Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule.



Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation.



First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-customer-courtesy-kindness-transforms-service-quality-and-job-satisfaction/">evolves</a> when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of shared genes.



But controversy has never left this idea. Some scientists have argued that Hamilton’s rule almost never holds, while others have placed it alongside natural selection as a universal principle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-rules-of-cooperation">Many rules of cooperation</h2>



The new analysis shows that Hamilton’s Rule is not a single law but part of a family of related rules. Each version applies in different situations, depending on how traits influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-kindness-linked-to-healthier-teen-choices/">survival</a> and reproduction.



"For years, the debate has been about whether Hamilton’s Rule is universal," said Matthijs van Veelen, the study’s author and professor at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en">University of Amsterdam</a>. 



"What I show is that it’s not a single rule, but is in fact many different versions that work in different situations. That means both sides of the debate were partly right."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-grounded-in-equations">Cooperation grounded in equations</h2>



This insight comes from the Generalized Price equation, an updated framework that reconnects evolutionary models with statistics. 



The framework shows that for every possible model of how traits influence fitness, there is a corresponding Price-like Equation. In turn, each equation yields a version of Hamilton’s Rule.



Earlier debates focused on whether Hamilton’s Rule “holds,” but the paper explains why that question is ill-posed. The real task is to ask which version of the rule fits a given case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cooperation-gets-complicated">When cooperation gets complicated</h2>



The study highlights that actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/">social behaviors</a> in nature are rarely as simple as early models suggested. Interactions among individuals often do not add up in straightforward ways.



Instead, they involve nonlinear effects, where the impact of one individual’s action depends heavily on what others around them are doing. For example, the benefit of helping might increase when many group members cooperate at the same time, but it could disappear or even reverse when only a few cooperate.



Because of this, Hamilton’s Rule cannot always be described with a neat equation of cost versus benefit. In situations with these nonlinear dynamics, researchers need to include higher-order terms in the formula.



These extra terms account for the fact that cooperation can change its effect depending on population size, structure, or frequency of the behavior. 



Without those additions, simple cost–benefit equations may look correct on paper but fail to capture the real biological meaning behind the interaction. In other words, they can be technically true but practically useless.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hamilton-s-rule-strengthened">Hamilton’s Rule strengthened</h2>



Earlier, biologist David Queller had already suggested adjustments to Hamilton’s rule by incorporating non-additive effects into the framework. His approach acknowledged that cooperation does not always scale linearly and that frequency dependence matters. 



However, the new work by Matthijs van Veelen strengthens this idea by giving it a rigorous mathematical foundation. His general version of Hamilton’s Rule ensures that these extensions are not just clever tweaks but part of a consistent, statistically sound framework.



This places the study of altruism on much firmer ground, showing how cooperation can be explained across a wide range of complex social systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-the-altruism-debate">Ending the altruism debate</h2>



By clarifying these theoretical foundations, the study makes the decades-old question of universality obsolete. It shows that multiple Hamilton-like rules exist, all valid, but only meaningful when tied to the correct evolutionary model.



This reframing shifts research focus toward identifying which fitness model applies in each system, whether microbes in colonies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/">birds</a> sharing food, or humans helping strangers.



The research also draws attention to how cooperation can emerge in very different ecological and genetic contexts, encouraging scientists to investigate population structures, environmental pressures, and frequency-dependent effects that shape altruistic behavior in unique ways across the living world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hamilton-s-rule-matters">Why Hamilton’s Rule matters</h2>



The contribution is not just theoretical. It guides empirical research, making studies of cooperation clearer and more precise. By focusing on the form of the fitness function, scientists can avoid misinterpretations and identify the exact evolutionary conditions under which altruism evolves.



This approach also forces researchers to consider population structure and frequency dependence more seriously. For example, in some cases cooperation becomes beneficial only when a trait reaches a certain frequency in the population.



This frequency dependence, ignored in Hamilton’s original additive model, plays a critical role in determining whether altruism spreads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-evolution-s-many-paths">Mapping evolution’s many paths</h2>



"This result doesn’t just close the debate," said van Veelen. "It gives us a more powerful framework to use in the future. Cooperation is everywhere in nature, and now we have a clearer picture of the many ways evolution can produce it."



