Sediment hidden under ice for millennia is seeing daylight again as glaciers melt. At first, those fresh minerals mop up carbon dioxide. But over time, they switch roles and start leaking gases that trap heat in the air.



<a href="https://geology.ufl.edu/directory/dr-jonathan-martin/">Jonathan Martin</a>’s University of Florida team, along with colleagues from the <a href="https://www.umaryland.edu/">University of Maryland</a> traced that flip in Kobbefjord, Greenland. 



Researchers compared young glacial meltwater with soil water that had been exposed for about 10,000 years. Their <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02404-z">work</a> shows why every newly uncovered valley enters a long, slow countdown from sink to source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-after-glaciers-melt-methane-rises">After glaciers melt, methane rises</h2>



Lead author <a href="https://www.umces.edu/andrea-pain">Andrea Pain</a> and co‑author <a href="https://geology.ufl.edu/directory/dr-jonathan-martin/">Jonathan Martin</a> sampled streams that draw melt straight from small glaciers and others fed by seeps through mature tundra soils. 



The two waters could be told apart by their oxygen isotopes and by how clear they were. Meltwater ran chalky with rock flour, while seep water ran tea‑colored from dissolved organics.



“Our central hypothesis was that the transfer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/">greenhouse gases</a> between landscapes and the atmosphere has changed since the Last Glacial Maximum about 15,000 years ago,” said Martin.



Field data upheld that hunch, showing glacial streams still scrubbing carbon dioxide while older soils were busy making methane.



Freshly ground carbonates and silicates react with carbonic acid in cold meltwater, locking up carbon as bicarbonate. 



Once microbes colonize the maturing soil, they chew on buried plant matter and turn it into methane through <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/methanogenesis">methanogenesis</a>, reversing the sign of the gas ledger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-melt-reshapes-gas-timing">Glacier melt reshapes gas timing</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-new-source-of-methane-emissions-discovered-glacial-fracking-arctic/">Methane</a> packs a bigger punch than carbon dioxide, trapping about 28 times more heat over a century. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532922/">Nitrous oxide</a>, the third‑place greenhouse gas, is even fiercer, with a global warming potential of 273 on the same scale.



Those numbers mean that a late rise in methane can wipe out the early carbon‑dioxide savings that bare sediment briefly earns. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/">Climate models</a> trying to look centuries ahead need that timing baked in, or they risk undercounting the payback later in the game.



Martin’s crew found that the window of net uptake might last only a few centuries in the high Arctic. That’s just a blink compared to the ten‑thousand‑year age of most post‑ice soils. That insight adds a moving target to projections of future warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-s-valley-tells-all">Greenland’s valley tells all</h2>



Kobbefjord lies about six miles southwest of Nuuk and covers roughly 12 square miles. Only 1.7 percent of the watershed still holds glacier ice, yet the lingering meltwater strongly flavors the downstream chemistry.



During a clear July stretch, meltwater from nearby glaciers ruled the flow, and carbon dioxide in the main channel stayed close to atmospheric equilibrium. 



A week later, cloudier weather cut the glacier melt pulse; seep water took over, and methane levels at the outlet jumped more than fourfold.



That flip also showed up in the strontium isotope gap between water and bedload sediment, a geochemical clock for weathering progress. 



Values near zero in seep streams told of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-and-ice-may-reveal-where-rare-earth-elements-are-hiding/">minerals</a> already well chewed, while high values in the icy headwaters marked rock that had barely started to dissolve.



Field calculations revealed a net sink of 64 millimoles of carbon dioxide equivalents per second during the melt‑dominated period. 



Just days later, the same outlet turned into a 44-millimole-per-second source as methane outran the shrinking weathering sink.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-gases">Reading the gases</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-study-provides-answers-to-how-coral-reefs-can-survive-climate-change/">Carbonic acid weathering</a> of carbonates and silicates pulls carbon from the air, but sulfuric acid weathering of carbonates can add it back.



The balance between those paths hinges on how much fresh mineral surface and dissolved organic carbon each water source carries.



Runoff from glaciers had lower organic carbon, yet it was more labile, fueling acid generation that sped up mineral reactions. 



Seep water, richer in tougher humic carbon, fostered anaerobic pockets where methane‑making microbes thrived.



The study underscores that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-fossil-tundra-discovery-stuns-and-worries-scientists-sea-level-rise/">melting ice</a> and deglaciation is not a single event but a sequence of chemical stages. Understanding which stage a watershed occupies helps predict whether it will cool or warm the planet in any given decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-builds-after-glacier-melt">Warming builds after glacier melt</h2>



Pain and Martin now plan to test nitrous oxide dynamics in the same valley, because that gas can warm the air <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/nitrous-oxide-emissions" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">200 times faster</a> than carbon dioxide if it escapes.



Preliminary lab work hints that nitrous oxide might peak earlier than methane, suggesting a still more complex hand‑off among the three gases.



