Rats scurry through alleyways, tunnels, and parks. While these creatures are a common sight in city life, their movements may carry far more danger than many realize. 



A newly published six-year study reveals how rat migrations within cities contribute to the spread of a serious bacterial infection called leptospirosis - a disease that can be fatal for both humans and animals.



In this study, scientists from <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tufts University</a>, along with researchers from Northern Arizona University, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), worked together to track the spread of leptospirosis in Boston. 



The team also introduced a new way to test rat kidneys for this disease-causing bacteria, a method that may change how future infections are traced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-leptospirosis">What is leptospirosis?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-and-shrews-living-close-together-trade-gut-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leptospirosis</a> is caused by a bacterium that often thrives in rats. It's spread primarily through rat urine, which contaminates soil, water, and other parts of the environment. From there, it can infect humans, dogs, and other animals. 



While common in tropical areas, this disease is now appearing more in colder regions, likely due to the warming effects of climate change.



In Boston, the disease has been found in the city’s rat populations, with various strains moving between neighborhoods as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shipping-superhighways-helped-brown-rats-conquer-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats migrate</a>. 



The research team was able to genetically link a 2018 human case of leptospirosis in Boston to infected rats in the same area, confirming a strong connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-hidden-bacteria-in-rats">Tracking a hidden bacteria in rats</h2>



From 2016 to 2022, researchers worked with Boston’s Inspectional Services Department to trap and test rats from 17 different sites. 



They collected and analyzed DNA from the kidneys of 328 rats. Out of those, 59 rats - covering 12 different sites - tested positive for the Leptospira bacteria. Culturing this bacterium is no easy task. 



Marike Rosenbaum is an assistant professor in the Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health at Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University.



“The primary way to get a full genomic sequence of a virus or bacteria is to culture it, which was a challenge in this case because Leptospira is considered a fastidious organism. It has specific requirements for temperature, pH, and nutrients," said Rosenbaum.



"But our USDA collaborators cultured the bacteria from not only fresh but also frozen rodent kidneys, which has never been reported in the literature before, to get isolates."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-the-whole-genome">Using the whole genome</h2>



Experts at Northern Arizona University’s Pathogen &amp; Microbiome Institute used specialized DNA techniques to isolate and enhance the bacterial genetic material. This allowed researchers to gather a detailed view of how the bacteria spread and evolve.



“The new genetic and tools that we developed and used in this study are real game changers for leptospirosis research, as we can now use the power of the whole genome to look for relatedness among samples, something that just wasn’t possible before,” said Dr. Dave Wagner, executive director of the PMI at NAU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-movement-of-disease">Mapping the movement of disease</h2>



By combining genetic sequencing with information on rat migration, the team was able to see how leptospirosis travels through the city. 



“Because we were able to do the culturing and the sequencing, we were able to look more closely at how the different strains of leptospirosis are related, which helps us understand how the bacteria are getting transmitted between rats and rat populations in the city,” Rosenbaum said.



This information could help shape better strategies for controlling rat populations and minimizing human exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-human-health">Threats to human health </h2>



The researchers also studied a single human case of leptospirosis in Boston, working with the CDC to analyze the bacterial strain. They compared it to those found in local rats. 



The result was striking: the strain in the human was nearly identical to those found in three rats from the same area, even though those rats were collected in different years. "It's very strong evidence that the source of that human case was a rat,” said Rosenbaum.



Not every case of leptospirosis is detected. Some people may have no symptoms at all. Others might feel slightly sick before recovering. However, a small number of infections lead to serious complications - including organ failure or even death.



“Human exposure to rats is not very common. But certain populations might be at higher risk, like unhoused people or people who engage in outdoor injection drug use, which are situations that lead to more direct contact with rats,” said Rosenbaum.



Diagnosing leptospirosis is tricky. Many doctors don’t think to test for it unless they suspect exposure. And even when they do, antibiotic treatment can eliminate the bacteria before it shows up on a test. 



Positive results also aren’t always reported to public health databases, making it harder to track.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-rats-travel">Understanding how rats travel</h2>



The research also uncovered how rats move throughout Boston. “Rats have a high degree of genetic structure, which means there are distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rat-populations-are-increasing-in-cities-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat populations throughout the city</a> that are highly related to each other,” Rosenbaum explained.



These populations don’t mix often. But when rats do migrate - due to construction, habitat disruption, or environmental changes - they can carry bacteria with them. Each rat group tends to maintain its own unique strain of leptospirosis over time.