The key message is that there is no single path to cooperation. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">Evolution</a> offers many, and with the new general framework, scientists now have the tools to map them with greater precision.



The study reminds us that science is not just about declaring universal rules but about understanding the diversity of conditions under which life evolves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105065v2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Why we help: The hidden math behind cooperation

Why do we act selflessly, even when it costs us? This mystery has long intrigued scientists. New work from the University of Amsterdam now reframes one of biology’s most famous ideas: Hamilton’s Rule. Published in the journal eLife, the study provides a mathematical update that reshapes how we think about altruism and cooperation. First proposed in the 1960s, Hamilton’s Rule suggests that altruism evolves when the benefits to others, weighted by genetic relatedness, outweigh the cost to oneself. Simply put, helping relatives can improve the survival of...

A new study suggests that the diets of people who dwell in rainforests promote a healthier gut with more diverse microbes in children. This type of diet, which is high in fiber and unprocessed foods, may have benefits for patients with conditions such as obesity and type 1 diabetes.

The study was focused on adults and children who normally lived in the city as they visited a remote Venezuelan village without electricity, soap, or other amenities for 16 days.

Among the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/conversations-kids-language-skills/">children</a>, their microbiomes became more diverse and accumulated more helpful bacteria. However, such changes were not found in the adults who visited the rainforest.


Study senior author Maria Gloria Dominguez-Bello is a professor in the Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology and Department of Anthropology at <a href="https://newbrunswick.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers-New Brunswick</a>.

“The findings suggest dietary interventions to encourage a more diverse microbiome may best succeed in children, while the microbiome of adults may be more resistant to change,” said Professor Dominguez-Bello.

Professor Dominguez-Bello’s team had previously examined the connection between the microbiome and human health. The researchers discovered that the human microbiome in urbanized, modernized societies contains far less diversity compared to people living pre-modern lifestyles in the Amazon jungle of Venezuela and Peru.

The current study was developed to investigate how early impacts on the microbiome may contribute to conditions such as obesity and diabetes in developed countries. Study participants stayed in a rainforest village in southern Venezuela near the border of Brazil. 

The individuals had a daily diet that consisted of cassava, fish, a little meat, and a lot of fruit. They adapted to the local time zone with eight hours of sleep, and bathed in a river without soap.

The skin, nostrils, mouths, and feces of the participants were swabbed for microbes several times throughout the study. These samples were compared with samples from local villagers, which confirmed that the urban visitors arrived with a less diverse microbiome.

Over the course of 16 days, the urban children showed significant microbiome changes. The adults, on the other hand, did not. 

Professor Dominguez-Bello said that further research is needed to understand the “age window” during which the microbiome can change, and also to identify the health implications of such changes.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://msphere.asm.org/">mSphere</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rainforest diet may promote healthier digestion among children

A new study suggests that the diets of people who...

Mangrove forests may be able to adapt to rising sea levels brought on by climate change and provide a crucial natural defense against storm surges and hurricanes for coastal communities. 

Coastal communities are more and more at risk from rising sea levels and devastating storm damage as the impacts of climate change grow more extreme. 

Already, we have witnessed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricanes-stronger-climate-change/">record-breaking hurricanes</a> and floods in the past few years coupled with stark declines in natural coastal defenses like marshland and coral reefs. 

There is a growing interest in improving and preserving these coastal barriers by local governments, and a study shows that the warming temperatures brought on by climate change could prove beneficial to mangroves in subtropical wetlands. 

Biologists from <a href="https://www1.villanova.edu/university.html">Villanova University </a>conducted the study over a period of two years and the results were recently published in the Journal of Ecology. 

The researchers set up large warming chambers in the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge on Merritt Island which is part of the <a href="https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/">Kennedy Space Center</a> (KSC). 

Because of the KSC’s precarious low-lying position infrastructure near the coast, the researchers had the perfect opportunity to see how salt marshes and mangroves might protect KSC and the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">National Aeronautics and Space Administration's</a> assets against rising sea levels. 

