Music often does more than entertain. It paints images in our minds, builds worlds, and stirs emotions we can’t always explain. A new study shows how even the tiniest human touches in sound can influence this inner world.



The findings from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/music/our-research/cross-disciplinary-research/sydney-music-mind-and-body-lab.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sydney Music, Mind and Body Lab</a>, reveal how subtle shifts in rhythm and tone may fuel imagination in ways technology alone cannot replicate. 



These delicate imperfections - tiny fluctuations in timing or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-and-the-mind-new-clues-about-how-we-experience-pleasure/">volume</a> - can transform repetitive beats into living experiences, sparking imagery that feels real and immersive.



Rather than simply hearing structured sounds, listeners create journeys filled with color, movement, and narrative. The study suggests that the human quality of music holds unique power to trigger creativity and emotional depth. 



The research also shows why live performances, with all their small variations, can feel more moving than flawless recordings, and why imagination often thrives when music carries traces of human touch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-musical-shifts-big-mental-impact">Small musical shifts, big mental impact</h2>



Researchers asked 100 participants to imagine a journey while listening to repetitive drumming. Some heard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/">drumming</a> with random micro-variations in loudness and timing, while others heard perfectly uniform beats or silence.



Those who listened to music with micro-variations reported richer imagery, longer imagined journeys, and more lifelike scenes. 



They often described environments filled with movement, color, or emotion that felt authentic and dynamic, which suggests these subtle rhythmic details significantly influence how the brain constructs vivid inner experiences.



"What excites me is that these little details in music are something we can all feel, even if we don't always notice them consciously," said lead researcher Ceren Ayyildiz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-touch-makes-rhythm-alive">Human touch makes rhythm alive</h2>



The study, published in Scientific Reports, relied on computer simulations of drum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-music-tunes-the-emotions-in-our-memories/">sounds</a>. Researchers created two versions: one with flawless uniformity and another with tiny, natural shifts mimicking human performance.



They then analyzed participants’ mental imagery responses with Bayesian multilevel modeling. The results showed that small fluctuations, often unconsciously introduced by performers, significantly enhance imagination.



These subtle imperfections did not distract listeners; instead, they added depth and texture to the soundscape, making the music feel more organic. Participants reported that the variations encouraged richer narratives, longer journeys, and greater immersion in imagined experiences.



This demonstrates that even the smallest rhythmic nuances can transform sound from a mechanical sequence into something that resonates with the human mind, shaping how people visualize and emotionally respond to music.



"It's not just technical perfection but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-touch-molecular-basis-elkin1-discovery/">human touch</a> that makes music feel more alive and sparks the imagination," Ayyildiz said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musical-skills-amplify-imagination">Musical skills amplify imagination</h2>



Listeners with musical training or strong immersion ability experienced even more vivid mental imagery. For them, micro-variations brought authenticity and richness missing from machine-perfect sounds.



"One possible explanation for this finding is that listeners may perceive drumming with tiny random changes - a core component of human music performance - as more natural and organic," said Ayyildiz.



The study highlights how human imperfections in rhythm bring authenticity and create a sense of connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-and-sound-variations-aid-therapy">Music and sound variations aid therapy</h2>



The insights also suggest therapeutic and practical applications. "Mental imagery already plays an important role in many cognitive therapies," said senior author Dr. Steffen Herff.



"Deliberately tailoring background music - for example through subtle changes in timing and loudness - could be used to either stimulate or dampen imagination depending on the specific therapeutic target," 



For audio engineers and producers, the study provides a new perspective. Micro-variations are already used in studio production as key aesthetic drivers in many forms of music including electronic dance music and hip-hop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-expression-drives-connection">Human expression drives connection</h2>



For musicians, especially drummers, the findings emphasize the creative weight of subtle timing shifts. 



"This study demonstrates how the tiny details in rhythmic timing and expression can greatly alter our perceptions of music," said researcher Dr. Simon Barker.



"The relationship between micro-rhythmic variations and imagination, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/">illusion</a>, and connection are at the core of the art of drumming, and this study is a lovely example of this central aspect of rhythmic expression and communication."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-s-power-comes-from-touch">Music’s power comes from touch</h2>



The study adds to a growing body of work exploring music’s role in imagination, connection, and even loneliness. 



Its message is clear: even in a world of machine-perfect precision, the smallest human variations breathe life into sound, reminding us of music’s timeless power to shape emotion, enrich creativity, strengthen bonds, and nurture a uniquely human sense of presence and belonging.



"Even tiny fluctuations can make music more meaningful," said Ayyildiz. "It's a reminder that the human feel still matters."