A rat in Boston typically needs to travel over 600 meters - more than a third of a mile - to encounter a genetically different group. Wide roads limit this movement, while green spaces and corridors make it easier for them to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eradicating-rats-isn-t-the-answer">Eradicating rats isn’t the answer</h2>



The goal is not to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rat-eradication-is-beneficial-for-seabirds-and-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eradicate rats</a> entirely. That would be nearly impossible. Instead, scientists want to understand how different pest control methods affect rat migration and disease spread.



“Extermination is not realistic,” Rosenbaum said. “But I think better understanding of how the different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-pest-control-this-simple-cinnamon-trick-keeps-mice-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest control</a> interventions are impacting rat migrations and transmission of pathogens amongst the rat population would be really helpful.”



By combining genetic science, city mapping, and public health, this study sheds new light on how a quiet pest in our cities can carry a very loud threat - one that deserves more attention.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0012966" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases</a>.



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Rats are spreading a deadly disease across cities

Rats scurry through alleyways, tunnels, and parks. While these creatures are a common sight in city life, their movements may carry far more danger than many realize. A newly published six-year study reveals how rat migrations within cities contribute to the spread of a serious bacterial infection called leptospirosis - a disease that can be fatal for both humans and animals. In this study, scientists from Tufts University, along with researchers from Northern Arizona University, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Centers for Disease...

Marine protected reserves, no-take zones, and no-entry zones are specially designated areas where restrictions limit the amount of human activity allowed in the vicinity. 

These rules are meant to protect the marine ecosystem and stop habitat and species loss, and they are vital to conservation efforts, especially along coral reefs. 

Now, a new <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0186146">study</a> conducted by researchers from the<a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/"> University of Queensland, Australia</a> has found that protected zones are beneficial to fish populations along the Great Barrier Reef, even in those areas with only fishing. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-life-bleaching/">The Great Barrier Reef</a> in Australia is the largest coral reef in the world. It’s home to a diverse array of marine wildlife and its status as a <a href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/154">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> means that much of the reef is protected. 

For the study, the researchers wanted to see if there was a difference in fish populations and biodiversity along the reef where some fishing occurred compared to the protected “no-take” and “no entry” zones. 

The research team counted and measured the biomass of marine species that are commonly fished and found at 31 different areas along the reef. The researchers also analyzed the seabed habitat in these areas. 

The results showed that in the protected areas where no fishing occurred there was greater fish biomass. The biomass in no-take and no entry places tended to be five times greater compared to the areas of the reef where fishing occurred. 

Even if the areas examined were lightly fished, the researchers saw a decrease in fish biomass compared to the protected areas.

However, even lightly exploited areas where some fishing occurs is better for fish populations than places where poaching and heavy fishing occurs. 

The findings illustrate the vital importance of marine conservation efforts, especially along coral reef systems which are host to a wide array of marine wildlife. 

The difference in biomass along the Great Barrier Reef shows how sensitive the reef and marine ecosystems are to fishing operations. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Report: Great Barrier Reef protected zones benefit all fish

Marine protected reserves, no-take zones, and no-entry zones are specially...

Researchers have confirmed that fossils discovered on southern England’s Jurassic Coast belonged humankind’s earliest known mammal ancestors. 

Grant Smith, an undergraduate student at the<a href="http://www.port.ac.uk/"> University of Portsmouth,</a> made the discovery while sifting through Cretaceous rocks from the Jurassic Coast for a dissertation project. Smith collected two teeth during his excavations that belonged to rat-like creatures 145 million years ago, during the time of the dinosaurs. 

The teeth belonged to a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammals-nocturnal-dinosaurs/">mammals</a> that are the earliest known ancestors of most mammals on Earth, including humans. 

Smith worked with Dr. Steve Sweetman, a research fellow at Portsmouth, to examine the fossils and confirm the discovery.

Their findings were published in the journal Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 

Sweetman notes that the fossils are the oldest known to exist of our early mammalian ancestors. 

“In the world of palaeontology there has been a lot of debate around a specimen found in China, which is approximately 160 million years old,” said Sweetman. “This was originally said to be of the same type as ours but recent studies have ruled this out. That being the case, our 145 million-year-old teeth are undoubtedly the earliest yet known from the line of mammals that lead to our own species.”

The teeth would have belonged to small, furry, and likely nocturnal creatures. The research team was able to determine the animal’s eating habits and even guess age based on the fossils. 