The researchers increased the temperatures in the marsh and mangrove ecosystems, and as temperatures increased, the marshy shrubs doubled in plant height and quickly transformed into woody mangrove forests. 

The mangrove forests kept up with the changes in temperature which led the researchers to conclude that subtropical wetlands might be able to adapt to climate change and better serve coastal communities. 

“Our study provides some evidence that the ongoing reshuffling of species on earth's surface could allow for some adaptation to the same global changes that are causing them,” said Samantha Chapman, a member of the research team. “Conserving and restoring our coastal wetlands can help humans adapt to climate change.”

The study emphasizes the roles wetlands play in protecting against storm surges, floods, and hurricanes, all of which have increased in severity in the past decade due to climate change. 

Investing in the preservation and management of mangrove forests and other natural barriers could help protect infrastructure and lower the costs of hurricane and storm damage. 

“Our experiment highlights the impact multiple interacting aspects of climate change, such as warming and sea level rise, can have on the outcome of species invasions resulting from climate change -- and on the capacity of those communities to protect shorelines,” said Glenn A. Coldren, the first author of the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Mangroves could provide a defense against rising sea levels

Mangrove forests may be able to adapt to rising sea...

It should come as no surprise that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-improves-lungs/">smoking</a> and drinking – especially excessively – is bad for your health. But what might be surprising is just how quickly these bad habits can begin affecting one’s health – even at a young age. A new study published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj">European Heart Journal</a> reports that the arteries of teenagers who drink alcohol and smoke, even just occasionally, are already showing signs of stiffening at age 17. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> assessed data from 1,266 adolescents in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) over a five-year period between 2004 and 2008. 

“We found that in this large contemporary British cohort, drinking and smoking in adolescence, even at lower levels compared to those reported in adult studies, is associated with arterial stiffening and atherosclerosis progression,” says John Deanfield, a professor at the UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science and senior author of the paper.

Study participants gave details of their smoking and drinking habits at ages 13, 15, and 17, and had aortic stiffening assessed using a Vicorder device to measure the speed at which arterial pulse propagates through the circulatory system. Exposure to parental smoking was also part of the questionnaires.

Results showed that teenagers in the high-intensity smoking group (more than 100 cigarettes in their lifetime) had a relative increase of 3.7 percent in the stiffening of their arteries compared to those in the low-intensity smoking group (0-20 cigarettes). Teenagers who tended to “binge drink” – defined as more than 10 drinks in a typical drinking day – had a relative increase of 4.7 percent in the stiffening of their arteries compared to light-intensity drinkers (fewer than two drinks on a typical day). 

The findings of the study also showed that a combination of high alcohol intake and smoking was linked to even greater arterial damage compared to smoking and drinking separately. Participants in both the high-intensity smoking and drinking groups had a relative increase of 10.8 percent in the stiffening of their arteries compared to those who had never smoked and were light-intensity drinkers.

“The age at which participants started drinking alcohol was not associated with arterial health, suggesting that duration of exposure might not be that important at this young age,” says Dr. Marietta Charakida of <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/index.aspx">King’s College London</a> and formerly of the UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science. “In addition, no beneficial effect of low alcohol consumption was found with regards to arterial health.”

Luckily, the study also found that if teenagers stopped drinking and smoking during adolescence, their arteries recovered and returned back to normal. But this doesn’t mean that this effect can be achieved later in life. 

“Governments and policy-makers need to devise and implement effective educational strategies, starting in childhood, to discourage children and teenagers from adopting smoking and bad drinking habits,” says Charakida. “They should also be told about the benefits of stopping these unhealthy behaviors.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Smoking and drinking causes significant artery damage in teens

It should come as no surprise that smoking and drinking...

The recent string of massive wildfires in the western United States might have made people more hesitant to buy homes in high-risk areas, but a new study has found that this is not the case.

Wildfires across the US have been increasingly devastating due to a combination of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/summer-weather-wildfires-flooding/">climate change</a> and an increase in urban expansion into more wildfire-prone areas, prompting more evacuations and rescues than in previous years. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.unlv.edu/">University of Las Vegas Nevada</a> set out to see how much wildfire risk impacts housing development and the real estate market. 