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/FEh_WfGeCTo?si=4ftg3JG20m5vyTxE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Here, tiny fluctuations in timing and loudness introduce a human touch that breathes life into the rhythm - the kind of nuance shown to spark richer mental imagery. Credit: University of Sydney </figcaption></figure>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-12604-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;



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Tiny human touches can make music sound more powerful

Music often does more than entertain. It paints images in our minds, builds worlds, and stirs emotions we can’t always explain. A new study shows how even the tiniest human touches in sound can influence this inner world. The findings from the Sydney Music, Mind and Body Lab, reveal how subtle shifts in rhythm and tone may fuel imagination in ways technology alone cannot replicate. These delicate imperfections - tiny fluctuations in timing or volume - can transform repetitive beats into living experiences, sparking imagery that feels...

Want a healthy baby? Skip the caffeine. Drinking coffee when pregnant has been linked to smaller infant birth weight – and tea isn’t much better.

A new study found that even women who drink less than 200 milligrams of caffeine each day, as recommended by the <a href="https://m.acog.org/">American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists</a>, have a higher risk of premature birth and low birth weight than women who drink no caffeine at all.

“Based on the consistent associations we observed, and because many pregnancies are unplanned, we would recommend women who are pregnant or seeking to become pregnant to at least limit their intakes of caffeinated coffee and tea,” lead author Dr. Ling-Wei Chen of <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/">University College Dublin</a> told news agency <a href="https://www.reuters.com/">Reuters</a>.

The team of researchers worked with 941 mothers and children in Ireland. About 40 percent drank <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/chemistry-inside-cup-coffee/">coffee</a> while pregnant, and around half drank <a href="https://www.earth.com/plants/camellia-sinensis/">tea</a>.

They found that every 100mg of caffeine the women drank while pregnant was linked to a 2.5-ounce dip in birth weight on average. Caffeine intake was also linked to earlier births and shorter length in new infants.

On average, the infants of the women who drank the most caffeine were 6 ounces lighter at birth than the babies whose mothers abstained. It didn’t matter if the caffeine came from coffee or tea, the researchers found.

“High caffeine intake can result in restricted blood flow in the placenta which may subsequently affect fetal growth,” Chen told Reuters. “Caffeine can also cross the placenta readily, and because caffeine clearance slows as pregnancy progresses, caffeine accumulation may occur in fetal tissues.”

The new study adds to a growing body of literature that links caffeine intake to newborn health and birth weight. It also underlines that current recommendations that women drink less than 200mg of caffeine per day may be too high.

The study has been published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn">The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Coffee, tea linked to low birth weight in newborns

Want a healthy baby? Skip the caffeine. Drinking coffee when...

Tis the season for baking, whether it’s pumpkin pie, cookies, or the wide array of sweet rolls, cakes, and breads that may grace your kitchen table or family get-togethers. Personally, I love baking, but my attempts more often than not turn into disastrous fails rather than sweet treats. 

It was after reading about a group of scientists that used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physics-perfect-pizza/">physics to tackle the perfect pizza crust </a>that I wondered if folding in a little science know-how could help improve my baking and provide a set of tools that I could use to fix mistakes and turn those fails into successes. 

I used to think that following a recipe to the letter would be enough, but after one too many flat, crumbly cookies, useless cake clumps that were about as far away from a cake pop as you could get, and cinnamon rolls where more roll ended up stuck to the pan than on the plate, I knew I was missing some key factors. 

If we take a look at one recipe, the tried and true, much beloved, chocolate chip cookie, can science help us make baking magic?

Specifically, let’s look at <a href="https://www.bettycrocker.com/recipes/ultimate-chocolate-chip-cookies/77c14e03-d8b0-4844-846d-f19304f61c57">Betty Crocker’s chocolate chip cookie recipe. </a>

The good news is that once you’re familiar with the basics, just like any good foundation, you can keep building and expanding on it. But you can’t write novels without learning the alphabet, you can’t study the cosmos without understanding the atom, and you can’t bake chocolate chip cookies without knowing what goes in them. 

The Ingredients 

Wet

1 cup butter or margarine, softened: The fat

3/4 cups granulated sugar

3/4 cups brown sugar packed 
1 teaspoon vanilla
1 egg: Thickens, binds, and adds stability

Dry
2 1/4  all-purpose flour: The glue

1 teaspoon baking soda: The raising agent
1/2 teaspoon salt: Enhances the sweet flavors
1 package (24 ounces) semisweet chocolate chips (4 cups)

1 cup coarsely chopped nuts optional

Essentially, baking boils down to flour, fat, and sugar mixed with a raising agent to help the dough rise and expand along with the all mighty egg which can help add <a href="https://www.thekitchn.com/baking-school-day-1-all-about-eggs-and-baking-222479">stability to the batter</a>, thicken, and bind ingredients together.

Flour is such a basic, versatile ingredient for baking, whether it’s hearty bread or a light, moist cake. Flour is made up of starch and coiled proteins, and when you get flour wet, the proteins <a href="http://www.berries.com/blog/science-of-baking">gliadin and glutenin uncoil and link together.</a> This forms the glue or gluten that provides the backbone to baking. 

Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and baking powder are considered leavening or rising agents because the carbon dioxide produced by the powders is what helps the dough rise, and this chemical reaction is helped along when the dough is <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/baking-soda-and-baking-powder-difference-602090">exposed to hot temperatures</a>. 

The first step in many baking recipes is to separate the wet ingredients from the dry ingredients. You’ll find many recipes purposely list the ingredients the way that they do so that people won’t mix everything together right away. 

Mixing the ingredients separately, specifically the dry ingredients, ensures that everything is incorporated evenly. According to <a href="https://www.biggerbolderbaking.com/mix-wet-dry-ingredients-separately/">Bigger Bolder Baking</a>, mixing the dry ingredients “disperses the raising agents,” which in this case is the baking soda. 

With the Betty Crocker chocolate chip cookies, I know that I need to cream the sugar, butter, vanilla, and egg together. The dry ingredients can easily be mixed together in a separate bowl, but the wet ingredients require a little more finesse. 

Creaming the sugar, butter, and egg together doesn’t just help with mixing all the ingredients together, it’s a crucial step that can make or break your baking. With creaming, you’re working to create a light, fluffy whipped texture of butter, sugar, and egg that’s filled with air pockets. 

The sugar helps speed up this process because the sugar crystals cut through the fat. 

James Morton, in his book How Baking Works, writes this of creaming: 

“The sugar tears through the fat, trapping lots of tiny bubbles of air within fat droplets by simple mechanics. These expand when heated to make your bake rise.” 

<a href="https://www.seriouseats.com/2015/12/cookie-science-creaming-butter-sugar.html">Stella Parks from Serious Eats</a> recommends creaming the butter and sugar together for five minutes before adding the other wet ingredients. Not only does this help create the ultimate light, fluffy texture but proper creaming also extends and enhances your dough. 

“Cream the butter and sugar properly, though, and the cookie dough will be loaded with micro-pockets of air,” writes Parks. “That air is a poor conductor of heat, which means that it helps insulate the dough from the hot baking sheet in the oven, slowing the rate at which the butter and sugar melt.” 

Once the wet ingredients have all been creamed together and the dry ingredients mixed in with the wet ingredients, the dough is ready for baking. 

The Betty Crocker recipe calls for an oven set at 375, and yes, there’s some science to the temperatures that recipes bake at as well. 

Many recipes call for a temperature of 350, and this has to do with something called the <a href="https://www.seriouseats.com/2017/04/what-is-maillard-reaction-cooking-science.html">Maillard reaction. </a>

To better understand the Maillard reaction just think about the beautiful golden brown color of many baked goods. The Maillard reaction describes the amazingly complex flavors and textures that are created when the sugars and proteins in food are heated up. 

“Without Maillard chemistry we would not have a dark bread crust or golden brown turkey,” the authors of the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2017/05/whats-so-great-about-350-degrees/525885/">Royal Society of Chemistry book wrote</a>, “our cakes and pastries would be pale and anemic, and we would lose the distinctive color of French onion soup.” 

So we’ve covered ingredient basics, mixing musts, and even why certain things cook at specific temperatures. There are also a myriad of advanced tools and appliances you can use for baking and cooking, but if you’re just looking to take your novice baking up a notch, a little science know-how will go along way. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How to use science to master your holiday baking

Tis the season for baking, whether it’s pumpkin pie, cookies,...

As temperatures, greenhouse gas emissions, and sea levels rise, we find ourselves coming closer and closer to the point of no return where no amount of climate mitigation will be enough to stem the rising tides, both literally and figuratively. 

Not only will climate change threaten food security, infrastructure, and the environment, but now a <a href="https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/">new report</a> offers an exhaustive breakdown of the increasing economic costs if climate change goes unchecked.  

13 federal agencies conducted the Congressionally mandated report, and what’s most surprising is that the report came directly from a presidential administration at odds with even the idea of climate change. 

President Trump and his administration have taken repeated steps to increase fossil fuel emissions, foster fossil fuel production, and reduce protected lands all in the name of economic progress. 

But, this report, which was made public by the White House on Friday, predicts that climate change could shrink the American economy by ten percent. 

The report estimates that by the end of the century, sea level rise alone could cost the US economy $118 billion, infrastructure damage could cost $32 billion, and severe droughts and heat waves could cost $141 billion in heat-related deaths. 

No corner of the country will go unscathed as climate change could cause an increase in wildfires in both the southwest and southeast, and declines in trade and agriculture will put major stress on food security and imports. 

The report even discusses climate change impacts for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands where coastal flooding could contaminate drinking water, according to the <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1yvrf_jRu3ti-nAXI9-msVY8nZpRzXVvEme2H4mLbnwQ/edit">New York Times</a>.

