Every summer, Lake Erie transforms. Warm, still waters near the surface invite the growth of tiny, plant-like organisms. 



To the naked eye, these blooms of cyanobacteria - commonly known as blue-green algae - seem like nothing more than a green scum. But beneath the surface lies a silent, potent threat. Some of these blooms release toxins that pose risks to fish, birds, and even humans.



In recent years, harmful algal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-that-thrives-on-ice-plays-an-unexpected-role-in-glacier-melting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blooms</a>, or HABs, have become more common in Lake Erie. The toxins they release can contaminate drinking water, disrupt ecosystems, and impact public health.



One such bloom in 2014 forced officials to shut down Toledo’s water supply due to contamination by a toxin called microcystin. But another toxin - saxitoxin - has remained a mystery for years. Scientists detected it in 2007 but could not confirm which organism was producing it.



Now, researchers at the <a href="https://umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> have finally solved that puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-toxin-s-source">Identifying the toxin's source</h2>



The research focused on answering a long-standing question: Which toxic cyanobacteria are responsible for saxitoxin in Lake Erie? The answer, they discovered, is Dolichospermum, a genus of cyanobacteria that can survive and thrive in nutrient-rich freshwater systems.



Harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-revived-after-7000-years-beneath-the-baltic-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algal</a> blooms, or HABs, form from various cyanobacteria, each capable of making different toxins. Identifying which type makes which toxin helps scientists monitor and respond to these dangerous blooms more effectively.



Saxitoxins are among the most dangerous natural toxins known. Even at very low levels, they can damage the nervous system. Understanding their biological origin is crucial for managing risks associated with drinking water and wildlife exposure.



Gregory Dick, professor of earth and environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-algae-soak-up-loads-of-carbon-to-help-save-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sciences</a> and of environment and sustainability, highlighted the value of this discovery. 



"The main advantage of knowing which organism produces the toxin is that it helps us understand the conditions that cause toxin production - that is, what conditions make those organisms successful. Such information can help guide policy and management, though we're still a long way from that in this case," said Dick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxic-water-samples-from-lake-erie">Toxic water samples from Lake Erie</h2>



To trace the source, the researchers collected toxic water samples from Lake Erie during bloom events. These samples held a complex mix of DNA from many organisms.



Lead author Paul Den Uyl applied a method called shotgun sequencing. Instead of isolating individual species, this method captures all the DNA in a sample and reassembles it into complete genomic sequences.



Using this data, Den Uyl was able to reconstruct full genomes from the bloom samples. Within one of these genomes, he identified the genetic signature of saxitoxin. It confirmed that some strains of Dolichospermum carry the genes necessary to produce the toxin.



This discovery came with a twist. Not all Dolichospermum strains produce saxitoxin. Some have the gene, and others do not. What influences this genetic variation remains unclear, but researchers turned their attention to the lake's environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> to find answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-temperature-and-nutrients">Role of temperature and nutrients</h2>



The team studied samples from across Lake Erie, covering different seasons and locations. They measured how much of the saxitoxin gene was present in each sample and looked for patterns linked to environmental factors.



The team found a consistent trend: warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> tended to contain higher amounts of the gene. This raises urgent questions in the context of climate change.



"That is interesting because we do know that the lakes are changing with climate change," said Den Uyl, a scientist at U-M's Cooperative Institute for Great Lakes Research, or <a href="https://ciglr.seas.umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIGLR</a>. 



"With the warming of the lakes, one of the big questions is, how is that going to change the biological communities, including harmful cyanobacterial blooms?"



But temperature wasn’t the only factor. The researchers also looked at nutrient concentrations in the toxic lake water, particularly ammonium. They found that the gene appeared less frequently in areas with high ammonium levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-nitrogen-advantage">A unique nitrogen advantage</h2>



This pattern may be linked to a special feature of Dolichospermum. While most organisms cannot access the nitrogen found in the atmosphere, Dolichospermum appears to have that ability. 



The team found a gene in its genome that allows it to use nitrogen in the form of dinitrogen gas - a rare trait in aquatic ecosystems.



"One of the neat things about having the whole genome is you can see everything the organism can do, at least theoretically," said Dick, who is also director of CIGLR. 



"You have the whole blueprint for what the organism can do, and we do see the capability of obtaining fixed nitrogen from the water. It's just that getting it in the form of dinitrogen gas is kind of a superpower. Not a lot of organisms can do that, and it makes them more competitive under those conditions."