The study, published in the Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, shows that housing prices drop immediately after a wildfire but soon increase over the following years. 

It’s both a blessing and a curse, according to the lead author Shawn McCoy. The research shows that people are more and more motivated these days to settle into high-risk fire areas, finding the benefits that come with beautiful views and isolation worth the risk. 

Residential growth into previously isolated forested areas known at Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) increased from 30 million housing units in 1990 to 43.4 by 2010. 

"To the extent that homeowners value the environmental amenities in these high-risk areas," McCoy said, "if the market participants systematically underestimate the likelihood of a fire, we may observe inefficiently increased rates of housing development in forested areas, as well as a potential decrease in the willingness among existing homeowners to take the steps needed to prevent fire from impacting their homes."

McCoy along with Randy Walsh, a co-author of the study from the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a>, reviewed real estate data collected from 360,00 properties in Colorado that had been impacted by wildfires between 2000 and 2012. 

The two then used statistical techniques to compare real estate prices before and after wildfires in homes that were located either outside or within high-risk wildfire zones. 

Using 3D modeling, the researchers were able to model their findings and show exactly how wildfire-risk influences real-estate and housing development in high-risk areas. 

“This modeling strategy allows us to use real estate markets as a lens to draw inferences regarding the underlying linkages between fire and fire risk perception at a very fine geographic and temporal scale,” said McCoy. “If a recent fire has the effect of inducing a significant change in the salience of fire risk, this will ultimately be reflected by a decrease in the demand for homes in fire risk areas.”

No matter how much damage wildfires cause, no amount of media coverage or facts about wildfire risk will sway homeowners in WUI areas. 

What’s more, the rise and fall pattern in real estate prices after a fire shows that any initial concerns about fire risks fade over time. 

“Despite an initial drop in real estate prices in risk-prone areas, the results of our study suggest that homebuyers' initial fears about fire risk will fade, and development in risk areas may continue to increase,” said McCoy. 

The researchers say the results of this study could help inform policymakers, insurance companies and homeowners fund better solutions to expanding housing development into high-risk wildlife areas. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfires haven’t impacted housing demand in high-risk areas

The recent string of massive wildfires in the western United...

With yet another mass shooting this week during a video game conference in Florida, many in the United States cry yet again for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stricter-gun-laws-firearm-injuries/">stricter gun control policies.</a>

According to a new study, half of all deaths attributed to firearms in the world occur in just six countries in the America, which further emphasizes how rampant the gun violence problem is in the United States and parts of Central and South America. 

<a href="http://www.healthdata.org/">The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation </a>recently reviewed firearm-related mortality between 1990 and 2016 for 195 countries and territories. 

Half of the more than the quarter of a million firearm deaths in 2016 occurred in Brazil, the United States, Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela and Guatemala, according to the study’s findings published in the journal JAMA. 

“Our findings provide a comprehensive analysis of firearm-related deaths - by homicide, suicide, and accidental injury,” said Ali Mokdad, a senior author on the paper. “The study also reinforces the message that it is imperative to expand gun safety and education.” 

The study is one of the most extensive ever conducted on global firearm deaths, and shows that firearm homicides make up the majority of firearm deaths in the world. 

While homicides account for 64 percent of all global firearm-related deaths, the researchers found that firearm-related deaths varied by country. 27 percent of firearm deaths in 2016 were suicides and in 67 of the 195 countries, and suicides by firearms made up the majority of all firearm deaths. 

In Greenland, for example, the research shows that there were on average 22 suicides by firearm per 100,000 people, the highest age-adjusted rate of suicide by firearms in the world followed second by the United States with 6.4 deaths per 100,000 people. 

Greenland’s history of suicide prevalence is long and complex and for more than 30 years, Greenland has had some of the highest suicide rates in the world, according to <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/04/21/474847921/the-arctic-suicides-its-not-the-dark-that-kills-you">National Public Radio. </a>

The research also found that 87 percent of the deaths in 2016 were of males. 

“These findings show the disproportionately high mortality among men," said Christopher Murray, a fellow senior author. "This study is important for policymakers at the national and global levels."