Other researchers are already noticing similar trends elsewhere: on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-the-roof-of-the-world-keeps-rising-over-time/">Tibetan Plateau</a>, lakes that no longer receive melt from glaciers emit about three times more methane than glacier‑fed lakes.



As more high‑altitude or high‑latitude basins lose ice input, those findings imply a widespread tilt toward methane dominance.



Martin cautions that rapid, human‑driven warming could briefly revive the negative feedback by boosting meltwater flow. 



Yet the reprieve would be short‑lived. Once the last ice patches vanish, soils everywhere will settle into the methane‑rich phase that the Kobbefjord team measured.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02404-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



-----



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Land exposed by melting glaciers transforms into a greenhouse gas emitter

Sediment hidden under ice for millennia is seeing daylight again as glaciers melt. At first, those fresh minerals mop up carbon dioxide. But over time, they switch roles and start leaking gases that trap heat in the air. Jonathan Martin’s University of Florida team, along with colleagues from the University of Maryland traced that flip in Kobbefjord, Greenland. Researchers compared young glacial meltwater with soil water that had been exposed for about 10,000 years. Their work shows why every newly uncovered valley enters a long, slow countdown...

The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) refers to the area of land that runs across the Korean Peninsula and serves as a buffer between North Korea and South Korea. The strip of land measures 160 miles long and 2.5 miles wide, dividing the peninsula in half.

<a href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/04/28/asia-pacific/politics-diplomacy-asia-pacific/jilted-bride-south-korea-marks-peace-summit-north-stays-aloof/#.XMXZNIplChA">Japan Times</a> reports of a recent ceremony where a few select hikers from South Korea were invited to enjoy a hike along the ‘peace trail’ just outside the DMZ, where civilians have limited access.  The trail passed through forest below a mountain peak. Despite the hikers and music played at the celebration of peace, there was an overshadowing absence. Despite being invited, no one from North Korea showed up at the ceremony.  Yet any peace process, especially one involving a nation like North Korea, is bound to have its ups and downs. 

In the wake of recent talks Kim Jong Un has held with both U.S. president Donald Trump and Russian president Vladimir Putin, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-northkorea-russia-kcna/north-korean-leader-warns-of-a-return-to-tension-blames-u-s-bad-faith-idUSKCN1S12QH">Reuters</a> reports that Un warned of the potential return of a state of hostility in the Korean Peninsula.  

<a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/north-korea/2019-03-14/next-stage-korean-peace-process">Foreign Affairs</a> reports that even after negotiations between Trump and Kim Jong Un ended early in Hanoi without an agreement, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/china-south-korea-artificial-rain-pollution/">South Korean</a> officials remained optimistic.  Both Kim Jong Un and Donald Trump showed unusual amounts of restraint and there was no return to antagonistic military operations. It seems that for the time being, North Korea has at least kept dialogue open with the US and the rest of the world.  Many feel that sanctions are slowly working. Peace through the whole Korean Peninsula or at least denuclearization still seems like a viable possibility in the not too distant future. After all, there have been some hopeful signs, like North Korea detonating some of its front line guard posts along the DMZ, as <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/north-korea-detonates-dmz-guard-posts-southern-border/story?id=59314370">ABC News</a> reported.  

Peace would of course be a wonderful thing, but changing the DMZ might have some negative consequences as well.

As hikers walking along the ‘Peace Trail’ suggest, much of the area inside and just outside of the DMZ is relatively undisturbed nature.  The undisturbed aspect of the area goes far beyond what a typical national park might be like, as there are no real hiking trails, no roads, no campgrounds.  Instead, wild animals and plants live with almost no disturbance from humans. 

The Korean DMZ expands one mile in each direction from the official border between North and South Korea.  Before the Korean War, much of the DMZ was agricultural land but now has been left untouched for 65 years, during which time wild ecosystems have rebounded.  Surrounded by razor wire and armed soldiers, the DMZ has been cut off and developed into a world of its own.    

Covering landscape ranging from mountains to low wetlands, the DMZ has become a haven for rare wildlife, including globally declining red-crowned and white-napped cranes, <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/wildlife-thrives-dmz-korea-risk-location-180967842/">Smithsonian</a> reports.  The DMZ hosts five rivers and a few mountains.  In fact, according to the South Korean <a href="http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/index.do?menuId=397">Ministry of the Environment</a>, there are 5,097 species now living in the DMZ, including 106 protected species.  

<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/apr/13/wildlife-thriving-korean-demilitarised-zone">The Guardian</a> reported that there are roughly 45 species of reptiles and amphibians, almost 100 species of fish, and possibly 1000 insect species living in the DMZ.  There have even been reports of tigers, an animal thought extinct in Korea prior to Japanese occupation. Some of these species might soon be threatened, perversely, by the specter of peace between nations.  

<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/apr/13/wildlife-thriving-korean-demilitarised-zone">The Guardian</a> reports that decades of conflict and increased industrialization have quickly and radically changed the face of Korea.  <a href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/main_pop/kpct/kp_koreaimperialism.htm">Japanese colonial rule</a> of Korea from 1910 to 1945 was heavy handed and oppressive.  The rule of Japan also brought with it increased urban growth along with an increase in mineral extraction and deforestation.  With this came not only economic growth but also environmental degradation, pollution, and erosion of mountains. The Korean War following this period only made the situation worse, spreading destruction across both rural and urban environments.  