This ability gives Dolichospermum a clear advantage, especially in low-nitrogen environments. It may also explain why this organism is capable of thriving in parts of the lake where other algae struggle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-toxic-blooms-in-lake-erie">Future toxic blooms in Lake Erie</h2>



Although the team has been tracking saxitoxin in Lake Erie for nine years, that’s not enough time to predict long-term changes. Climate conditions, nutrient runoff, and microbial competition all influence the lake’s ecology. Still, the discovery provides a better foundation for future monitoring and research.



"But now that we know who's producing it, I think we can keep a better watch on these organisms and we can also directly assess the gene abundance over time," Dick said. 



"We plan to continue monitoring the abundance of this organism, but it's too early to tell if it's becoming more abundant. It's just a correlation, but that correlation with temperature is concerning."



As lake temperatures continue to rise, harmful algal blooms may become more frequent or more toxic. Understanding the organisms involved, their genetic capabilities, and the environmental triggers for toxin production is now more important than ever.



The findings from this study were published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.4c10888" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>. They offer a critical piece of the puzzle in managing one of North America’s most valuable freshwater resources.



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Green algae in Lake Erie may be hiding toxic, deadly compounds

Every summer, Lake Erie transforms. Warm, still waters near the surface invite the growth of tiny, plant-like organisms. To the naked eye, these blooms of cyanobacteria - commonly known as blue-green algae - seem like nothing more than a green scum. But beneath the surface lies a silent, potent threat. Some of these blooms release toxins that pose risks to fish, birds, and even humans. In recent years, harmful algal blooms, or HABs, have become more common in Lake Erie. The toxins they release can contaminate drinking...

"Coldspots" provide more opportunity for the rapid diversification of plants and animals than hotspots, according to a study led by <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a>. The researchers found that new species evolve much more slowly in biodiversity <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-hotspots-are-shrinking-in-the-andes-mountains/">hotspots</a> like the Amazon rainforest than what was previously thought. 

The experts also determined that places without a lot of species, like mountaintops and deserts, provide the right conditions for new species to develop. 

Even though coldspots may be extreme with unstable environments, they are also relatively empty, giving plants and animals the space they need for expansion. By contrast, the researchers report,  biodiversity hotspots are the result of the gradual accumulation of species over time.

Study senior author Robb Brumfield is the LSU College of Science Associate Dean of Research &amp; Administration and a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences.

"Our results reveal a model in which species are forming faster in environmental extremes but have accumulated in moderate environments to form tropical biodiversity hotspots," explained Professor Brumfield.

For their investigation, the researchers analyzed samples maintained by natural history museums. The LSU Museum of Natural Science and its frozen tissues collection, which is the oldest and largest of its kind in the world, contributed tissues for 747 of 1,287 bird species that were included in the study. 

"The remarkable sampling in this study comes from 40 years of fieldwork by curators, students, staff and others, who spent huge amounts of time and money, and risked their personal health, collecting specimens from around the world," said study co-author Professor Fred Sheldon.

Based on the DNA analysis of museum tissue samples from 24 countries, the experts mapped the genetic relationships of a predominant group of tropical birds called the suboscine passerines. These birds are so abundant that they represent about one of every three bird species in the American tropics. Suboscines have a wide variety of both characteristics and habitats, which include forests, mountains, and deserts.

"This shows that conservation efforts to save the rapidly changing tropical landscape need to focus not only on the species-rich Amazon, but also on regions that are less diverse but contribute disproportionately to the generation of new species, like the wind-swept, cold puna of the Andes Mountains," said Professor Brumfield.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants and animals evolve faster in coldspots than in biodiversity hotspots

"Coldspots" provide more opportunity for the rapid diversification of plants...

Researchers have estimated that 31 percent of the world's oak tree species are threatened with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plankton-began-hunting-their-own-food-to-survive-a-mass-extinction-event/">extinction</a>. A new report, The Red List of Oaks 2020, provides unprecedented details on the distribution of oak trees, population trends, and the dangers that they face. 

Among the 430 oak species found worldwide, 32 species are threatened in Mexico, 36 in China, 20 in Vietnam, and 16 species in the United States. The proportion of endangered oak trees is higher than the global threat levels for mammals or birds. 

Dr. Murphy Westwood is the director of Global Tree Conservation at <a href="https://www.mortonarb.org/">The Morton Arboretum</a>. "As we were evaluating the extinction risk of these hundreds of species over the past several years, it became clear how dire the situation is for oaks," said Dr. Westwood.

"We finally have a complete picture of the state of the world's oaks, so conservationists worldwide can take informed action to save oaks from extinction."

The major threats to oak trees in the United States are invasive pests, diseases, and climate change, while the greatest hazards in Southeast Asia are deforestation and urbanization, according to the report.