Singapore had the lowest firearm related deaths, and for the six countries where half of all firearm deaths in 2016 occurred, Brazil had the highest number followed by the US, Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, and Guatemala. 

Overall the number of firearm deaths across the world increased from 209,000 in 1990 to 251,000 in 2016. 

“This study confirms what many have been claiming for years - that gun violence is one of the greatest public health crises of our time,” said Mohsen Naghavi, the first author of the study. “There are no simple antidotes to address this health problem. The tragedy of each firearm-related death will continue until reasonable and reasoned leaders come together to address the issue.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Half of all firearm deaths occur in just six countries

With yet another mass shooting this week during a video...

Research presented at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a> is reporting that people who vacation longer also tend to live longer.

Professor Timo Strandberg of the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> is one of the study’s co-authors.

“Don't think having an otherwise healthy lifestyle will compensate for working too hard and not taking holidays,” said Professor Stranberg. “Vacations can be a good way to relieve stress.”

The study was focused on 1,222 middle-aged male executives born between 1919 and 1934 that participated in the Helsinki Businessmen Study, which was conducted from 1974 to 1975. 

The men all had at least one risk factor for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wood-coal-cooking-cardiovascular/">cardiovascular disease</a>, such as smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, obesity, and elevated triglycerides.

Participants were randomly placed in either a control group or an intervention group for five years. The men in the intervention group received advice every four months to do aerobic physical activity, eat a healthy diet, achieve a healthy weight, and stop smoking. The men in the control group received usual healthcare and were not advised by the investigators.

By the end of the five years, the risk of cardiovascular disease was reduced by 46 percent in the intervention group compared to the control group. After 15 years, however, there had been more deaths in the intervention group than in the control group.

The current investigation has extended the mortality follow-up on the study to 40 years. The researchers used national death registers and examined data on amounts of work, sleep, and vacation among the participants. 

While the death rate was found to be consistently higher in the intervention group compared to the control group until 2004, death rates were the same in both groups between 2004 and 2014.

Among individuals in the intervention group, shorter vacations were associated with excess deaths. Men in this group who took three weeks or less of vacation each year had a 37 percent greater chance of dying in 1974 to 2004 than those who took more than three weeks of vacation. On the other hand, vacation time had no impact on risk of death in the control group. 

“The harm caused by the intensive lifestyle regime was concentrated in a subgroup of men with shorter yearly vacation time,” said Professor Strandberg. “In our study, men with shorter vacations worked more and slept less than those who took longer vacations. This stressful lifestyle may have overruled any benefit of the intervention. We think the intervention itself may also have had an adverse psychological effect on these men by adding stress to their lives."

The research is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/12603">Journal of Nutrition, Health &amp; Aging</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People who vacation more also live longer, study reveals

Research presented at the annual meeting of the European Society...

The beauty aisles in department stores have grown to a massive, and frankly, overwhelming size. These aisles are crammed with bright bottles printed with buzz words such as “moisturizing”, “revitalizing” and “nourishment”. 

As awareness spreads about the plight of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-testing-method-saves/">research animals</a>, more and more people are reading the bottles for words such as “cruelty-free” and “not tested on animals” as well. Unfortunately, there is a lack of clarity about what these words mean and if animals were actually tested on.

Consumers might assume that “cruelty-free” and “not tested on animals” are straight-forward terms that make it clear that no animals were used to test the product. However, as the<a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/labeling/claims/ucm2005202.htm"> U.S. Food &amp; Drug Administration</a> (FDA) website points out, “Some cosmetic companies promote their products with claims of this kind in their labeling or advertising. The unrestricted use of these phrases by cosmetic companies is possible because there are no legal definitions for these terms.”

Cosmetic companies may use the phrases “cruelty-free” and “not tested on animals” to describe their finished cosmetic products. This means that the cosmetic a consumer buys at the store was not tested on animals but separate ingredients used to make the product were. While technically the finished product is cruelty free, animals still suffered in a laboratory for the product to be made.

Manufacturers may also use a “cruelty-free” label if they themselves did not perform the animal testing but outsourced the testing to a third party.