The impacts of climate change are already being evidenced in many areas of the world, but the report says that the far-reaching effects of climate change will disrupt trade and imports. 

Extreme weather events could shut down factories abroad and drive up prices and demand for certain products in the US, and the report says that this may become a common occurrence in the future. 

“Climate change is another risk to the strength of the U.S. trade position, and the U.S. ability to export,” Diana Liverman, a <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> professor and co-author of the report, told the New York Times. “It can affect U.S. products, and as it drives poverty abroad we can lose consumer markets.”

One of the most worrying aspects of the report are the predictions for agricultural yields in the US which could decline to 1980s numbers. 

“Rising temperatures, extreme heat, drought, wildfire on rangelands and heavy downpours are expected to increasingly disrupt agricultural productivity in the U.S.,” the report states. “Expect increases in challenges to livestock health, declines in crop yields and quality and changes in extreme events in the United States and abroad.”

Going forward, it will be interesting to see how this report will fit in the current administration’s strategy. Will the news help inform key emissions regulation strategies or will it simply be ignored until the next climate change report? 

The agencies who conducted the report do offer several solutions to help limit the impacts of global warming including taxing emissions, regulating greenhouse gasses, and investing in clean-energy initiatives. 

Whether or not these suggestions will be taken into consideration is another matter altogether. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Report: Climate change to reduce the American economy by 10 percent

As temperatures, greenhouse gas emissions, and sea levels rise, we...

Most are aware to some degree of the historical struggle that got women the right to vote in America.  Susan B. Anthony is immortalized on a silver dollar as an advocate for equal treatment of both women and African Americans.  Illustrating the length and determination that the fight for women’s suffrage required, women were allowed to vote by constitutional amendment in 1920, 14 years after Anthony’s death.

Before women obtained the right to vote, African American men (and other minorities) had a similar battle.  Before the 15th amendment was passed in 1870, only white men were legally allowed to vote in the US.  Even after the constitutional change was passed, states found ways to make it hard or impossible for African Americans to vote.  The Civil Rights Movement is perhaps the best known chapter in the long, painful history of blacks in America fighting for equal footing.  Even today, voter ID laws and similar regulations are criticized for unfairly targeting minorities. <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/voter-id-law-algorithm/">Wired</a> reported earlier this year that ID laws do indeed discriminate against minorities, especially with President Trump’s call for a doubling down on them.  

Despite ongoing repression, African Americans and women got the vote long before Native Americans. The 15th amendment specifically denied Native Americans the right to vote.  <a href="https://www.narf.org/cases/voting-rights/">Native American Rights Fund</a> quotes Senator Jacob Howard at the time:

“I am not yet prepared to pass a sweeping act of naturalization by which all the Indian savages, wild or tame, belonging to a tribal relation, are to become my fellow-citizens and go to the polls and vote with me…”

It wasn’t until 1924 that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/black-hills-native-americans/">Native Americans</a> born in the US were granted citizenship in the US, but this still didn’t enforce voting.  This same lack of enforcement is a big part of the greater Civil Rights Movement, typified by African American activists and their allies.  

In 1952, the McCarran-Walter Act allowed Asians to become naturalized citizens, which would allow them to vote.  But minority groups were still routinely discriminated against when it came to voting. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was supposed to end discriminatory voting practices but as I noted, there are still ways states can discriminate without being fully transparent about motive.  <a href="https://www.politifact.com/">Politifact</a> reports that in Arizona and New Mexico, both states with large Native American populations, Native Americans weren’t allowed to vote until 1948 when courts ruled against the states.  In Utah, Native Americans were kept from voting until 1957, when they were the last Native American groups to be recognized as US citizens. 

Given the history of law and racism in Utah, as well as the prevalence of Mormonism, it may not be very surprising that the race of government representatives didn’t reflect the race of their constituents.  This midterm election was a historical one for change in Utah. Now, <a href="https://www.stgeorgeutah.com/news/archive/2018/11/13/jcw-apc-southeastern-utah-follows-national-election-trend-of-increased-native-american-representation/#.W_B7ONVKj3g">St. George News</a> reports, Utah is part of a growing trend of greater Native American representation in the US government.  San Juan County, Utah, a majority Native county, is now represented by Native American county commissioners.  

This may be good news for lovers of desert and public lands, if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/patagonia-fighting-trump/">fight</a> for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canyon-tree-frogs-bears/">Bear’s Ears National Monument</a> is any indication.  Native American groups in Utah have been engaged in a fight with the federal government to hold onto the original designation of Bear’s Ears National Monument as it was made by President Obama, in particular.  San Juan County, <a href="https://www.myutahparks.com/road-trips/san-juan-county-utah">My Utah Parks</a> proudly declares, is home to Canyonlands National Park, Hovenweep National Monument, Natural Bridges National Monument, Rainbow Bridge National Monument as well as Navajo Tribal Park.  Bear’s Ears itself is also part of San Juan County. 