Through the 1960s and 70s, increased industrialization caused more environmental destruction.  The DMZ is one last piece of rewilded land left to Korea. 

According to the Korean <a href="http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/index.do?menuId=397">Ministry of the Environment</a>, the possibility of peace has already brought with it calls for the development of the DMZ.  The ministry has its own plans for the DMZ. <a href="https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/south-korea-dmz-eco-park/index.html">CNN Travel</a> reports that South Korea is pushing for a ‘Peace Park’ in the DMZ.  The proposal was made at least as far back as 2013, and later announced at an international meeting for wetlands taking place in Switzerland.  For its part, North Korea has rejected the proposed ‘Peace Park’ dismissing the idea as a plan to make money off of tourism.

There is an amount of truth to the sentiments of making money from tourism.  The DMZ is a haven for wildlife, particularly because it excludes humans, not because it invites them in to take a walk.  With many parks in the world raising the issue of a landscape being loved to death, it’s hard to see how a park in the DMZ would be anything more than a compromise.  Animals that become used to humans may be easier prey to their natural predators. It can also make them easier targets for poachers. Inevitable development of parks including roads and hiking trails fragment and disrupt the natural habitat.  More pollution, more human noise and light are all likely to be impacts of a park. Even wildlife research can disrupt animals. 

It’s hard to say what the total impact of turning an area that excludes humans into an inviting tourist destination will be in the long run.  For the moment, it’s a good thing that even in a heavily controlled region, there’s a ribbon of habitat with no human control at all. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer    

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Plans for the Korean Demilitarized Zone are a mixed blessing for wildlife

The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) refers to the area of...

Tropical fish off the coast of North Carolina are using shipwrecks as reefs, preferring artificial structures to natural rocky reefs. 

Many species like tropical fish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tarantulas-migrating-new-areas/">are on the move</a> in search of more hospitable habitats due to warming temperatures linked to climate change. 

Shipwrecks and other sunken objects work as artificial reefs that fish are using as stepping stones in their northward migration as they travel beyond their typical geographic range. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.duke.edu/">Duke University</a> suggest that artificial reefs like shipwrecks will house more and more tropical fish in the future as climate trends continue to warm tropical marine habitats. 

In a new study published in the journal Nature Communications Biology, the Duke researchers show that tropical fish populations have increased off the coast of North Carolina in recent years and these fish flock to artificial reefs rather than natural ones. 

“Globally, there is broad evidence that many tropical fish species are shifting their ranges poleward and to deeper waters in response to changing ocean conditions, and what we see on these reefs seems to fit that pattern,” said Avery B. Paxton, the lead author of the study.

Subtropical fish exhibit a clear preference for artificial reefs as the researchers found and this could be because shipwrecks and human-made structures offer more hiding places to evade prey or attract abundant sources of zooplankton and food. 

A team of scuba-divers conducted population and species counts at 30 artificial and natural reefs off the coast of North Carolina between 2013 and 2015.

The counts were done four times a year to track population changes and see if seasonal changes impacted population numbers. 

Not only were there more tropical and subtropical fish near deep artificial reefs, but the researchers also recorded a greater diversity in fish species. 

Blue chromis, purple reef fish, bluehead wrasse, vermilion snapper, greater amberjack and bar jack were commonly spotted on the artificial reefs, whereas temperate fish species preferred the natural rocky reefs. 

“We didn’t see these patterns on artificial reefs at shallow or intermediate depths, we only saw them on deep reefs, located between 80 to 115 feet below the surface, where water temperatures often experience less seasonal change,” said Paxton. 

Shipwrecks and sunken structures which are common in oceans worldwide may soon become hotspots for migrating tropical and subtropical fish, according to the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: John McCord, Coastal Studies Institute

Shipwrecks provide artificial reefs for tropical fish migrating northward

Tropical fish off the coast of North Carolina are using...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/">University of New South Wales</a> have managed to produce a 400-year record of El Niño events using cores drilled from coral. Many experts did not even believe it was possible to obtain such a record, which shows how the nature of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-deadly-viruses/">El Niño events</a> has changed in recent decades.

A better understanding of El Niño events is critical for helping to prepare for the extreme weather that they produce across the globe. The effects of these events are particularly pronounced in Australia, South East Asia, and America, where precipitation and temperatures are intensified.

By analyzing the 400-year record, the experts detected changes in the types of El Niños, with an increase in Central Pacific El Niño activity in the late 20th century. The researchers also predicted upcoming changes in the strength of El Niños that emerge in the Eastern Pacific.

“We are seeing more El Niños forming in the central Pacific Ocean in recent decades, which is unusual across the past 400 years,” said study lead author Dr. Mandy Freund. “There are even some early hints that the much stronger Eastern Pacific El Niños, like those that occurred in 1997/98 and 2015/16 may be growing in intensity.”