“The teeth are of a highly advanced type that can pierce, cut and crush food,” Sweetman explained. “They are also very worn which suggests the animals to which they belonged lived to a good age for their species. No mean feat when you're sharing your habitat with predatory dinosaurs.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossils of humankind’s earliest ancestors found in England

Researchers have confirmed that fossils discovered on southern England’s Jurassic...

As a result of one of the most detailed paternity tests ever conducted in wild trees, scientists have discovered that tiny pollinating bees play matchmaker across long distances. The bees promote the genetic diversity needed for trees to survive disease, climate change, and other threats.

Researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">The University of Texas at Austin</a> examined the routes taken by hundreds of bees to and from trees that they pollinated across a forest spanning over 2.5 miles. The study revealed that the smallest bees were able to travel every bit as far as the larger bees, often pairing trees that were separated by over a mile. 

The researchers ultimately determined that in half of cases when paired trees existed a significant distance apart, the pollen had been carried by a bee no bigger than a grain of rice.

"Size isn't everything," said lead author Shalene Jha. "These little bees are responsible for major beneficial impacts in terms of reproduction and gene flow."

The research took place over four years in a tropical rainforest near the Panama Canal. The area of observation was about 10 times the size of previous studies conducted to evaluate the pollinating patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blooming-seasons-bad-bees/">bees</a>.

"If you work in a small portion of forest, you're only capable of measuring pollen movement in a small area," said Jha. "We picked up the signal about how far these little bees move because we started doing work that was commensurate with the scale at which they're actually flying."

Over 85 percent of plants, including almost two-thirds of food crops, rely on pollinating insects for sexual reproduction. In the past, studies of pollinating insects have focused primarily on larger bees which carry the most pollen.

"We haven't traditionally asked how pollinators influence the way genes are passed on across generations, but it's incredibly important for long-term population persistence," said Jha. "We typically look at seeds or the number of seeds when we want to know a bee's role in pollination service, but not 'who are the fathers of these seeds?' "

Jha explained that knowing the parents of any given plant is essential not only for a better quantity of plants and crops but also for better quality. She hopes that the new research will show how even the smallest pollinators can provide the optimal conditions for plant reproduction and reforestation.

The study is published this week in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Antonio Castilla, The University of Texas at Austin

Small bees have a big impact on tree reproduction

As a result of one of the most detailed paternity...

A new study sheds light on ancient mammals who switched from being nocturnal to being active during the day after the dinosaurs went extinct 66 million years ago.

This is the first time research has mapped the change from nocturnal behavior in mammals to diurnal behavior. 

The study was conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> and <a href="http://smnh.tau.ac.il/eng">Tel Aviv University's Steinhardt Museum of Natural History</a>.

The results show that mammals only began to switch to daytime activities after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-killed-dinosaurs-cooled/">dinosaurs</a> were wiped out, and also reveals which species made the change first.

For the study, the researchers analyzed data from 2,415 species of mammals alive today and used computer algorithms to simulate the activity patterns of the species’ ancestors from millions of years ago. 

Two mammalian family trees showing differing timelines for the evolution of mammals were used for the for the study, but both timelines revealed that mammals became active during the day only after the dinosaurs went extinct. 

“We were very surprised to find such close correlation between the disappearance of dinosaurs and the beginning of daytime activity in mammals, but we found the same result unanimously using several alternative analyses,” said Roi Maor. the study’s lead author. 

The researchers discovered that simian primates, who are the only mammals that evolved to see better during the daytime, were the first to switch from nocturnal behavior. 

This switch could have occurred between 52 and 33 million years ago. 

Even though the results point to the extinction of the dinosaurs as the catalyst for the change from nocturnal behavior, the researchers note that it is impossible to point to the exact cause of the change. 

Fossils can tell researchers a great deal about what the Earth was like millions of years ago, but behavior has to be observed in live animals. 

“You have to observe a living mammal to see if it is active at night or in the day. Fossil evidence from mammals often suggest that they were nocturnal even if they were not. Many subsequent adaptations that allow us to live in daylight are in our soft tissues,” said Professor Tamar Dayan, co-author and Chair of The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History at Tel Aviv University. 

More research will have to be done to determine exactly when ancient mammals started being active during the day, but the study enhances science’s understanding of the mammalian family tree.  

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient mammals were nocturnal until the dinosaurs died off

A new study sheds light on ancient mammals who switched...