<a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.10/how-a-utah-county-silenced-native-american-voters-and-how-navajos-are-fighting-back">High Country News</a> reported in 2016, that roughly one third of San Juan County is also part of Navajo Nation.  The news organization reported on the frustration of local Native Americans that wanted a county ambulance housed closer to their homes.  Despite an ambulance being at best an hour drive from Native American communities, all but the single Navajo county commissioner, were apathetic.  Court decisions were required to make the county build a public school on Navajo land despite revenues from Native lands contributing to county profits and a legal requirement to do so.  

Despite the county being less than 50% Anglo, the majority of elected offices were held by whites until recently.  As late as 2016, <a href="https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.10/how-a-utah-county-silenced-native-american-voters-and-how-navajos-are-fighting-back">High Country News</a> reported, a ruling by U.S. District Court Judge Robert J. Shelby, decided that San Juan County had violated the Voting Rights Act and U.S. Constitution.  The county had been drawing voting district boundaries by using race, a practice called ‘racial gerrymandering’. 

It wasn’t until 1987 that San Juan County even elected a Navajo county commissioner, due to a number of racist voting tactics used by the county.  The districting in the county still unfairly concentrated the Native American vote in one district though and until redistricting occurred, San Juan County was destined to have only one Native American commissioner.  The 2016 court decision was the last in a long string of legal battles for Native Americans for equal voting rights and forced the county to redistrict. This year has been different; the election of two Navajo men, Willie Grayeyes and Kenneth Maryboy make two of three county commissioners in San Juan County Native American, <a href="http://www.governing.com/topics/politics/sl-native-americans-utah-midterms.html">governing.com</a> reports.  

<a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/native-americans-win-elections-utah-after-voicing-support-for-bears-ears">Sierra Club</a> reports that both of the new San Juan County Commissioners are also outspoken supporters of Bear’s Ears National Monument.  It seems that President Trump may have to eat his own words when he said just before reducing Bear’s Ears by executive order, 

“We will advance...a truly representative process, one that listens to the local communities that knows the land the best and that cherishes the land the most.”

There also broader implications for national politics.  <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/10/13/657125819/many-native-ids-wont-be-accepted-at-north-dakota-polling-places">NPR.org</a> reported in October that in North Dakota, many tribal IDs won’t be accepted at polling places.  In case one forgets, North Dakota is also the site of another bitter fight between Native Americans and the federal government over the Dakota Access Pipeline.  In North Dakota, Native Americans make up 5.5 percent of the total population, according to the <a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/nd">2010 US Census</a>.  5.5 percent may not mean much over the whole state, but it can be significant in local elections.  

Another sign of change in Native American representation is the election of the first two Native American congresswomen in US history: Democrats Sharice Davids of Kansas and Deb Haaland in New Mexico.  We can all hope that this is a growing trend for a greater involvement in government by the first Americans as well as more diversity in representation. 

--

By<a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com"> Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Slow progress for Native American representation in the US

Most are aware to some degree of the historical struggle...

There is a widening gap in life expectancy between the wealthiest and the most impoverished communities in the UK, according to a new study. 

This news is contrary to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/money-life-expectancy/">recent research</a> that found that income and life expectancy in Denmark were not all that heavily linked due to the changing nature of incomes. 

But for this study, the researchers found that life expectancy of people from the poorest sectors is nearly ten years shorter compared to people from the most affluent sectors in the UK. 

Not only is the gap increasing, but researchers from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> who conducted the study found that life expectancy has decreased for women from poor communities since 2011. 

The study was published in the journal Lancet Public Health. 

“Falling life expectancy in the poorest communities is a deeply worrying indicator of the state of our nation's health, and shows that we are leaving the most vulnerable out of the collective gain,” said Majid Ezzati, the senior author of the study. 

Ezzati, along with a team of researchers, reviewed and analyzed 7.65 million death records between 2001 and 2016 from the <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/">Office for National Statistics</a>. 

The life expectancy gap increased from about six years in 2001 to nearly eight years in 2016 for women, and 9 years to 9.7 years for men. 

In 2016, women from the most deprived communities had a life expectancy of 78 years, whereas in the most affluent sectors that number increased 86.7 years. Life expectancy for men was 74 years in the poorest sectors, but for the UK’s richest it was 83.8 years 

“We currently have a perfect storm of factors that can impact on health, and that are leading to poor people dying younger,” said Ezzati. “Working income has stagnated, and benefits have been cut, forcing many working families to use foodbanks. The price of healthy foods like fresh fruit and vegetables has increased relative to unhealthy, processed food, putting them out of the reach of the poorest."

The researchers found that children under five from the poorest sectors were over twice as likely to die as children from wealthy homes. 