The team accessed information in coral cores collected from across the Pacific Ocean. Like tree rings, coral cores have growth patterns that date back over centuries, and contain isotopes that reveal many clues about the past climate. This is the first time that coral cores have been used to detect the different types of El Niño events.

“By understanding the past, we are better equipped to understand the future, especially in the context of climate change,” said Dr. Freund. 

“Prior to this research, we did not know how frequently different types of El Niño occurred in past centuries. Now we do,” said study co-author Dr. Ben Henley.

The researchers identified an unprecedented increase in the number of El Niños forming in the Central Pacific over the past 30 years. At the same time, the stronger Eastern Pacific El Niños were the most intense among those examined in the 400-year long coral record.

“The El Niño phenomenon is one of the most important features of global climate, and changes to its behavior have very serious implications for weather patterns and extreme events around the world,” said Dr. Henley. “This gives us an opportunity to more accurately explore how global warming may change El Niños and what this means for future weather and climate extremes.”

“Having a better understanding of how different types of El Niños have affected us in the past and present, will mean we are more able to model, predict and plan for future El Niños and their wide-ranging impacts,” said Dr. Freund.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/">Nature Geoscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Jason Turl

Coral cores reveal how El Niño events have changed in recent decades

Scientists at the University of New South Wales have managed...

Nature has the power to adapt — it’s what has kept certain species growing and thriving for millennia, while others die out. Now, a new study from the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> has found that the threat of range losses for some species due to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/educating-kids-climate-change/">climate change</a> may be overstated, as certain animals will be able to adapt to rising temperatures and aridity. 

The researchers’ findings are published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">PNAS</a> and detail a new approach to more accurately determine species vulnerability. This approach may aid in future conservation efforts by allowing scientists to focus on species that are truly at risk. The current methods for determining vulnerability do not include the potential for some species to adapt genetically to a changing environment. 

Led by Dr. Orly Razgour, a lecturer in ecology at the University of Southampton, the international research team assessed the genomic data of two species of bats native to the Mediterranean, which is an area that will be heavily affected by rising global temperatures.

“The most commonly used approach for forecasting the bats’ future suggests that the range of suitable habitats for them would diminish rapidly due to climate change,” explains Dr. Razgour. “However, this assumes all bats within the same species cope with changing temperatures and drier climates in the same way. We developed a new approach that takes into account the ability of bats within the same species to adapt to different climatic conditions.”

The researchers studied the DNA of over 300 bats, identifying individuals that were adapted to thrive in hot and dry conditions as well as those that were adapted to colder and wetter environments. This information was then used to model changes in climatic suitability and the distribution of each group under future climate change. 

After mapping the areas that were most populated by each group of adapted bats, the research team studied the landscapes in between each area to determine whether they would allow the bats adapted to hot and dry conditions to move into areas already taken up by the cold-wet adapted bats.

Through their analysis, the researchers determined that there was suitable forest cover across most landscapes — an integral part of the landscape in order for bats to thrive. With this landscape connectivity, bats adapted to hot-dry conditions would likely be able to reach cold-wet adapted populations and breed with them. This would increase the ability of the population to survive as conditions become warmer and drier.

“We believe that if this model is used when assessing the vulnerability of any species to climate change we could reduce erroneous predictions and misplaced conservation efforts,” says Razgour. “Any conservation strategy should consider how individual animals can adapt locally and should focus not only on areas with threatened populations but also on making movement between populations easier. This is why it is important to look at the combined effect of climate change and habitat loss.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Daniel Fernandez Alonso

Some species are better equipped to adapt to a changing climate

Nature has the power to adapt — it’s what has...

Soy is a staple ingredient in the diets of many vegetarians and vegans.  It seems there’s nothing you can’t do with soy, from simple edamame to the gelatinous wonder of tofu and milk replacements.  It is true that eating less animal products can reduce your carbon footprint, help lessen your culpability for deforestation, and de-incentivizes the slaughter of bison and wolves.  The unfortunate reality of all agriculture is that it requires a certain amount of land as well as potential inputs such as fertilizer and water. 

As a human enterprise requiring resources, any type of agriculture has some environmental impact.  Soy is no different. Sometimes <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/lightening-soybean-supply-food/">soy</a> can even drive the deforestation of tropical rainforest. It’s also worth noting that soy is often used for <a href="https://animalsmart.org/species/cattle/what-do-beef-cattle-eat-">livestock feed</a>.

Soybeans are a major component of global trade and agriculture.  According to the <a href="https://www.soymeal.org/soy-meal-articles/world-soybean-production/">Soybean Meal Info Center</a>, the global production of soybeans reached an estimated 346.92 million metric tons in 2017-18.  The US leads soy production with an estimated 119.52 million metric tons of production in the same year.  Brazil comes in second with an estimated 112 million metric tons, followed by Argentina, putting China in fourth place with 14.2 million metric tons of estimated production.  Interestingly, China is also a leading consumer of soy meal. China consumes an estimated 73.87 million metric tons of soymeal, compared with the US in second place at 31.12 million metric tons. This disparity between production and usage of soy and soy products has far reaching and unintended global consequences.