Compared to most animals, humans have the capacity to live much longer lives. Some animals, however, not only outlive humans but can actually survive longer than multiple generations of people. <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> presents: the longest-living animals on the planet.

&nbsp;

Ocean quahog

Also known as Arctica Islandica, this edible clam species is well-known for their long lifespans. One specimen found in the Icelandic seabed, which was then estimated to be around 405, turned out to be 507 years old.

&nbsp;

Greenland Shark

The longest living vertebrate on the planet is the Greenland shark, with a lifespan of 400 years. These sharks do not even reach sexual maturity until they are 150 years old, according to a recent study. The researchers dated one ancient shark which lived as many as 512 years.

&nbsp;

Koi

Some varieties of koi fish live longer than others. A koi living in the long-established waters of Japan, its historical home, can easily live to be over 70. A koi carp known as “Hanako" lived  to be 225 years old in Japan. In artificial ponds, it is still not unusual for a koi fish to reach over 40 years old. 

&nbsp;

Bowhead Whale

Also known as the Arctic whale, bowheads are the longest living mammals on Earth.

These whales can live to be over 200 years old, with the oldest known bowhead reaching the age of 211. Researchers have found that part of what enables these animals to live for so long is that they rarely succumb to cancer and disease.

&nbsp;

Giant Tortoise

With an average lifespan of over 100 years, giant tortoises are very resilient creatures. Their long lives can be partially attributed to an extremely slow metabolism. Some giant tortoises such as Galapagos tortoises can go over a year without food or water. An Aldabra giant tortoise that died in India in 2006 was believed to be 255 years old.

&nbsp;

Red sea urchin

Located primarily along the west coast of North America, red sea urchins prefer rocky, shallow ocean floor waters. They move around slowly, using their sharp spines as stilts. Red sea urchins often live beyond 30 years, and in optimal conditions have even lived to be over 200 years old.

&nbsp;

Cockatoo

Cockatoos have an average lifespan of 50-70 years in proper conditions, so bringing a cockatoo into a happy and healthy home is most likely a lifetime commitment. Umbrella Cockatoos can live 80 years or more when properly cared for. A legendary sulphur-crested cockatoo in Australia known as Cocky Bennett died at the ripe old age of 120.

&nbsp;

Geoduck

Also known as mud ducks or king clams, geoducks can reach up to 10 pounds. They are also one of the world's longest living animals and the oldest known geoduck clam lived to be 168 years old.

&nbsp;

Asian Elephant

Asian elephants are slightly smaller than African elephants and are native to India and Southeast Asia. They live to be an average age of 70 years old. Lin Wang, a famous elephant at the Taipei Zoo who had once served in the Chinese army, lived the longest life of any Asian elephant in captivity and died at age 86.

&nbsp;

Tuatara

With an average lifespan of 60 years, these reptiles can actually live to be over 100. They mature so slowly that they continue to grow larger for the first 35 years of life. This unique species dates back over 200 million years, with characteristics largely unchanged since the Jurassic Period.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The top 10 longest-living animals

Compared to most animals, humans have the capacity to live...

If you’re feeling down, a trip outside to reconnect with nature may be just what you need to boost happiness, a new study claims.

Spending time in the great outdoors each day can help to increase personal well-being, the researchers found – no travel required. Just be sure to take time to pay attention to your natural surroundings and how they make you feel.

"This wasn't about spending hours outdoors or going for long walks in the wilderness," said Holli-Anne Passmore, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://ok.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia-Okanagan</a>. "This is about the tree at a bus stop in the middle of a city and the positive effect that one tree can have on people."

Nearly 400 study participants spent two weeks on an “intervention” intended to boost happiness. They were asked to spend time outside each day, document the natural world around them, and explore how the plants, trees and wildlife made them feel.

Each participant was asked to photograph any part of nature that caught their eye, from a bird or squirrel to a week growing from the sidewalk, and write down a short note about how it made them feel.

A second group did the same exercise but with man-made objects like statues and buildings, and a third control group did neither. 

The study participants turned in nearly 2,500 photos and notes. Researchers found that for those in the nature group, simply being aware of their surroundings had participants reporting a happiness boost and a greater connection to their community.

"The difference in participants' well-being – their happiness, sense of elevation, and their level of connectedness to other people, not just nature – was significantly higher than participants in the group noticing how human-built objects made them feel and the control group,” Passmore said.