The Arboretum and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) have now established the Global Conservation Consortium for Oak (GCCO), partnering with botanical gardens, arboreta, universities and government agencies around the world to create a network of experts and institutions to protect threatened oaks globally. 

"More than 2,300 species of bird, mosses, fungi, insects, lichens and mammals are recorded as using native oaks for food and shelter in the U.K., and the same will be true for the 113 species of oak now threatened with extinction," said BGCI Secretary General Paul Smith. "The loss of just one of these tree species has catastrophic consequences for hundreds of other species."

The <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/red-list-oaks">Red List of Oaks 2020</a> was derived from five years of analysis and consultation with more than 100 researchers, including experts at the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Tree Specialist Group.

"The comprehensive assessment of all oak species is a major achievement," said Craig Hilton-Taylor, Head of the IUCN Red List Unit. "Having this information about such an ecologically and economically important group of trees is vital for informing conservation efforts."

The initiative represents The Morton Arboretum's contribution to achieving one of the 16 targets of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: to have an assessment of the conservation status of all known plant species by the end of 2020.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

One-third of oak tree species are threatened with extinction

Researchers have estimated that 31 percent of the world's oak...

Current conservation practices that are aimed at restoring nature to its historical state will not be enough to resist climate change. In a new report, leading ecologists and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/urgent-climate-action-could-save-and-improve-millions-of-lives/">climate</a> scientists propose a more flexible and dynamic approach to nature conservation.

According to the experts, allowing species to migrate naturally, or even be moved to more suitable habitats, could help to reduce the negative impacts of climate change. The study authors also noted that genetic material could be preserved from species that are at the greatest risk of extinction so that the plants could eventually be re-established under more suitable conditions.

The study draws from previously published research which found that the home ranges of many plants and animals are shifting away from the equator and toward the poles as temperatures rise. 

Professor Bob Scholes is an ecologist in the Global Change Institute at the University of the Witwatersrand. He explained that the question of whether to intervene to protect species or not is a heated debate in conservation circles. 

"Interestingly, the animal people are much happier in moving things around than the plant people, who are rather conservative, so to speak. This paper, in a way, was intended to shock the conservationists out of the state of just continuing doing things as they have always done," said Professor Scholes.

The researchers argue that nature conservation strategies need to become more flexible and dynamic in how they address the impact of climate change on natural habitats, genetic resources of plants, the composition of species, and the functioning of ecosystems. Otherwise, any apparent short-term biodiversity gains could be lost in the decades to follow as a result of climate change.

Currently, none of the 2020 Aichi Biodiversity Targets of the Convention on Biodiversity Diversity explicitly address the urgency of climate change mitigation as a critical component of biodiversity conservation. 

For example, the study authors refer to Aichi Target 12, which aims to prevent the extinction of all known threatened species and improve their conservation status. A traditional approach to conservation seems to be unrealistic considering that climate change has already significantly altered the home ranges of many species. "Even very low levels of future climate change are projected to reduce the range size of a substantial fraction of species and put many species at high risk of extinction," wrote the researchers.

Professor Guy Midgley is an experts on global change and biodiversity in the Department of Botany and Zoology at Stellenbosch University. He noted that several prominent measures to slow the rate of rising CO2, such as planting more trees, can conflict directly with the aims of biodiversity conservation in Africa.

"Large-scale afforestation of rich grassland ecosystems in Africa will not only threaten their unique shade-averse biodiversity, but also limit livelihoods options and reduce vital ecosystem services, like the delivery of freshwater, from these ecosystems," said Professor Midgley.

There are complex interactions between ecosystem processes, atmospheric composition, and climate which we do not yet understand, explained the study authors. When this uncertainty is combined with human population growth, greater consumption, over-exploitation, and pollution, it becomes clear that there is cause for serious concern.

"Nature is clearly resilient to shocks like climate change, given enough time, and the earth's biological diversity has shifted and changed in response to global crises in the deep geological past, like meteorite strikes," said Professor Midgley. "It is therefore crucial for us to work with the natural forces that provide resilience rather than limiting conservation thinking to achieving fixed ideals based on our limited historical perspectives of natural ecosystems."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nature conservation must become more dynamic

Current conservation practices that are aimed at restoring nature to...

A new study from <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> has revealed that nearly half of all insects that are native to the Southern Ocean Islands have become flightless over time. On some of these remote islands, almost all of the insects have lost the ability to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-superior-acoustic-perception-but-still-fly-into-walls/">fly.</a>

When the researchers investigated the potential factors driving this flightlessness, they confirmed a 160-year-old theory by Charles Darwin that flightlessness evolved in response to wind. 

