Mojave desert.”

The lack of consideration of pollinators in the new management plans for the monument is an even bigger concern, said Professor Wilson.

“Will the reduction in monument size affect the pollinators? We don't know. But if development is allowed in the unprotected areas, say, mining, road development, more recreational development than, yes, pollinator habitat could be lost.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Joseph S. Wilson, USU

Some bee species will vanish as Grand-Staircase Escalante shrinks

According to scientists at Utah State University (USU), one out...

Animals bring joy into people’s lives, whether we are observing their behaviors in the wild or cuddling up with our beloved pet on the couch. Most people could not imagine hurting these innocent animals yet animal cruelty is still a prevalent issue in our society. A new report by the <a href="https://www.sheriffs.org/">National Sheriffs’ Association</a> warns about the severity of animal cruelty and its link to other violent crimes.

The <a href="https://www.sheriffs.org/publications/e071818886AnimalCruelty_v10_508.pdf">report</a>, as part of the Animal Cruelty as a Gateway to Serious Crimes project, aims to help law enforcement agencies “recognize that animal cruelty crimes can serve as a precursor to more violent crimes, as a co-occurring crime to other types of offenses, and as an interrelated crime to offenses such as domestic violence and elder abuse.”

According to FBI data, there were a reported 1,126 animal cruelty cases in 2016. While this number is significant, it likely encompasses only a small percentage of animal crimes. <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rejecting-inhumane-animal-activities/">Animal cruelty</a> is difficult to prosecute for many reasons, including the fact that the victim of the crime cannot speak up for themselves and the possibility that the crime may not be reported because witnesses, such as partners and children, may be scared to speak up against the offender.

In a <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/088626099014009004">1999 study,</a> researchers found that animal abusers were significantly more likely to be involved in others forms of criminal behavior such as violent and drug crimes. Overall, animal abusers were 5.3 times more likely to have a violent criminal record than people who had not been convicted of animal cruelty.

Animal abusers often victimize multiple people within the household. A beloved pet dog can be used as a tool to control a partner or child. A <a href="http://www.vachss.com/guest_dispatches/ascione_1.html">study</a> of women entering a domestic violence shelter found that 71% of pet-owning women stated that their partner had threatened or actually harmed their pet.

The link between animal cruelty, domestic violence, child abuse and elder abuse is now well-recognized among animal advocacy and criminal justice groups.

“Our research has shown if somebody is harming an animal, there is a good chance they also are hurting or will hurt a human. If we can see patterns of animal abuse, the odds are that something else is going on,” said John Thompson, Deputy Executive Director of the National Sheriffs’ Association in a<a href="https://www.sheriffs.org/NSA-Releases-New-Animal-Cruelty-Resource-for-Law-Enforcement"> press release.</a>

But it hasn’t always been this way. Traditionally, there was a mentality among criminal justice professionals that animal crimes were less severe than other crimes.

In a 2010 New York Times<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/13/magazine/13dogfighting-t.html"> article</a>, a dog-fighting expert explains, “with traditional law enforcement, the attitude has been that we have enough stuff on our plate, let the others worry about Fluffy and Muffy. But I’m starting to see a shift in that mentality now.”

This mentality was not exclusive to law enforcement but was also seen in our state laws. All fifty U.S. states did not even have felony animal cruelty laws on their books until 2014.

The National Sheriffs’ Association advisory group, composed of animal advocacy groups and experts, concludes that “the law enforcement community’s awareness of animal crimes should increase, and at the same time, they should alleviate some of the issues surrounding the reporting, investigation, and prosecution of animal crimes by first responders, investigators, and prosecutors.”

In addition, the advisory group notes that cultural changes in law enforcement agencies needs to occur so that animal crimes are afforded increased attention and priority. As an indicator crime, the presence of animal cruelty can provide law enforcement with important insight into a situation.

The National Sheriffs’ Association, along with the National Coalition on Violence Against Animals, developed a smartphone app for responding officers in the field to help them identify potential animal cruelty.

Not only will tools such as this help save animals lives but it could help uncover unknown human victims of violence.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Animal cruelty linked to other violent crimes and behavior

Animals bring joy into people’s lives, whether we are observing...

While the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species is a powerful tool for species conservation, getting just one single species on the list is a huge undertaking that involves expensive and highly specialized research. But now, a newly developed method using machine learning will make it much easier to predict species that could be eligible for the IUCN list. 

Currently, there is a large number of species that have not been formally assessed by the IUCN. For example, only around five percent of all known plant species appear on Red List in any of its five at-risk categories.

Anahí Espíndola is an assistant professor of Entomology at the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> who is helping to develop a system that taps into the potential of machine learning and open-access data to identify <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sharing-information-threatened-species/">threatened species</a>. 

In one of the largest-ever assessments of conservation risk, the research team has created a machine learning algorithm and evaluated more than 150,000 species of plants from across the planet. The results of the modeling revealed that at least 10 percent of these species are extremely likely to qualify for the IUCN endangered list.

[caption id="attachment_1863326" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/threatened-species-map.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1863326" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/threatened-species-map-1024x444.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="304" /></a> Map revealing the predicted levels of risk to more than 150,000 species of plants located worldwide. Image Credit: Anahí Espíndola and Tara Pelletier[/caption]

“Our method isn't meant to replace formal assessments using IUCN protocols. It's a tool that can help prioritize the process, by calculating the probability that a given species is at risk,” explained Professor Espíndola. “Ultimately, we hope it will help governments and resource managers decide where to devote their limited resources for conservation. This could be especially useful in regions that are understudied.”

The predictive model was designed using open-access data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and the TRY Plant Trait Database. Study lead author Professor Tara Pelletier from Radford University collaborated with Professor Espíndola to perform the machine learning.

According to Professor Espíndola, some of the most threatened regions flagged by the model have not received enough attention from researchers in the past. She hopes that this method can help identify regions and species that need to be evaluated.

“Let's say you wanted to assess every species of wild bee on one continent. So you do the assessment and find that only one species is at risk. Now you've used all those resources to identify an area with low risk, which is still helpful, but not ideal when resources are limited. We want to help prevent that from happening,” said Professor Espíndola. 

“Our analysis was global, but the model can be adapted for use at any geographic scale. Everything we've done is 100 percent open access, highlighting the power of publicly-available data. We hope people will use our model--and we hope they point out errors and help us fix them, to make it better.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Machine learning will make it easier to identify threatened species

While the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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