The study is one of several that the University of British Columbia’s psychology researchers have undertaken to explore how nature is connected to well-being. The researchers hope to add to the scientific documentation showing the benefits of green spaces in urban landscapes.

The study has been published in the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17439760.2016.1221126">Journal of Positive Psychology</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Feeling blue? Take notice of nature to boost happiness

If you’re feeling down, a trip outside to reconnect with...

Infants stolen from their mothers. Apes drugged and beaten until they learn tricks that will entertain tourists. These are scenes from the illegal ape trade, and journalists from the New York Times have been working with those who track smugglers to shed new light on the crime.

Wildlife smuggling has become an extremely profitable black market trade, and not just when it comes to apes. Countries throughout the world have struggled to crack down on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-missing-poached/">elephant poaching</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pangolin-worlds-trafficked-mammal/">pangolin trafficking</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-species-2016/">tiger hunting</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/concerns-reptiles-amphibians-pets/">exotic pet practices</a> that are harmful to both the animals and public health.

Wildlife smuggling and poaching have skyrocketed in recent years, according to the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/">World Wildlife Fund</a>. 

“Today, it is the fifth most profitable illicit trade in the world, estimated at up to $10 billion annually,” the WWF wrote.

The trade in apes like chimpanzees and orangutans makes up part of this industry, and the ape trade is proving to be much larger than anyone expected. When a <a href="https://www.cites.org/">CITES</a>-operated database launched earlier this year, researchers discovered a widespread problem. 

A single ape trade network that went undetected for over a decade had trafficked more than 1,800 of the creatures, the <a href="http://www.un-grasp.org/">Great Ape Survival Partnership</a> reported. More than 90 percent of the busts recorded in 23 countries had never been entered in international smuggling databases.

Animal smugglers are competing with the likes of drug cartels and weapons dealers, but unlike dealing in drugs and guns, wildlife smuggling is low-risk, according to the WWF.

It’s a comparison journalist Jeffrey Gettleman heard as well.

“The way they do business makes the Mafia look like amateurs,” ape trafficking sleuth Daniel Stiles told the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/world/africa/ape-trafficking-bonobos-orangutans.html?partner=IFTTT">New York Times</a> writer in his exposé about the trade.

Gettleman shadowed Stiles as he used <a href="https://www.instagram.com/?hl=en">Instagram</a> and other social media to track down potential poachers selling live ape infants. Some of the apes are sold as pets; most end up in circuses or zoos that train the animals – often using brutal methods – to perform tricks in an attempt to drum up business, Stiles said.

Stiles isn’t just a self-styled detective. He was the lead author of a 2013 report published by the United Nations about the ape trade.

Speaking to Stiles and other experts, Gettleman learned that the infants are much easier to smuggle than the strong adults, and poachers often wipe out entire family groups of chimps, gorillas, gibbons or orangutans to steal the infants. 

Thanks to corruption among officials and loose regulations at certain ports, a pipeline has developed to sneak infant apes out of central Africa and southeast Asia and into the hands of collectors, the New York Times reported. 

The apes are often drugged or beaten and forced to learn how to play drums, smoke cigarettes, fight each other, or perform other tricks to entertain tourists. One was kept as a hotel mascot – until he escaped and was shot by police.

Most of the apes rescued from these lives require rehabilitation before they can be reintroduced to the wild.

Often the infant apes are sold for thousands of dollars – or as much as $250,000, in the case of gorillas – to their final owner. But the people who catch the babies often earn very little for them. One poacher told Gettleman he was paid about $10 per infant bonobo he caught alive. 

“In Boende, a small town up another tributary of the Congo River, three hunters were recently caught with bonobo carcasses and sentenced to several years in a stifling colonial-era prison. The men said they were simply trying to feed their families by selling bonobo meat,” Gettleman wrote.

Gettleman followed along with Stiles as he worked with Thai police and arranged to meet with a suspected ape smuggler in Bangkok. In the end, two baby orangutans were rescued – but the smuggler escaped. 

“But for every successful bust, wildlife specialists say, five to 10 other animals slip through. And for every smuggled ape, several more may have been killed in the process,” Gettleman wrote.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Journalist sheds light on horrors of illegal ape trade

Infants stolen from their mothers. Apes drugged and beaten until...

Whether through the adorable head tilt of a puppy, or a cat winding itself around the legs of its owner, we like to think our pets can sense how we’re feeling. 

Previous studies have shown that even though animals like dogs can’t speak, they can sense our emotions and body language. 