"Of course, Charles Darwin knew about this wing loss habit of island insects," said study lead author and PhD candidate Rachel Leihy.

"He and the famous botanist Joseph Hooker had a substantial argument about why this happens. Darwin's position was deceptively simple. If you fly, you get blown out to sea. Those left on land to produce the next generation are those most reluctant to fly, and eventually evolution does the rest. Voilà."

Many scientists, including Hooker, questioned Darwin's theory on flightlessness and simply believed that he got it wrong. However, most of these debates have overlooked the sub-Antarctic islands where flightlessness is evolving the most rapidly, and these are some of the windiest places on Earth.

"If Darwin really got it wrong, then wind would not in any way explain why so many insects have lost their ability to fly on these islands," said Leihy. The researchers set out to analyze every idea that has been proposed to explain flight loss among insects.

"Terrestrial species on islands often show reduced dispersal abilities. For insects, the generality of explanations for island flight loss remains contentious. Although habitat stability is considered the most plausible explanation, others are frequently highlighted," wrote the study authors.  "Adopting a strong inference approach, we examined the hypotheses proposed to account for the prevalence of flightlessness in island insect assemblages, for a region long suspected to be globally unusual in this regard - the Southern Ocean Islands (SOIs)." 

"Combining comprehensive faunal inventories, species' morphological information, and environmental variables from 28 SOIs, we provide the first quantitative evidence that flightlessness is exceptionally prevalent among indigenous SOI insect species."

The study showed that no other ideas besides Darwin's wind theory could explain the extent of flight loss in sub-Antarctic insects. 

"The outcomes redirect attention to Darwin's wind hypothesis. They suggest, however, that wind selects for flightlessness through an energy trade-off between flight and reproduction, instead of by displacement from suitable habitats," explained the researchers.

Their findings suggest that windy conditions make insect flight more difficult and energetically costly. As a result, insects stop investing in flight and invest more in resources for survival and reproduction.

"It's remarkable that after 160 years, Darwin's ideas continue to bring insight to ecology," said Leihy. 

Study co-author Professor Steven Chown concluded that the Antarctic region is an extraordinary laboratory in which to resolve some of the world's most enduring mysteries and test some of its most important ideas.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Darwin knew why insects would give up their ability to fly

A new study from Monash University has revealed that nearly...

The Rocky Mountains are starting to recover from acid <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/some-parts-of-the-amazon-rainforest-will-thrive-in-a-warming-climate/">rain</a> caused by traffic and industry, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">UC Boulder</a>. The researchers found that nitric and sulfuric acid levels in the Green Lakes Valley region of Niwot Ridge have decreased over the past 30 years. 

Niwot Ridge is a high alpine area of the Rocky Mountains located west of Boulder and east of the Continental Divide. In the Rocky Mountain National Park to the north of Niwot Ridge, wildlife depends on limited levels of acidity in the water and soil to thrive. 

The mountains also serve as the main water source for surrounding communities, and the health of these alpine ecosystems influences both water quality and quantity.

"It looks like we're doing the right thing. By controlling vehicle emissions, some of these really special places that make Colorado unique are going back to what they used to be," said study co-author Jason Neff, who is the director of the Sustainability Innovation Lab at Colorado (SILC).

Over the last two centuries, most of the world has been exposed to increased acidic nutrients such as nitrogen through rain and snow. Nitrate and other nitrogen oxides are primarily emitted from vehicles and energy production. 

While nitrogen is considered to be the most important nutrient for plant growth, excessive levels can have negative consequences.

In the summer sun, hot air rises and carries up nitrogen from cars, industry, and agriculture. As this air cools, explained Neff, it forms clouds over the Rocky Mountains and falls back down as afternoon thunderstorms - depositing contaminants.

In the 1970s, this type of "acid rain" affected lakes throughout North America. One of the areas that was hit particularly hard was upstate NewYork, where entire fish populations were completely wiped out from the acidic water. 

Scientists are still working to understand how increased levels of acidic nutrients affected other habitats, such as the alpine region of the Rockies, and how long these ecosystems take to recover.

To investigate, the UC Boulder team analyzed data from 1984 to 2017 on atmospheric deposition and stream water chemistry from the Mountain Research Station located on Niwot Ridge. The researchers discovered that levels of nitric and sulfuric acid stopped increasing in the early 2000s and started decreasing by the mid-2000s.

On the other hand, the data showed that levels of ammonium from fertilizer have more than doubled in rainfall across the area between 1984 and 2017. This indicates a need for continued monitoring and further investigation into the effects of fertilizer on mountain ecosystems.