Several diseases also contributed to the life expectancy gap, and the researchers found that people with lower incomes were more likely to die early from heart disease, dementia, some cancers, and respiratory disease. 

“This study suggests the poor in England are dying from diseases that can be prevented and treated,” said Ezzati. “Greater investment in health and social care in the most deprived areas will help reverse the worrying trends seen in our work. We also need government and industry action to eradicate food insecurity and make healthy food choices more affordable, so that the quality of a family's diet isn't dictated by their income.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Life expectancy gap between rich and poor keeps growing in the UK

There is a widening gap in life expectancy between the...

Smallholder farms typically measure less than two hectares, but despite their modest size, these types of farms are a vital source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-impact-crops/">food security</a>, financial independence, and labor for many people in developing countries, despite their small size. 

There are an estimated <a href="https://www.cropscience.bayer.com/en/crop-science/smallholder-farming">475 million smallholder farms</a> which contribute to global food production, and a new study has found that smallholder farms have a much larger agricultural impact than previously realized. 

Despite their economic and agricultural importance, relatively little research has been done on smallholder farms on a global scale, and it was thought that smallholder farms contributed 12 to 24 percent to total global food production. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.iiasa.ac.at/">International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)</a> put together the largest dataset of smallholder farms as part of a new study. 

The data was collected through an impressive citizen science initiative where participants were asked to assess field sizes using satellite imagery with an app called Geo-Wiki. 

The study, published in the journal Global Change Biology, is the first of its kind to estimate smallholder field size on a global, continental, and national level. 

Starting in 2017, the researchers launched a crowdsourcing campaign using the Geo-Wiki app which allows people to access and analyze satellite imagery from Google Maps and Microsoft Bing. 

Citizen scientists were tasked with looking at the satellite images and estimating field size based on five options ranging from very small to very large. 

The researchers were able to collect data on 130,000 samples from the Geo-Wiki app and create agricultural area maps.

The new dataset and maps showed that smallholder farms make up 40 percent of the agricultural area across the globe. 

The researchers say that the dataset could be used for future studies and to help inform new food security policies. 

“We have filled the gaps in available information on global field size distribution by covering countries where no statistical surveys were carried out, and no mapping was done with the help of remote sensing,” said Myroslava Lesiv, the leader of the study. “Therefore, the field size data set we developed provides full and accurate information on the distribution of field sizes to support policy decision making related to food security issues.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Despite their size, smallholder farms have a huge global impact

Smallholder farms typically measure less than two hectares, but despite...

Psychotic experiences (or <a href="https://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/guide/what-is-psychosis#1">psychosis</a>) can include everything from having hallucinations, strange beliefs, or hearing sounds that aren’t there. 

These episodes can be triggered by both physical and mental illness and are commonly associated with schizophrenia and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-changes-bipolar-disorder/">bipolar disorder</a>, but research has also shown that stress or extreme trauma can cause psychosis. 

Now, researchers from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have discovered a link between childhood trauma and psychotic experiences as an adult.

The findings were published in the journal JAMA Psychiatry, and the study is the first ever to examine correlations between childhood trauma and psychosis using a population study. 

“As around five per cent of the population have psychotic experiences at some point in their life, and these often lead to further mental health issues, it is important that we understand more about the role trauma has in increasing this risk,” said Jazz Croft, the lead author of the study. 

Data from the Bristol Children of the 90’s study, also known as the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/alspac/">Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC)</a>, were used in the research. 

The team reviewed clinical interviews as well as clinic visits to see if there were any connections between psychotic experiences and early childhood events. 

“I wanted to look at traumatic experiences during childhood using Children of the 90s data because it allowed us to answer questions about the timing and type of trauma that previous studies have not been able to examine comprehensively,” said Croft. 

The researchers found that between 25 and 60 percent of the people who reported having a psychotic experience would likely not have had developed psychosis if they hadn’t experienced trauma as a childhood. 

Even after accounting for risk factors and socio-economic status, the results were consistent. 

“The findings support that routine screening for psychotic experiences in children or young people exposed to trauma, particularly those exposed to frequent occurrences, should be considered as a way of preventing later mental health problems. Understanding how trauma leads to psychotic experiences could lead to the development of more novel treatments for psychosis,” said Croft. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Childhood trauma can trigger psychotic experiences in adulthood

Psychotic experiences (or psychosis) can include everything from having hallucinations,...

A new study that was focused on the perceptive skills of the world-class Bluecoats Drum and Bugle Corps has revealed that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/musicians-brains-respond-differently/">musicians</a> have better visual timing than members of the color guard. The counterintuitive results confirm previous studies which demonstrate the remarkable results of cross-training the brain's audio and visual systems. 

The investigation was focused on an intensive five-week spring training program, during which a research team led by Nestor Matthews compared the ability of young adult Bluecoat percussionists, brass players, and color guard to detect the order of moving stimuli. The stimuli mimicked the visual displays created by the color guard.