President Donald Trump has been open with his dissatisfaction with trade between the US and China, even before he took office.  Now, the US and China is locked into a mutual trade war. The <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-45899310">BBC</a> reports that so far, the US has imposed three rounds of tariffs over a wide variety of imports from China, mainly manufactured goods.  The tariffs range from 10 to 25% and total to more than $250 billion. China has responded to these broad tariffs by imposing its own targeted taxes on imports from the US, intending to specifically punish areas that voted largely for Trump.  One of the taxes is on imported soybeans from the US. The result has been a 50% decline in soy exports from the US to China in 2018.

China has been looking at other countries to supply more soy while relying less on US sources, decreasing taxes on imported soy from five Asian countries.  It’s also likely that Argentina and Brazil will be supplying more of China’s demand for soy. Unfortunately, an increase in soy from South America might also mean an increasing destruction of some of the most biodiverse and striking areas of the planet.  

A paper published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-00896-2">Nature</a> by Richard Fuchs and colleagues predicts massive deforestation in the Amazon region in response to a greater demand for soy from non-US sources.  According to Yale’s <a href="https://globalforestatlas.yale.edu/amazon/land-use">Global Forest Atlas</a>, Brazil contains 350 million hectares of the Amazon rainforest.  110 million hectares of that land is designated as Indigenous Reserves, something that Brazil’s recently elected President Bolsonaro promised to do away with while campaigning.  

Already, Bolsonaro has weakened indigenous land protections by transferring management of the reserves to the Department of Agriculture, a government agency friendly with agribusiness, <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/01/bolsonaro-hands-over-indigenous-land-demarcation-to-agriculture-ministry/">Mongabay</a> reported earlier this year.  An additional 25 million hectares of Brazil’s Amazon is set aside for sustainable use, mainly extraction of rubber.  70 million hectares are protected as parks in Brazil’s Amazon. How much these protections will mean under the rule of President Bolsonaro remains to be seen, and corruption under his predecessor already threatened protected lands. Former president Michel Temer allowed forest protected under the law to be cleared and turned into cattle pasture.  So far, ranching is responsible for the majority deforestation compared to other agriculture within Brazil’s Amazon basin but that may change. 

Until recently, 62% of recently cleared Amazon land within Brazil ended up as cattle pasture, equally approximately 45 million hectares.  Permanent agriculture, such as soy crops, occupy only 3.5 million hectares within the Amazon region. Most of the soy production in Brazil comes from outside of the Amazon region.

With little standing in its way and demand growing, Brazil may be set to destroy greater areas of the Amazon to grow more soy.  As of 2016, Brazil supplied almost half of China’s demand for soy. The researchers <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-00896-2#ref-CR1">estimate</a> that the land used for soybean production in Brazil could increase by 39%, that’s 13 million hectares.  For comparison, the researchers pointed out that the worst two years for deforestation in Brazil, 1995 and 2004, cleared almost 3 million hectares of land.  This would be a historical destruction of one of the greatest forests on Earth. 

To be clear, China’s demand for soy comes from a growing consumption of meat.  According to the paper in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-00896-2#ref-CR1">Nature</a>, just a 2% decrease in soy used for livestock feed would result in 10 million tons less meat produced in China per year.  Globally, 71% of Brazil’s soy is used as animal feed. Influence from the west, whether it’s a more westernized diet or higher tariffs, is driving China’s demand and in turn destruction of Brazil’s Amazon.

But there is also some historic precedent for this. A 1980 US embargo on exporting soy to the Soviet Union drove up production of soy in Brazil.  Land used for soy in Brazil more than doubled between 1990 and 2010 to a total of 24.2 million hectares.  More land used for soy pushed cattle ranching deeper into the Amazon region, where slash and burn pasture practices use increasingly large portions of land in a wasteful practice.  

In one scenario, all 94 countries that produce soy would help make up for China’s 22.6 million to 37.6 million ton shortage of soybeans.  In this scenario, Brazil would have to increase it’s land dedicated to soy production by 5.7 million hectares. It’s unclear whether this scenario is likely but it’s quite obvious that with current trends continuing, global consumption of meat - and thus soy - will continue to increase with growing populations. The question lingers – how long can we chew at our world before it’s gone? 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer           

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com </a>

Trade war between the US and China may prompt Amazon deforestation

Soy is a staple ingredient in the diets of many...

Fracking is the process of injecting fluid at extremely high pressures deep into the Earth’s surface in order to extract oil and gas. 

In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> found that the process of fluid injection and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wastewater-injection-regulation-oklahoma/">wastewater disposal</a> has a ripple effect well beyond the injection area and can cause rapidly spreading earthquake activity. 

The team published their findings in the journal Science.

The research helps explain why fracking areas in Oklahoma have more earthquakes than earthquake hotspots in Southern California. 