"We used water quality modeling and statistical approaches to analyze the long-term datasets that Niwot researchers have been collecting for decades," said study co-author Eve-Lyn Hinckley. "The data are available for anyone to download. Our modeling approaches allowed us to evaluate the patterns they hold in a rigorous way."

Bill Bowman is the director of the Mountain Research Station and a professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Since 1990, Professor Bowman has been studying how nutrients like nitrogen affect plants in mountain ecosystems. He has determined that alpine environments are unique in how they respond to these nutrients.

"It's a system that is adapted to low nutrients, as well as a harsh climate and a very short growing season - and frost in the middle of the season. These are very slow growing plants. And they just simply can't respond to the addition of more nitrogen into the system."

Professor Bowman has also found that these ecosystems recover quite slowly, even after acidic elements like nitrogen are no longer being introduced. 

Despite some bad news, the researchers see their findings as encouraging overall. Even if it's slow going, they said, the results show that the alpine ecosystem has a chance to recover.

"We still have air quality issues in the Front Range," said Neff. "But even with those air quality issues, this research shows that regulating vehicle and power plant emissions is having a big impact."

The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/21698961">Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Rocky Mountains are gradually recovering from acid rain

The Rocky Mountains are starting to recover from acid rain...

Beavers can help support amphibians that are threatened by climate change, according to a study from <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a>. The researchers found that unique <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/destructive-bark-beetles-create-new-habitats-for-wild-bees/">habitats</a> created by beaver dams are ideal for aquatic species that need still or slow-moving water for breeding. 

"Land managers are increasingly using beavers to restore hydrological function, provide wildlife habitat, and mitigate the effects of climate extremes on water balances and ecosystems," wrote the study authors. 

"Although North American beavers and Eurasian beavers both hold great potential for landscape‐scale benefits, more information about the interactions between beavers and wildlife is necessary to maximize the ecological benefits and minimize the social and ecological costs of beaver‐centred management."

Across the Gifford Pinchot National Forest of the Cascade Range, the researchers identified 49 study sites either with or without beaver dams. The investigation revealed that the beaver-dammed sites had 2.7 times greater amphibian diversity than the undammed sites.

Some types of amphibians that develop more slowly, such as red-legged frogs and northwestern salamanders, were found almost exclusively in dammed sites.

"Beaver-dammed wetlands support more of the amphibian species that need a long time to develop in water as larvae before they are able to live on land as adults," said study co-author Professor Jonah Piovia-Scott.

In the 19th century, beavers were nearly pushed to extinction in the Pacific Northwest as a result of overhunting. Land managers are reintroducing beavers into some of the places they once occupied in an effort to mitigate the effects of climate extremes. 

Red-legged frogs and northwestern salamanders are two of the amphibian species that are most threatened by climate change as conditions become increasingly dry across streams and wetlands in the Cascade Range. Beaver dams help to expand existing ponds and increase their duration, allowing the aquatic animals more time to reproduce and develop.

Professor Piovia-Scott said that beavers may be a key component of ecological resilience to climate change in these ecosystems.

"We suggest that slow‐developing amphibians and some variable‐rate developers might benefit greatly from beaver restoration, especially in areas where climate change is predicted to reduce summertime water levels," wrote the researchers. 

"Beavers could therefore be useful and important components of ecosystem‐based restoration, management, and climate adaptation, especially in parts of their native ranges in North America or Eurasia predicted to undergo climatic drying."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652427">Freshwater Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beavers create habitats that support threatened amphibians

Beavers can help support amphibians that are threatened by climate...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">UT Austin</a> have used computer algorithms to conduct the first-ever survey of creosote bushes in the Mojave Desert. Across a 135-square-mile conservation site in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-crustacean-identified-in-the-worlds-hottest-desert/">desert</a>, the team counted 23 million creosotes out of a total population of 66 million plants.
The study not only reveals new details about this dominant plant species, but also demonstrates how data techniques can be more effective than conventional methods for studying plant communities.

"This was first and foremost a big data project," said study lead author and grad student James Gearon. "The majority of time was data cleaning, data investigation, data prep. By the time you get to analysis, you have discovered so many things along the way you have a path forward."

The census represents an important milestone for plant science, especially considering that population data typically comes from samples of fewer than 1,000 plants or aerial surveys. The study has introduces a groundbreaking new method of accounting for each and every individual in a plant community. 

"People are amazed at the size of the dataset," said study co-author Michael Young. "But we tried to avoid being dazzled by size and focus on the interesting things the data tell us," For example, the scientists discovered that certain landscape features can influence how big and how far apart creosotes grow. 