The study design made it possible for the researchers to evaluate the effect of musical and visual training on visual timing, while controlling for experience and skill level.

The results of the study showed that percussionists performed the task with more accuracy and ease than brass players, who were found to perform better than the color guard. Taken together with findings from neuroimaging and brain stimulation research, this pattern suggests musical training shapes cortical areas responsible for synchronizing rhythm and behavior.

The fact that drummers and brass players are better able to judge the timing of visual stimuli than members of the color guard is a testament to the superior learning and memory skills that can result from conditioning the audio and visual components of the brain to work together. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.eneuro.org/">eNeuro</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Matthews et al., eNeuro (2018)

Musicians have superior visual timing skills

A new study that was focused on the perceptive skills...

Researchers have found that sweetened drinks are a bigger contributor to diabetes risk than other foods. According to the study, sugary foods that are low in nutrients produce more harmful effects than fruit and other foods containing fructose.

Study lead author Dr. John Sievenpiper is a researcher in the Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre of <a href="http://www.stmichaelshospital.com/">St. Michael's Hospital</a> in Toronto, Canada.

“These findings might help guide recommendations on important food sources of fructose in the prevention and management of diabetes,” said Dr. Sievenpiper. “But the level of evidence is low and more high quality studies are needed.”


Fructose occurs naturally in foods such as fruits and natural fruit juices, vegetables, and honey. Fructose is also added to foods such as soft drinks and desserts as “free sugars.”

Many studies have suggested that fructose plays a major role in the development of diabetes and heart disease. To investigate, the research team analyzed 155 studies involving the impact of fructose <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/that-sugar-film-sugar-consumption/">sugars</a> on blood glucose levels in people with and without diabetes.

The analysis revealed that most foods containing fructose sugars do not have a harmful effect on blood glucose levels when these foods do not come along with excess calories. 

The experts also found that fruits and healthy fruit juices can even have beneficial effects on blood glucose and insulin control, especially in people with diabetes. On the other hand, several foods that added excess “nutrient poor” energy to the diet, particularly sweetened drinks, seemed to have harmful effects.

The study authors acknowledged some limitations, such as small sample sizes, short follow-up periods, and limited variety of foods in some trials. 

“Until more information is available, public health professionals should be aware that harmful effects of fructose sugars on blood glucose seem to be mediated by energy and food source,” wrote the researchers.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sweetened drinks linked to higher diabetes risk than other foods

Researchers have found that sweetened drinks are a bigger contributor...

According to a study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>, a significant number of suicidal teenagers treated at a psychiatric facility reported that watching the Netflix series “13 Reasons Why” had contributed to their suicide risk. The controversial show features a 17-year-old girl who leaves behind 13 reasons for why she committed <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/suicide-twice-common-homicide/">suicide</a> recorded on cassette tapes.

In response to widespread concern regarding the influence of the show, a team of Michigan Medicine researchers set out to directly question suicidal adolescents about whether the show had impacted their state of mind.

“This show has been a real phenomenon, especially among teenagers,” said study lead author Dr. Victor Hong. “Its depiction of teen suicide has raised great concern among parents, health providers and educators.”

Among the 87 youths who were surveyed between 2017 and 2018 - mostly teens ages 13 to 17 - half had watched at least one episode of the show. Out of the 43 teens who had watched the series, nearly half said it had heightened their risk of suicide.

“Our study doesn't confirm that the show is increasing suicide risk, but it confirms that we should definitely be concerned about its impact on impressionable and vulnerable youth,” explained Dr. Hong. “Few believe this type of media exposure will take kids who are not depressed and make them suicidal. The concern is about how this may negatively impact youth who are already teetering on the edge.”

The researchers also found that the majority of survey participants who had seen the show had viewed it alone and were much more likely to discuss their reactions with peers than with a parent.

When the second season of “13 Reasons Why” first aired in May, it opened with a message urging young viewers to watch the show with a trusted adult, and also emphasized the importance of seeking help. Regardless, very few parents involved in the study had watched the series themselves, and some were unaware that their child had watched it.


“The data from our sample of teens demonstrated that kids who were at high risk of suicide did not reach out to adults,” said Dr. Hong. “They mostly watched the show alone or talked to friends, but they weren't talking to parents, teachers or school counselors. Youths who are in greatest need of adult support may be less likely to seek it out.”

Among the teens who said the showed increased their suicide risk, the majority reported that they strongly identified with the lead character, Hannah Baker.

“The main character is easy to identify with,” said Dr. Hong. “She's a teen girl who has suffered from sexual assault, bullying and anxiety - which, unfortunately, impact too many of our youth today."

The study authors said that further research is needed for a better understanding of how media content involving youth suicide can influence the mental health and suicide risk of its viewers. In the meantime, parents must be vigilant. 