The team found that while previously man-made earthquakes caused by fluid injection were believed to be isolated to nearby faults, the process can actually activate aseismic creep (subtle and slow movement) along faults well beyond fracking sites.

Imagine a string of dominos being tipped over one by one, where the catalyst domino is deep fluid injection in fracking regions.

The study tests and supports this hypothesis and highlights the importance of using field experiments to study fault networks and seismic activity.

[caption id="attachment_1872282" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/usgs-map.png"><img class="wp-image-1872282" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/usgs-map.png" alt="" width="650" height="366" /></a> Earthquake risk zones, Image Credit: USGS[/caption]

“One important constraint in developing reliable numerical models of seismic hazard is the lack of observations of fault behavior in its natural habitat,” said Pathikrit Bhattacharya, the lead author of the study. “These results demonstrate that, when available, such observations can provide remarkable insight into the mechanical behavior of faults and force us to rethink their hazard potential.” 

The researchers analyzed data on fault displacement and slip from full-scale field injection experiments conducted in France by teams from the <a href="https://www.univ-amu.fr/en">University of Aix-Marseille</a> and the <a href="http://unice.fr/en">University of Nice Sophia-Antipolis</a>.

After incorporating the research into a model, the Tufts team was able to prove that seismic activity and slippage activated by fluid injection outpaces the actual spread of the fluid spreading underground.

“Our results provide validation for the suspected consequences of injecting fluid deep into the subsurface, and an important tool in assessing the migration and risk of induced earthquakes in future oil and gas exploration,” said Robert C. Viesca, a co-author of the study.

To date, the largest man-made quake caused by fluid injection occurred in central Oklahoma in 2016 and was a 5.8, while several earthquakes measuring between a 4.5 and a 5.0 have been recorded in Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, and Texas. 

The results of the study are a cause for concern, as deep fluid injection from fracking could impact highly susceptible faults deep below the surface. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Main Image Credit: Rob Viesca &amp; Pathikrit Bahattacharya, Tufts University

Fracking can cause seismic ripple effect well beyond the injection area

Fracking is the process of injecting fluid at extremely high...

Evolutionary ‘booms and busts’ are linked to oxygen levels. Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London (UCL)</a> and the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> have found that surges and extinctions in animal biodiversity during the Cambrian explosion, which occurred about 540 million years ago, corresponded with atmospheric oxygen fluctuations. 

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossil-sponges/">Cambrian explosion</a> marked a period of rapid evolution, and the cause of it has been debated about for decades. However, this recent study, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/">Nature Geoscience</a>, provides ample support for the theory that oxygen content in the atmosphere played a large role in the development of many species during this time. Evolutionary ‘booms and busts’ are linked to oxygen levels

"The complex creatures that came about during the Cambrian explosion were the precursors to many of the modern animals we see today,” said lead author Dr. Tianchen He, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Leeds. “But because there is no direct record of atmospheric oxygen during this time period it has been difficult to determine what factors might have kick started this crucial point in evolution.”

"By analysing the carbon and sulphur isotopes found in ancient rocks, we are able to trace oxygen variations in Earth's atmosphere and shallow oceans during the Cambrian Explosion. When compared to fossilised animals from the same time we can clearly see that evolutionary radiations follow a pattern of 'boom and bust' in tandem with the oxygen levels. This strongly suggests oxygen played a vital role in the emergence of early animal life."

The isotopes the team analyzed were collected from the Aldan and Lena rivers in Siberia, which, during the time of the Cambrian, were shallow seas and housed the majority of animal life on Earth.

[caption id="attachment_1872277" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/fossil.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872277" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/fossil.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="433" /></a> Fossilized giant arthropod Phytophilaspis from the Cambrian Period. Image Credit: Andrey Zhuravlev, Lomonosov Moscow State University[/caption]

"The Siberian Platform gives us a unique window into early marine ecosystems. This area contains over half of all currently known fossilised diversity from the Cambrian explosion,” said coauthor Dr. Benjamin Mills, from the <a href="https://environment.leeds.ac.uk/see">School of Earth and Environment at Leeds</a>. "Combining our isotope measurements with a mathematical model lets us track the pulses of carbon and sulphur entering the sediments in this critical evolutionary cradle. Our model uses this information to estimate the global balance of oxygen production and destruction, giving us new insight into how oxygen shaped the life we have on the planet today."

"This has been an incredibly successful and exciting joint study,” added coauthor Andrey Yu Zhuravlev from <a href="https://www.msu.ru/en/">Lomonosov Moscow State University</a>. “The question of the Cambrian Explosion trigger has puzzled scientists for years. Now, the results give us convincing evidence to link the rapid appearance of animals as well as mass extinction during the early Cambrian with oxygen."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Andrey Zhuravlev, Lomonosov Moscow State University

Evolutionary ‘booms and busts’ are linked to oxygen levels

Evolutionary ‘booms and busts’ are linked to oxygen levels. Researchers...

Beneath the Earth’s crust and mantle lies a churning viscous tempest of molten iron and nickel that make up the outer core. 