Now, a new study has found the same is true with horses, who were far more likely to approach someone displaying submissive posture rather than dominant posture.

The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/">University of Sussex</a> and the <a href="http://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a>. 

The results are useful in showing how animals take communication cues from body language, and can help trainers and handlers forge better relationships with those animals in their care. 

For the study, the researchers performed different trials with 30 domestic horses. The horses came from three different equestrian centers in East Essex and Suffolk in England.

During the trials, the horses had a choice to approach two similarly dressed humans who wore dark neck cover over most of their face to mask facial expressions. 

The two people would then take different stances. The first was submissive, with legs together and arms together, curled in and looking small. The second dominant, with chest out and legs apart. 

Even though the horses had been given a reward by both humans before the testing began, the horses approached the person with submissive posture. 

The researchers conducted four different trials and every time, the horses showed a preference for the person displaying submissive posture. 

Posture is often a part of training for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-budget-wild-horses/">horses</a>, but this study effectively proves that horses are predisposed to certain cues and posture even before any training. 

“Results like these encourage us to be more conscious of the signals we exhibit when interacting with horses and other animals to facilitate a smooth animal-human relationship,” said Clara Wilson, the co-author of the study.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Horses can read the posture of humans

Whether through the adorable head tilt of a puppy, or...

According to new research, there are now mosquitos in London’s underground transit system that have evolved beyond the need to feed on hosts to produce eggs. 

Urbanization isn’t just affecting mosquitos, though. Rapid development in cities is now a driving force in modern evolution, according to a new study. 

The research, conducted by scientists from the <a href="http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto Mississauga </a>and <a href="https://www.fordham.edu/">Fordham University</a>, is the first of its kind to factor in urbanization in current evolutionary trends. 

Like the mosquitos, rapid urban development is causing some surprising consequences like an uptick in bedbug infestations worldwide. 

"Traditionally, we've thought about evolution as a long-term process driven by environmental pressures and the interactions between species,” said Jason Munshi-South, an associate professor of biological sciences at Fordham University, and one of the authors of the study. “But now there is a new driver that is rapidly changing many other species, which is how they interact with humans and our built environment."

The study examines native species and their ability to adapt to urbanization, if cities are helping or hindering their survival, and if, like bedbugs, other pests have evolved to depend on cities and people. 

The researchers analyzed different means of genetic adaptation in species, like mutation, neutral evolution and adaptive evolution through natural selection, and found that cities affect all these mechanisms of evolution. 

Native species ranging from plants, mammals, birds, amphibians, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-lost-nature-reserves/">insects</a> were all analyzed in the study to see how urbanization impacted evolution. 

“We've created a novel ecosystem that no organism has ever seen before,” said Marc Johnson, an associate professor of biology at the University of Toronto Mississauga. 

In the case of the certain species, like bedbugs and mosquitoes, urbanization’s impact on evolution could be dangerous and increase disease carrying-pests. 

That’s why the researchers caution urban planning efforts, and suggest that new measures need to be taken to lessen the impact of urbanization on native species

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Cities are driving the evolution of some species

According to new research, there are now mosquitos in London’s...

Imagine a flesh-eating bird with the wingspan of a small plane that lived among the dinosaurs and stalked its prey on the ground.

The fossilized remains of this terrifying creature were recently discovered in the Gobi Desert in Mongolia. Scientists have determined the animal was a pterosaur that lived during the Cretaceous period 70 million years ago. 

The bones were first uncovered by paleontologists back in 2006, but the specimen was so fragmented, it took years to piece it together. 

Initially, a piece of the first vertebra is what led the study’s lead author, Takanobu Tsuishiji from the <a href="http://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a>, to identify the fossil as a pterosaur. 

However, due to its immense size and wingspan, no other pterosaur like it has been discovered before. 

“It’s a really big vertebra, and the only thing comparable is some material from Romania. This is definitely up there with the largest pterosaurs, and there’s nothing like it from Asia so far,” pterosaur expert Mark Witton told <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/10/new-pterosaur-found-mongolia-largest-fossils-science/">National Geographic</a>. 

The Mongolian fossil is gigantic, with a possible wingspan of 36 feet. The pterosaur would have been able to walk on all fours, hunting its prey on the ground. 

Pterosaurs would have fed on baby dinosaurs, walking among the many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-killed-dinosaurs-cooled/">dinosaurs</a> that thrived during the Cretaceous period. 