“Our findings support the need for tailored prevention programming for vulnerable youths and education and training for their parents,” said study senior author Dr. Cheryl King. “Parents whose kids may be vulnerable or at a high risk for suicide should be even more diligent about what their kids watch and if they are being exposed to content that could trigger them. They also shouldn't shy away from open, honest and difficult conversations with their kids about these topics.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/">Psychiatric Service</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Is Netflix’s “13 Reasons Why” influencing teen suicide risk?

According to a study from the University of Michigan, a...

This Thanksgiving is expected to be one of the coldest on record for the northeastern United States, according to multiple weather reports.

The snow, ice, and high winds could make for hazardous travel conditions for millions of people hoping to get home for the holiday. 

Already, hundreds of flights have been canceled on Tuesday and Wednesday, and there were over 1,700 delays, according to <a href="https://flightaware.com/">FlightAware</a>, a flight tracking service. 

Those who braved the cold and opted to hit the road instead of fly were faced with dangerous whiteout conditions as snow squall warnings were issued for counties in New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Buffalo, New York. 

Drivers who are traveling on Thanksgiving in the northeast have been cautioned against blustery, snowy winds and slick roads from the previous days’ snow falls. 

Temperatures on the east coast are projected to fall into the teens in some states with 35 mph wind gusts and below zero wind chills. 

There are even concerns that the winds will disrupt the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade and force some of the balloons in the parade to be grounded.

By all accounts, it will be the coldest Thanksgiving day in over a century. The last time temperatures were this cold in November in New York and Boston was 1901, according to the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-6414135/Arctic-blast-set-cause-Thanksgiving-travel-chaos.html">Daily Mail</a>. <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-6414135/Arctic-blast-set-cause-Thanksgiving-travel-chaos.html">
</a>

The source of the record-breaking cold snap comes from Siberia, according to <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2018/11/21/thanksgiving-weather-siberian-cold-wave-chill-northeast/2078041002/">USA Today</a>. 

“The cold air for Thanksgiving originated over Siberia about a week ago, moved over the Arctic Ocean, and is now being forced south toward us via a large dip south in the jet stream,” the New York weather service told USA Today. 

On the opposite coast in California, Oregon, and Washington, the forecasts are calling for heavy rain this Thanksgiving. 

The rain is good news for firefighters in northern California but there’s also an increased risk of flash floods, and the rain could impede recovery efforts of those killed in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-wildfires-trump-cause/">Camp Fire</a> that decimated Paradise, California.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Record-breaking cold and snow for many this Thanksgiving Day

This Thanksgiving is expected to be one of the coldest...

Using your imagination can really help you conquer your fears, according to a new study from the <a href="https://icahn.mssm.edu/">Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a>. The research may ultimately improve upon current methods of treating fear and anxiety-related disorders.

The investigation was focused on the difference between how fear is learned and unlearned. Fears are learned quickly through threatening or unpleasant experiences, and certain associations can cause the fear to return. This recurring fear often underlies emotionally crippling disorders such as phobias, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

The most common treatment to eliminate fear is to experience the associated cues without the bad experience, which is a technique known as threat extinction. This type of therapy, however, is not always feasible because some conditions are difficult to reconstruct, such as those found in war zones. The therapy is also not an option when the threatening cues are too overwhelming for the patients to endure. 

In these cases, the imagination can be used as an alternative. However, little is actually known about the neural processes behind the influence that our imagination has on our behavior. 

The Mount Sinai researchers set out to investigate by exposing 68 study participants to auditory threat conditioning. This experiment involved two different sounds, one of which coincided with an electric shock. 

The participants were then split into three groups: one that performed imagined extinction, one that performed real extinction, and a group that underwent no extinction. Functional <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mri-scans-dementia-risk/">MRI images</a> were collected for each phase of the trial, while skin conductance responses were recorded continuously.

“We found that imagined extinction and real extinction were equally effective in the reduction of threat-related neural and physiological responses elicited upon re-exposure to real-world threatening cues,” said senior author Dr. Daniela Schiller. “More specifically, neuroimaging results indicated that imagined extinction, like standard extinction, activated a network of threat suppression involving the ventromedial prefrontal cortex as a central hub.”

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex is critical to the elimination of learned threat responses, and is often impaired in anxiety disorders. The current study shows that imagining threatening cues suppresses the same neural mechanisms as real cues, which means that using the imagination can achieve the same level of fear reduction.

“Our data indicate that an internal simulation of a real-world experience can alter the way one responds to that situation in the future,” said Dr. Schiller. “These novel findings bridge a long-standing gap between clinical practice and cognitive neuroscience by validating the effectiveness of imagination-based therapies targeting anxiety disorders and extending our knowledge of how mental actions can influence basic neural circuits.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/home">Neuron</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/dtaff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Your imagination can help you conquer fears, study shows

Using your imagination can really help you conquer your fears,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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