This flurry of molten metals produces the planet’s magnetic field, without which the Earth would be constantly bombarded by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-field-solar-radiation/">harmful radiation from the sun</a>. 

Despite the extremely high temperatures and constant churning movement, a new study has found that Earth’s viscous outer core forms distinct layers, like a salad dressing that separates.

Researchers from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale</a> found that iron alloys within the Earth’s core undergo a process called immiscibility and form two layers of liquids when subjected to the same pressures and heat found in the Earth’s core.  

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

“We observe liquid immiscibility often in everyday life, like when oil and vinegar separate in salad dressing,” said Sarah Arveson, the lead author of the study. “It is surprising that liquid phase separation can occur when atoms are being forced very close together under the immense pressures of Earth’s core.” 

Immiscibility, or separation of molten alloys like nickel, has been well documented at atmospheric pressures and even at the intense pressures that occur in the Earth’s mantle, but this is the first study to explain why separation occurs 2,900 kilometers beneath the surface.

[caption id="attachment_1872262" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/core.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1872262" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/core.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="465" /></a> Image Credit: Sarah M. Arveson/Yale University[/caption]

The researchers used laser-heated diamond-anvil cell experiments to generate high pressures similar to those found in the Earth’s outer core. These experiments were then combined with computer simulations to replicate outer core conditions. 

The researchers found that under these conditions, two distinct molten liquid layers form. The first is an oxygen-poor iron silicon layer and the second is an iron layer rich in oxygen that rises to the top of the outer core and moves slower than the layer beneath. 

“Our study presents the first observation of immiscible molten metal alloys at such extreme conditions, hinting that immiscibility in metallic melts may be prevalent at high pressures,” said Lee.

The study adds to our understanding of the formation of the Earth’s core and mantle and the evolution of the magnetic field. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Molten liquid layers in the Earth’s core separate like oil and vinegar

Beneath the Earth’s crust and mantle lies a churning viscous...

The <a href="https://www.un.org/en/">United Nations</a> announced on Monday that one million species are being pushed toward extinction as a direct result of human activities. The shocking report, which is based on the most comprehensive assessment of species <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-risk-extinction/">extinction</a> risk to date, was written by 150 scientists with contributions from an additional 310 experts.

According to the <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a> (IPBES) committee, the global rate of species extinction “is already tens to hundreds of times higher than it has been, on average, over the last 10 million years.”

The IPBES Global Assessment was assembled over three years and is based on 15,000 scientific references. The research has revealed that more species are currently threatened with extinction than at any other point in human history. 

Sir Robert Watson is one of the world’s most influential environmental scientists and Chair of the IPBES.

“The overwhelming evidence of the IPBES Global Assessment, from a wide range of different fields of knowledge, presents an ominous picture,” said Sir Watson. “The health of ecosystems on which we and all other species depend is deteriorating more rapidly than ever. We are eroding the very foundations of our economies, livelihoods, food security, health and quality of life worldwide.”

Humans have transformed the Earth's land, ocean, and freshwater habitats, leaving plants and animals homeless. Human activities have also placed enormous pressure on species through pollution, overfishing, climate change, and the introduction of invasive species. 

“This report should help us understand that the signals of natural ecosystem collapse are symptoms of our collective human patterns, including consumption, resource exploitation and inequalities in economic and political power,” said Zak Smith, senior attorney for the Natural Resources Defense Council.

“The only way we’re going to save our planet and ourselves is if we firmly break with the failed systems of the past and embark on a new human journey. It won’t be easy, but we don’t have a choice. It’s time to engage as if our lives depend on it because they do.”

Sir Watson said the loss of species and ecosystems is already a global threat to human well-being, but that the report still gives us some hope. 

“The report also tells us that it is not too late to make a difference, but only if we start now at every level from local to global,” said Sir Watson. “Through ‘transformative change,’ nature can still be conserved, restored and used sustainably - this is also key to meeting most other global goals.” 

“Protecting the invaluable contributions of nature to people will be the defining challenge of decades to come.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

UN report: 1 million species are being pushed toward extinction

The United Nations announced on Monday that one million species...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> have found that educating children about climate change can increase the awareness and concern of their parents regarding the issue. 

“There's a robust body of work showing that kids can influence their parents' behavior and positions on environmental and social issues, but this is the first experimental study demonstrating that climate education for children promotes parental concern about climate change,” said study lead author and PhD student Danielle Lawson.

The researchers worked with middle school science teachers to incorporate a lesson on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguin-colonies-collapsing/">climate change</a> into their classrooms. Prior to the new curriculum, 238 students and 292 parents were surveyed on their concerns about climate change. 

The students were divided into two groups, including a control group that did not receive the lesson on climate change. After the curriculum was presented to the second group, all of the parents and students completed the same survey again. 

“We found that there was an increase in climate concern for both the experimental and control groups, but that the shift was much more pronounced in families where children were taught the curriculum,” said Lawson.