In 2017, Young and colleagues collected data from an aerial survey conducted in the Mojave Desert by the Boulder City Conservation Easement. The initial objective was to find burrows belonging to threatened desert tortoises. However, high-resolution photos and elevation data obtained during the survey proved to be a very useful resource for additional research.

The experts counted the creosote bushes by applying computer algorithms that could distinguish the bushes from the surrounding landscape and other plants. The algorithms also produced details on each creosote's location, height, and canopy area. 

When the information on individual creosotes was combined with specific landscape features, the researchers identified some clear trends in how plant growth is affected by the landscape. They found that the direction the slope faces, also known as its aspect, has the greatest influence on creosote volume. In particular, the analysis revealed plants growing on east-facing slopes are about five times bushier than plants on west-facing slopes.

"That's five times more cover on the ground for the critters, for land use, or for understanding just how hot the ground is going to get - that has a huge impact," said Gearon.

The team determined that soil age also has an influence on creosote volume. Bushes in the younger soil were found to be about 27 percent larger than plants in the oldest soil.

According to Gearon, the connection between soil age and plant size is well documented, but the influence of hillslope aspect on plant size came as a surprise. Researchers often relate plant growth to north and south slope directions, but few studies have focused on east and west slopes.

The study indicates that growing on an eastward slope could be an important way for desert plants to stay hydrated, as the placement allows the plants to soak up the sunshine during the cooler, wetter hours of the morning. By contrast, the westward slopes receive the most sunlight during the hottest parts of the day when the plants are most susceptible to losing water.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10980">Landscape Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Computer algorithms reveal new details about creosote bushes

Researchers at UT Austin have used computer algorithms to conduct...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> confirms that preserving peatlands, along with the carbon they hold, is critically needed to limit climate change. After investigating peatland losses over human history, the researchers predict these will be "amplified" in the future.

Peatlands are expected to shift from absorbing massive amounts of carbon to releasing it at some point this century, which is mainly due to human development. The study warns that more than 100 billion tons of carbon could be released by 2100, but there are still some unknowns.

The Earth System Models used for climate change projections do not account for peatlands. The researchers say this oversight must be urgently addressed.

"Peatlands contain more carbon than all the world's forests and, like many forests, their future is uncertain," said Professor Angela Gallego-Sala. "Peatlands are vulnerable to climate change impacts such as increased risk of wildfires and droughts, the thawing of permafrost and rising sea levels."

"However, the main threats to peatlands are more direct - particularly destruction by humans to create agricultural land. So the future of peatlands is very much in our hands."

Peatlands can be found in more than 175 countries. These wetlands cover around four million square kilometers, or three percent of the global land surface. 

Professor Gallego-Sala explained that peatlands have been overlooked in some climate models because they are often viewed as being "inert" - neither absorbing nor releasing carbon at a rapid rate when left undisturbed.

It has been difficult to estimate future changes across the wetlands since they are excluded from climate models. For their investigation, the study authors analyzed survey estimates from 44 leading experts as well as existing research. 

The analysis revealed that 104 billion tons of carbon will be lost from peatlands between 2020 and 2100. While the researchers acknowledge that this estimate is highly uncertain, their findings highlight the need for inclusion in models and better preservation.

"Even though we would like more information, we clearly need to make decisions now about how we manage these ecosystems," said Professor Gallego-Sala. "We simply can't afford for peatlands to go up in smoke."

"We have a responsibility to find a way forward that works for people and the planet. Where people have a strong economic incentive - or even necessity - to destroy peatlands, we need plans and policies that offer more sustainable alternatives."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate">Nature Climate Change</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Peatlands could release more than 100 billion tons of carbon this century

A new study led by the University of Exeter confirms...

Extreme <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dog-ticks-prefer-human-hosts-in-hotter-weather-conditions/">weather</a> events that have been referred to as "once in a lifetime floods" will become common over the next few decades, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.stevens.edu/">Stevens Institute of Technology</a>.

In particular, the researchers found that by the end of this century, 100-year and 500-year floods will be regular threats to thousands of homes surrounding Jamaica Bay, New York. Hurricane Sandy devastated communities in this region with flood kennels that had not been experienced for generations. 

The study findings will help policymakers and the coastal municipality of Jamaica Bay make decisions on managing flood risk with flood mitigation infrastructure or other strategies. The research also provides insight into how coastal flooding will increase in the areas beyond New York due to the impacts of climate change.

Study lead author Reza Marsooli is an assistant professor of Civil, Environmental and Ocean Engineering at Stevens.

"While this study was specific to Jamaica Bay, it shows how drastic and costly of an impact that climate change will make," said Professor Marsooli. "The framework we used for this study can be replicated to demonstrate how flooding in other regions will look by the end of the century to help them mitigate risk and best protect communities and assets in impacted areas."