Complicating matters even further is a Chinese law that requires foreign cosmetic products to be tested on animals in order to be sold in the country. The incentive of a huge market in China is often too much for manufacturers to turn down.

While many large companies sell their products in China, some are also working to advance the field of non-animal cosmetic testing. L’Oreal has been creating human skin cell models as an alternative since 1979 and is currently researching other alternatives such as molecular modeling and imaging techniques.

As our society advances, so does our science. Cosmetic animal testing is seen by many scientists and researchers as an outdated and inaccurate model. The European Union even banned the use and sale of cosmetic products tested on animals.

Technical phrasing and global politics may be headache inducing for the average consumer, especially one who is trying to pick up some quick groceries. Thankfully, people trying to take a stand with how they spend their dollar can download apps which will tell them if their products are truly cruelty free. 

They can also keep their eye out for the Leaping Bunny logo, which guarantees that neither the manufacturer nor any of their ingredient suppliers tested on animals at any stage of the process. As for companies that sell in China the website says, “At this time, any company that markets or sells their products in China may be removed from the Leaping Bunny Program unless a company can provide proof that they are exempt from animal testing now and anytime in the future.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

“Cruelty-free” doesn’t always mean what it implies

The beauty aisles in department stores have grown to a...

A diet that is low in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-breakfast-exercise-burns-carbs/">carbohydrates</a> and high in fat and protein is commonly used for weight loss, yet the potential health effects of this type of diet have been the subject of much debate. A new study from the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a> (ESC) has revealed that low-carb diets are unsafe and can even be life-threatening.

“We found that people who consumed a low carbohydrate diet were at greater risk of premature death,” said study co-author Professor Maciej Banach. “Risks were also increased for individual causes of death including coronary heart disease, stroke, and cancer. These diets should be avoided.”

Obesity is an increasing problem across the globe, and is associated with a higher risk of serious conditions such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. Diets low in carbohydrates are often suggested as a way to combat obesity.

The study was focused on data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted from 1999 to 2010, which involved 24,825 participants.

The study revealed that individuals with the lowest carbohydrate intake had a 32 percent higher risk of all-cause death over an average of 6.4 years compared to participants with the highest carbohydrate consumption. In addition, risks of death from coronary heart disease increased by 51 percent, while the risk of death from cancer increased by 35 percent.

These findings were confirmed by a meta-analysis of seven cohort studies with a total of 447,506 participants. The studies had an average follow-up 15.6 years.

“Low carbohydrate diets might be useful in the short term to lose weight, lower blood pressure, and improve blood glucose control, but our study suggests that in the long-term they are linked with an increased risk of death from any cause, and deaths due to cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, and cancer,” said Professor Banach.

The researchers also investigated the link between all-cause mortality and low carbohydrate diets among obese and non-obese participants in two age groups: 55 years and older versus under 55 years old. The correlation was found to be the strongest among non-obese older individuals.

Professor Banach speculated that a higher intake of red and processed meat may be the mechanism that drives this relationship.

“The reduced intake of fibre and fruits and increased intake of animal protein, cholesterol, and saturated fat with these diets may play a role. Differences in minerals, vitamins and phytochemicals might also be involved.”

“Our study highlights an unfavourable association between low carbohydrate diets and total and cause-specific death, based on individual data and pooled results of previous studies. The findings suggest that low carbohydrate diets are unsafe and should not be recommended.”

The research was presented at the meeting <a href="https://www.escardio.org/portal/site/Escardio/menuitem.c9f480f01a3ca18798f54de7202031ca/?vgnextoid=3f7fec3be124d410VgnVCM1000004e03a8c0RCRD&amp;vgnextchannel=34d1d0ce97cbc410VgnVCM1000004e03a8c0RCRD&amp;vgnextfmt=default&amp;vgnextlocale=EN">ESC Congress 2018</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Low-carb diets linked to higher risk of premature death

A diet that is low in carbohydrates and high in...

On again-off again relationships may make for good television, but new research shows that partners should really consider the pros and cons before engaging in these often unhealthy relationship patterns.

A new study conducted by researchers from <a href="https://missouri.edu/">the University of Missouri </a>and<a href="https://illinois.edu/"> the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> shows that on-off relationship patterns are actually damaging to mental health and well-being and typically don’t <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-relationships-asking-much/">benefit the relationship</a>. 