The climate survey measured concern on a 17-point scale, ranging from not concerned at all, -8, to extremely concerned, +8. Students in the control group had an average increase in concern of 0.72 points on the second survey, while their parents’ concern increased by 1.37 points. Meanwhile, students who learned about climate change had an average increase of 2.78 points, while their parents’ concern increased by 3.89 points.

“This study tells us that we can educate children about climate change and they're willing to learn, which is exciting because studies find that many adults are resistant to climate education, because it runs counter to their personal identities,” said Lawson. “It also highlights that children share that information with their parents, particularly if they're given tools to facilitate communication - and that parents are willing to listen.”

“To be clear, climate change education is about giving people a good foundation in climate science and cultivating critical thinking skills,” added study co-author Kathryn Stevenson. “This is about education, not activism, and children are great educators. They seem to help people critically consider ways in which being concerned about climate change may be in line with their values.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/volumes">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Educating kids on climate change increases awareness among parents

Researchers at North Carolina State University have found that educating...

According to a team of experts at the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, digital technology companies could reduce the carbon footprint of services such as YouTube by simply changing how these services are designed. 

In order to estimate YouTube’s carbon footprint for the course of a year, the researchers investigated how much energy was used to provide videos worldwide in 2016. This amount of energy was found to be the equivalent of 10 million metric tons of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carbon-dioxide-levels-spike/">carbon dioxide</a>, which compares to the energy demand of a city the size of Glasgow. 

The massive level of CO2 emissions was the result of servers and networks streaming about one billion hours of YouTube videos to user devices each day. The team examined how YouTube’s emissions could be reduced by eliminating just one form of “digital waste.” The study was focused on the difference that could be made if YouTube would avoid sending images to users who are only listening to audio. 

The experts found that this single design intervention could reduce YouTube carbon emissions by between 100 to 500 kilotons per year, which is the carbon footprint of roughly 30,000 homes in the UK.

Chris Preist, the study’s lead researcher, is a professor of Sustainability and Computer Systems in Bristol's Faculty of Engineering.

“Digital services are an everyday part of our lives, but they require significant energy to deliver globally - not only in data centers, but also in networks, mobile networks and end devices - and so overall can have a big carbon footprint,” said Professor Preist.

The experts believe that Sustainable Interaction Design (SID) has great potential in terms of carbon savings. The researchers showed that current standards used by companies to report carbon emissions do not adequately account for the whole footprint of digital services, such as the CO2 emissions associated with the delivery of these services over mobile networks.

“People are aware of the significant amount of energy use of data centers and corporations are increasingly aware of the need to change their practices in light of the challenges that climate change present to humanity and the global ecosystem,” said Professor Preist. “But for a streaming service such as YouTube, most of the energy is used in the network, particularly the mobile network.”

“Given the overall size of the carbon footprint of such services, it is important that companies assess and report them. By doing so, they can identify the carbon savings that can be made by alternative design decisions, and hopefully find ways to reduce their overall footprint.”

The research will be presented at the 2019 ACM CHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock

Digital services could be redesigned to require much less energy

According to a team of experts at the University of...

The fungal disease Black Sigatoka has been ravaging banana groves around the world since it emerged from Fiji in the 1960s.

Also known as black leaf streak disease, the fungal infection soon spread to other areas in the tropics.

Now, researchers from the University of Exeter have compelling evidence that the spread of Black Sigatoka was boosted by climate change.

Changes in average temperature and moisture in Latin America and the Caribbean has boosted the risk of banana trees being infected by the fungus by as much as 44 percent, the scientists said in a press release.

"Black Sigatoka is caused by a fungus (Pseudocercospora fijiensis) whose lifecycle is strongly determined by weather and microclimate," said Dr. Daniel Bebber of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. "This research shows that climate change has made temperatures better for spore germination and growth, and made crop canopies wetter, raising the risk of Black Sigatoka infection in many banana-growing areas of Latin America.”

The disease is believed to have first entered Latin America in Honduras, where it was first seen in 1972. It reached Brazil in 1998, and the Caribbean in the 2000s.

Pseudocercospora fijiensis spreads through aerial spores. It creates streaked lesions on leaves followed by cell death when the fungus is exposed to light.

The researchers studied data on the fungal infections, combining that with climate data from the past 60 years.

While Black Sigatoka is flourishing in areas where moisture levels have risen, that’s not universally the case, the team found.

"Despite the overall rise in the risk of Black Sigatoka in the areas we examined, drier conditions in some parts of Mexico and Central America have reduced infection risk," Bebber said.

However, the team noted that drying trends that reduced infection were also likely to leave banana trees thirsty.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0269">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>. Funding was provided by the <a href="https://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/">UK Global Food Security programme</a> and <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/en">Horizon 2020</a>, a program of the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/commission/index_en">European Commission</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Banana disease Black Sigatoka boosted by climate change

The fungal disease Black Sigatoka has been ravaging banana groves...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

[sendtonews key="fxH3eJHEkQ-2010196-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

[sendtonews key="6SdlLLbt0t-1988946-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NTU...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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