&nbsp;

Based on the, Marsooli and his

&nbsp;

In collaboration with study co-author Ning Lin of Princeton University, Professor Marsooli conducted high resolution simulations based on the anticipated greenhouse gas concentration by the end of the 21st century. They explored various scenarios to estimate the probability of different flood levels being reached. The team accounted for both sea level rise and hurricanes to investigate the future impacts on Jamaica Bay from storm surge and wave hazards.

The study revealed that the historical 100-year flood level would occur every nine years by 2030 to 2050, and would occur annually by 2080 to 2100. In addition, the 500-year flood levels reached by Superstorm Sandy will take place once every four years by the end of the century.

To make matters even worse, sea-level rise will result in larger waves that produce more flood hazards such as erosion and damage to coastal infrastructure.

"Future projections of the hurricane climatology suggest that climate change would lead to storms that move more slowly and are more intense than we have ever seen before hitting Jamaica Bay," said Professor Marsooli. "But the increase in these once-in-a-generation or even less frequent floods is so dramatic because the impact of sea-level rise will create greater flooding, even if the storms we were seeing today stayed the same."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10584">Climate Change</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

100-year floods could occur every year by the end of this century

Extreme weather events that have been referred to as "once...

In the first comprehensive report of its kind, experts describe how the impacts of ocean pollution are directly harmful to human health, and plastic is only part of the problem. The researchers found that toxic ocean pollution endangers the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-based-diet-can-transform-your-health-and-body/">health</a> and well-being of more than three billion people.

Dr. Philip Landrigan is the director of <a href="https://www.bc.edu/bc-web/centers/schiller-institute/programs/global-observatory-on-pollution-and-health.html">Boston College's Global Observatory on Pollution on Health</a>. "Simply put, ocean pollution is a major global problem, it is growing, and it directly affects human health," said Dr. Landrigan.

"People have heard about plastic pollution in the oceans, but that is only part of it. Research shows the oceans are being fouled by a complex stew of toxins including mercury, pesticides, industrial chemicals, petroleum wastes, agricultural runoff, and manufactured chemicals embedded in plastic. These toxic materials in the ocean get into people, mainly by eating contaminated seafood."

"We are all at risk, but the people most seriously affected are people in coastal fishing communities, people on small island nations, indigenous populations and people in the high Arctic. The very survival of these vulnerable populations depends on the health of the seas."

The researchers analyzed data from more than 584 scientific studies. Beyond food contamination, oil spills and chemical waste threaten the marine microorganisms that provide much of the world's oxygen supply. According to Prince Albert of Monaco, the analysis can be used to mobilize global resolve to curb ocean pollution.

"The link between ocean pollution and human health has, for a long time, given rise to very few studies. Taking into account the effects of ocean pollution - due to plastic, water and industrial waste, chemicals, hydrocarbons, to name a few - on human health should mean that this threat must be permanently included in the international scientific activity," wrote Prince Albert.

"This document on Human Health and the Ocean, prepared with the contributions of the Monaco Science Centre and Boston College, substantiates that the pollution of the ocean is not inevitable."

The researchers found that mercury pollution has become widespread in the oceans, and accumulates to high levels in predator fish. Once mercury enters the food chain, it poses documented risks to humans. The study showed that burning coal is the biggest source of mercury pollution.

The analysis confirmed that human sources of pollution such as industrial waste, agricultural runoff, pesticides, and sewage have increased the frequency of harmful algal blooms (HABs). These blooms produce toxins associated with dementia, amnesia, neurological damage, and rapid death.

Plastic waste is now entering the oceans at a rate of more than 10 million tons each year, according to the researchers. This waste is consumed by people in the form of toxic microscopic particles, which are now found in all humans.

The study also revealed that the Mediterranean Sea, Baltic Sea, and Asian rivers are the water bodies that are most severely impacted by ocean pollution.

"The key thing to realize about ocean pollution is that, like all forms of pollution, it can be prevented using laws, policies, technology, and enforcement actions that target the most important pollution sources," said Dr. Landrigan. 

"Many countries have used these tools and have successfully cleaned fouled harbors, rejuvenated estuaries, and restored coral reefs. The results have been increased tourism, restored fisheries, improved human health, and economic growth. These benefits will last for centuries."

"Our Global Observatory on Pollution and Health at Boston College is extremely proud to have been able to partner with the Centre Scientifique de Monaco and the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation to produce this report and develop the Declaration of Monaco."