Pterosaurs are also thought to have been the largest flying animals on Earth and the first vertebrates who evolved to develop the power of flight. 

Those who made the discovery compare their fossil to two other giant documented pterosaurs, the Quetzalcoatlus and the Hatzegopteryx, both of which who had wingspans around 32 to 36 feet and could have been as tall as 18 feet. 

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Colossal flesh-eating predator was one of the largest to fly

Imagine a flesh-eating bird with the wingspan of a small...

Scientists have identified a new species of great ape in Sumatra. The isolated population of orangutans, named Tapanuli orangutans, may have been discovered just in time, as researchers have determined they are among the most threatened great apes in the world.

According to the researchers, there are only about 800 Tapanuli orangutans left. Those that remain are threatened by hunting and loss of habitat. The new orangutan species lives in the Batang Toru area in North Sumatra, Indonesia.

Tapanuli orangutans, the seventh known species of great apes, were first spotted in 1997. While there had been rumored sightings prior to this, these orangutans lived south of the known range of Sumatran orangutans.

Previous studies indicated that this group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/tinder-orangutans-primates-date/">orangutans</a> in the Batang Toru area varied both genetically and behaviorally from the Sumatran orangutans, but there was insufficient evidence to designate a new species. In 2013, a research team accessed the skeleton of a Batang Toru orangutan and found discrepancies in the individual's skull and teeth.

For the recent study, scientists conducted a sophisticated analysis of 37 orangutan genomes. The research showed that earliest split among living orangutan species happened over three million years ago, between the Batang Toru population and Bornean orangutans. But the Sumatran orangutans did not split from the Borneans until much more recently, around 700,000 years ago, according to the analysis.

"It isn't an everyday event that we find a new species of great ape, so indeed the discovery is very exciting," said senior author Michael Krutzen of the <a href="http://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>.

"Great apes are among the best-studied species in the world," added co-author Erik Meijaard. "If after 200 years of serious biological research we can still find new species in this group, what does it tell us about all the other stuff that we are overlooking: hidden species, unknown ecological relationships, critical thresholds we shouldn't cross? Humans are conducting a vast global experiment, but we have near-zero understanding of what impacts this really has, and how it could ultimately undermine our own survival."

The Tapanuli orangutans are already severely threatened by hunting, and a hydroelectric dam has been proposed that would flood large parts of their remaining habitat if implemented. Assessments of the new species suggest that a mortality rate of less than one percent per year would still be enough to wipe out the Tapanuli orangutans.

The researchers say it is important to work with Indonesian authorities and wildlife organizations to gain urgent support for more effective conservation measures to protect the Batang Toru area. The study is published in <a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Newly identified orangutan species is on the brink of extinction

Scientists have identified a new species of great ape in...

In the nation of Laos, the Asian elephant population has dropped by 50 percent over the last 30 years. New research from <a href="http://www.cnrs.com/">CNRS</a> and the <a href="http://www.beauvalnature.com/">French Beauval Nature</a> association for conservation and research has found that the dynamics of these populations depend greatly on the socio-economic practices of both the country and elephant owners.

When the country was opened to the market economy two decades ago, the workload of elephants intensified – especially in the timber industry – and has since significantly affected their reproduction. The combination of the elephant’s long gestation period, which is a whopping 22 months, and the exportation of Lao elephants to neighboring countries is now putting the population’s survival at risk.

In order to assess the long-term impact of socioeconomic strategies on the viability of the elephant population, researchers developed a bio-economic model that includes a year-to-year estimate of the elephant population. This estimate was based on data such as age, sex, and location (or a/s/l to all the former AIM users out there), which was collected regularly by the Lao department of livestock. They also interviewed elephant owners about their breeding practices.

The findings showed that if current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-missing-poached/">elephant</a> exportation rates do not change, the population will likely succumb to extinction. To combat this, they suggest that a maternity-leave system be established in order to compensate an elephant’s owner for the loss of income when an elephant is in the breeding process. They also suggest that the captive female elephant population be allowed to mate with wild males. The researchers believe that if these suggestions are followed, the Lao elephant population will be able to remain active and healthy for years to come.

Research such as this shows the importance of including both wild and captive populations in conservation policies, especially given that their interactions have gone widely unstudied. The study also shows the importance of putting a price on natural resources such as the Asian elephant.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Laos elephant population drops by half over the last 30 years

In the nation of Laos, the Asian elephant population has...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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