Published in the journal Family Relations, the study offers several tips for re-evaluating a relationship and communication effectively in order to either stabilize the relationship or safely end it.

Previous research has found that over 60 percent of adults have been involved in an on again-off again relationship at one point in their lives, with one of third of couples who lived together reporting that they broke up and got back together at least once in their relationship. 

Even though these relationship patterns are common, on-off relationships are more heavily associated with high rates of abuse and lower levels of commitment between couples. 

“Breaking up and getting back together is not always a bad omen for a couple,” said Kale Monk who led the study. “In fact, for some couples, breaking up can help partners realize the importance of their relationship, contributing to a healthier, more committed unions. On the other hand, partners who are routinely breaking up and getting back together could be negatively impacted by the pattern.”

For the study, the researchers reviewed data from more than 500 individuals in relationships. The couples in the study who reported breaking off their relationships and getting back together also had poorer quality relationships overall. 

The researchers found that on-off relationships correlated with an increase in depression and anxiety.

“The findings suggest that people who find themselves regularly breaking up and getting back together with their partners need to 'look under the hood' of their relationships to determine what's going on,” said Monk. “If partners are honest about the pattern, they can take the necessary steps to maintain their relationships or safely end them. This is vital for preserving their well-being.”

The researchers suggest that couples should be direct in their communication if they find themselves facing another on-off situation. In order to avoid future breakups or safely end the relationship, it's important to talk about the underlying issues that could be the cause for why couples break up. 

If the relationship is abusive or there was a pattern of violence, the researchers say that seeking outside support could help remove someone safely from a dangerous situation. 

For other couples who just find themselves continually breaking up and getting back together, the research shows that thinking about why getting back together is appealing could get couples to reassess the situation and find the best solution for both parties. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kyvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

On and off-again relationships can harm your mental health

On again-off again relationships may make for good television, but...

Adobe recently published their <a href="https://www.slideshare.net/adobe/2018-adobe-consumer-email-survey">fourth annual consumer email survey</a> and found what email phrases are the most irritating to office employees. 

Email use has only increased over the years with Adobe researchers finding that in the US, people check their inboxes for around two and half hours every day. 

It would seem we are hooked on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-light-smartphones-damages-eyes/">electronic communication</a> as it can be a quick and convenient way to share information with co-workers and get tasks done. 

However, the survey of over 1,000 white-collar workers found that there are some email subject headlines and phrases to avoid if you want to keep harmony in the office. 

The results include a list of the most hated email phrases with the number one most irritating being “not sure if you saw my last email.” 

25 percent of the survey respondents said that phrase was annoying followed by 13 percent who didn’t like seeing “Per my last email” pop up in their inbox. 

If you’re constantly checking your inbox and working to follow up on emails, that last thing you need is someone who constantly sends emails following up on emails previously sent. 

45 percent of the survey participants said that one of the worst email faux pas was sending too many emails. Another big agitator was seeing a name spelled incorrectly in the email.

The “annoying” list also included “please advise,” “as previously stated, and “any update on this?”

Like texting and other non-face to face forms of communication, tone in email is incredibly hard to convey and easy to misconstrue. 

If an email comes across as passive-aggressive, judgemental, or redundant, it can have a major impact on workplace productivity and morale. 

“Emotion and intent are sometimes hard to convey via email, so [some phrases] can negatively impact productivity and culture,” Kristin Naragon, Adobe's director of email solutions, told <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/23/adobe-survey-these-are-the-9-most-annoying-email-phrases-of-2018.html">CNBC Make It</a>. “Your colleagues could choose not to respond out of frustration. This can damage relationships and ultimately, morale.”

Email is one of the most preferred forms of office communication and so surveys like this can help people improve communication and respond to the most pressing issues as they arise. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals which email phrases annoy everyone

Adobe recently published their fourth annual consumer email survey and...

Hundreds of millions of years before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-event-darkness/">K-T or K-Pg extinction</a> wiped out the dinosaurs, another massive extinction event, the largest in the history of the world, took place. 