"This work advances the mission of the Schiller Institute for Integrated Science and Society at Boston College to use scientific research to benefit society, and it fulfills Pope Francis' call in Laudato Si' to care for our Common Home and to protect the poor and the vulnerable among us."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.annalsofglobalhealth.org/">Annals of Global Health</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ocean pollution threatens the health of more than three billion people

In the first comprehensive report of its kind, experts describe...

Sea turtles may not survive human-driven temperature changes. Sea turtles born around the Red Sea may now be predominantly female, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/">KAUST</a>. The researchers have been monitoring the sand temperatures at marine turtle nesting sites in the region. 

"Marine turtles are particularly vulnerable to temperature shifts because they demonstrate temperature-dependent sex determination, meaning that the sex of hatchlings is determined by the temperature of the nest during incubation," said study co-author Lyndsey Tanabe.

The Red Sea is home to five out of seven species of sea turtles, including the endangered green turtles and critically endangered hawksbill turtles. 

Previous research suggests that the critical temperature threshold for maintaining a 50-50 sex ratio is 29.2 degrees Celsius. Above this threshold, hatchlings become predominantly female. Temperatures that exceed 33 degrees Celsius can cause widespread deformities and fatalities.

"Marine turtles have survived since the late Triassic period and have adapted to past climatic shifts," explained Tanabe. "The current rate of anthropogenic-driven temperature change is unprecedented."

"We examined sand temperature profiles at Red Sea nesting sites to improve our understanding of the current turtle population."

The investigation was focused on five sites on the Red Sea shoreline that are favored by hawksbill and green turtles. Sand temperature data was collected by automated loggers at the nest depths of both species every 15 minutes for five months.

With the exception of one study site in the northern Red Sea, the sand temperature exceeded 29.2 degrees Celsius at all study sites. These results indicate that the shift to feminization of hatchlings is already underway.

"We must be cautious in claiming that feminization is definitely happening," said Tanabe. "The Red Sea is generally warmer than other nesting beaches around the world, so these turtles may have already adapted to a higher pivotal temperature threshold."

"It is concerning, however, that sand temperatures as high as 36 degrees Celsius were measured at some sites. This could pose a considerable threat to their survival."

The findings will contribute to ongoing national discussions on marine conservation, which are particularly important with proposed megadevelopments along Red Sea coasts. 

"I hope these development projects prioritize the conservation of turtle nesting sites, especially those likely to produce balanced sex ratios."

Tanabe is also studying sea turtle genetics, as well as the effects of plastic and heavy metal pollution on turtle populations. She said that understanding these factors is critical to the success of conservation strategies.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/25784854">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea turtles may not survive human-driven temperature changes

Sea turtles may not survive human-driven temperature changes. Sea turtles...

In a new study from the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>, experts have found that global warming will lead to irreversible melting of the Greenland ice sheet. As the massive ice sheet steadily declines, it is approaching a tipping point at which it will no longer be able to bounce back - and will permanently alter <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/beaches-with-space-to-migrate-will-survive-rising-sea-levels/">sea levels</a> worldwide.

"During 1961–1990 the Greenland ice sheet had a roughly constant mass, in which snowfall was balanced by the sum of surface ablation (meaning all processes of mass loss, predominantly liquid run-off due to melting) and solid discharge of ice into the sea," wrote the study authors. "Over the last 30 years both ablation and discharge have increased significantly, while snowfall has not."

According to the researchers, under scenarios in which global warming goes beyond two degrees Celsius, we can expect significant ice loss and several meters of global sea level rise to persist for tens of thousands of years.

Even if temperatures were to eventually fall, the scientists have shown that the Greenland ice sheet will never fully rebound once it melts beyond a critical point. At this tipping point, sea levels will be permanently two meters higher than they are now, regardless of other factors contributing to sea level rise.

The experts identified some scenarios in which the ice sheet melting could be reversed,  but they rely on urgent action to address global warming. 

The Greenland ice sheet is seven times the area of the UK. At the current rate of decline, ice lost from Greenland results in about one millimeter of sea level rise each year. Despite some seasonal gains, the ice sheet has lost three and a half trillion tons of ice since 2003.

To investigate the future of the ice sheet, the scientists used a computer model that combines climate and ice-sheet models to simulate potential temperature rise. Under all of the climates that were like today or warmer, the ice sheet declined in size and contributed to sea-level rise to some degree.

"Our experiments underline the importance of mitigating global temperature rise," said study lead author Professor Jonathan Gregory. "To avoid partially irreversible loss of the ice sheet, climate change must be reversed - not just stabilized - before we reach the critical point where the ice sheet has declined too far."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.the-cryosphere.net/">The Cryosphere</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

At the current rate, Greenland will lose its ice sheet forever

In a new study from the University of Reading, experts...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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