The End-Permian Extinction occurred around 250 million years ago, jump-started by a volcanic eruption in Siberia. 

Nearly 90 percent of all life on Earth was destroyed in the aftermath leaving just a little less than five percent of the sea’s species and little vegetation, according to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/prehistoric-world/permian-extinction/">National Geographic.</a>

All life on Earth evolved from the few remaining species after the End-Permian which is also aptly called the Great Dying. 

While researchers know that a huge volcanic eruption was behind the extinction, a new study has provided insight into just how the eruption effectively wiped out most of life on Earth. Geologists call the eruption the Siberian Flood Basalts and it went on for nearly one million years. 

The new study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="http://ensg.univ-lorraine.fr/english/research/crpg/">Centre for Petrographic and Geochemical Research in Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy,</a> France and <a href="https://www.utk.edu/">University of Tennessee</a> professor Lawrence Taylor. 

The results of the study were published in the journal Nature Geoscience and help to explain what made the End-Permian Extinction so deadly. 

“The scale of this extinction was so incredible that scientists have often wondered what made the Siberian Flood Basalts so much more deadly than other similar eruptions,” said Michael Broadley, the lead author of the paper.

The researchers analyzed samples of mantle xenoliths provided by Taylor (who passed away in September). Mantle xenoliths are rock sections of the layers between the crust and mantle. During a volcanic explosion, the components of the lithosphere are brought to the surface. 

After examining the rock sections the researchers found that the lithosphere’s composition changed after the eruption. Before the Siberian Flood Basalts, the lithosphere below was packed with chlorine, bromine, and iodine. 

However, after the eruption, these elements were no longer present in the lithosphere. 

The researchers theorize that the elements, all part the of the halogen group, were expelled into the atmosphere during the eruption.

“We concluded that the large reservoir of halogens that was stored in the Siberian lithosphere was sent into the earth's atmosphere during the volcanic explosion, effectively destroying the ozone layer at the time and contributing to the mass extinction,” said Broadley. 

The study shows that the End-Permian extinction was so catastrophic because ozone eroding elements destroyed Earth’s protective defense against harmful UV radiation after the massive volcanic eruption. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Michael W. Broadley

The driving forces behind the largest extinction event ever

Hundreds of millions of years before the K-T or K-Pg...

A recent investigation has found that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are responsible for the degradation of staple crops such as rice and wheat, which are becoming less nutritious. Over the next three decades, 175 million people could become zinc deficient and 122 million people could become protein deficient as a direct result of human activities. 

In addition, more than one billion women and children are at risk of losing a large amount of their dietary iron intake, increasing the threat of anemia and other diseases.

Study lead author Sam Myers is the principal research scientist at <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health</a>.

“Our research makes it clear that decisions we are making every day - how we heat our homes, what we eat, how we move around, what we choose to purchase--are making our food less nutritious and imperiling the health of other populations and future generations,” said Myers.

Currently, there are more than two billion members of the global population that are deficient in one or more nutrients. The majority of our key nutrients come from plants, including 63 percent of dietary protein, 81 percent of iron, and 68 percent of zinc.

It has been shown in previous research that higher levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-thawing-release-co2/">atmospheric CO2</a> lead to crop yields that are less nutritious, with concentrations of iron and protein that are up to 17 percent lower when crops are exposed to CO2 concentrations of 550 parts per million (ppm) during growth.

For the current study, the team set out to develop the most accurate analysis of the global health burden that could be caused by CO2-related nutrient shifts in crops across 151 countries.

The study showed that by the middle of this century, when atmospheric CO2 concentrations are expected to reach around 550 ppm, roughly 175 million people could become deficient in zinc and 122 million people could become protein deficient. An additional 1.4 billion women and young children will be at risk of iron deficiency.

The researchers pointed out that billions of people that already live with nutritional deficiencies would experience worse conditions if crops became less nutritious.

“One thing this research illustrates is a core principle of the emerging field of planetary health,” said Myers. “We cannot disrupt most of the biophysical conditions to which we have adapted over millions of years without unanticipated impacts on our own health and wellbeing.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human activity could cause crops to become less nutritious

A recent investigation has found that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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