New scans of two small predatory dinosaurs reveal a pea-sized wrist bone once thought unique to birds. The research suggests that the engines of flight were revving inside dinosaur arms long before any creature flapped skyward.



The study was led by James Napoli of <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/">Stony Brook University</a> with colleagues at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> and the <a href="https://mas.ac.mn/en/">Mongolian Academy of Sciences</a>. 



The research overturns earlier claims that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/">theropods</a> lacked a bird-like pisiform and raises the possibility that the path to powered flight was, as the authors put it, “all in the wrist.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-wrist-bone-on-the-move">Dinosaur wrist bone on the move</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-modern-bird-lived-in-antarctica-69-million-years-ago/">Modern birds</a> fold their wings automatically when the elbow bends. The hinge works because a tiny carpal called the pisiform migrated from the edge of the wrist to replace another bone, the ulnare. 



Its new spot lets a V-shaped notch clamp the hand bones and stop them from popping loose during vigorous flapping.



For years, paleontologists assumed non-avian dinosaurs never made that switch. Napoli’s team tested the dogma by CT-scanning an exquisitely preserved troodontid, a quick, velociraptor-like hunter. They also scanned an oviraptorid, a beaked omnivore with a long neck.



Digital slices peeled away surrounding rock, isolating each pebble-sized carpal in three dimensions. The images showed a bead-like bone tucked where the pisiform sits in modern birds.



“We believe this is the first time a migrated pisiform in a non-bird meat-eating dinosaur has been identified,” Napoli said. 



The discovery pushes the joint’s redesign back to Pennaraptora, a diverse branch of feathered theropods that includes velociraptors, troodontids, and oviraptorosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-link-to-wrist-evolution">Flight link to wrist evolution</h2>



“While we currently do not know precisely how many times dinosaurs learned to fly, it is intriguing that experimentation with flight in these creatures appears only after the pisiform migrated into the wrist joint,” Napoli explained.



“Therefore, it is possible this established the automated mechanisms found in current living birds, though we would need to test this hypothesis with more research and analysis of dinosaur wrist bones.”



The scientists argue that the pisiform’s relocation was gradual. Early pennaraptorans still carried a small ulnare. Later species lost that bone entirely as the pisiform enlarged and took over its role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gradual-wrist-bone-replacement">Gradual wrist bone replacement</h2>



The replacement mirrors other avian traits - hollow bones, enlarged brains, filamentous feathers - that spread outward through theropod evolution before coalescing into true birds.



According to the authors of the study, the findings make clear that the topological and functional replacement of the ulnare by the pisiform occurred much deeper in theropod history than has been previously understood and was a stepwise process.



“Over the past few decades, our knowledge of theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">dinosaur</a> anatomy and evolution has increased exponentially, much of it revealing that classically ‘avian’ traits such as thin-walled bones, an enlarged brain, and feathers, all characterize more inclusive groups of theropod dinosaurs," noted the researchers.



"Our results suggest that the construction of the avian wrist is no exception and follows topological patterns laid down by the origin of Pennaraptora.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scans-reveals-hidden-features">Scans reveals hidden features</h2>



Identifying the bone took both luck and technology. The fossils - discovered in Mongolia’s Cretaceous rocks - had escaped crushing, so their wrist bones lay undisturbed. 



Micro-CT resolution below 50 microns allowed the researchers to trace delicate sutures, distinguishing the pisiform’s spoon-like head and its telltale notch. 



Without such scans, the structure would look like one of several nubs commonly lumped together as generic carpals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wrist-bone-shaped-evolution">Wrist bone shaped evolution</h2>



Flight appears to have evolved at least twice within Pennaraptora and perhaps as many as five times. If the pisiform swap predates those experiments, it may have primed the limb for aerial feats in separate lineages. 



That echoes convergent “upgrades” seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/">pterosaurs</a>, bats, and birds, where wrist and shoulder tweaks unleash new kinematic possibilities.



The finding also casts fresh light on grounded relatives like Velociraptor. Though too heavy to fly, such animals wielded feathered arms for display, brooding, or balance.



A bird-style pisiform would have let them tuck and unfurl their limbs with mechanical efficiency. This hints that the crouched, wing-guarding pose seen in some fossil nests used the same automatic folding action modern roosters employ.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-fossil-finds">Future fossil finds</h2>



Future work will scan additional fossils to see exactly when the pisiform first slid into place. The researchers want to investigate whether the move coincided with feather lengthening or muscle shifts.



They also hope to model forces across the joint to test how much stability the new bone adds during flapping or mantling motions.



For now, the lesson is clear: tiny parts can steer colossal evolutionary leaps. A marble-sized bone drifting a few millimeters may have set the stage for the skies to fill with beating wings. It began inside dinosaur wrists millions of years before the first true birds appeared.



Image credit: Henry Sharpe



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09232-3">Nature</a>.



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Flight may have started with a tiny dinosaur wrist bone

New scans of two small predatory dinosaurs reveal a pea-sized wrist bone once thought unique to birds. The research suggests that the engines of flight were revving inside dinosaur arms long before any creature flapped skyward. The study was led by James Napoli of Stony Brook University with colleagues at the American Museum of Natural History and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. The research overturns earlier claims that theropods lacked a bird-like pisiform and raises the possibility that the path to powered flight was, as the authors...

Corn is the world’s largest commodity crop. Many people in developing countries rely on corn as an essential food source, and it is also a primary ingredient in feed for livestock. As the global demand for meat continues to grow, finding a way to genetically modify corn to make it more nutritious could benefit millions of people and reduce agricultural costs.

A new study from <a href="https://newbrunswick.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University-New Brunswick</a> found a way to do just that by injecting corn with a bacteria that prompts the production of methionine, an important amino acid and nutrient. 

“We improved the nutritional value of corn, the largest commodity crop grown on Earth,”  said Thomas Leustek, the study’s co-author and a professor in the Department of Plant Biology in the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences at Rutgers.

Methionine is one of the nine essential amino acids that helps hair growth, strengthens nails, helps tissue repair, and slows cell aging. 

A synthetic methionine is often added to field corn seed, but it is costly and lacks the nutritional value of real methionine. 

“Methionine is added because animals won't grow without it. In many developing countries where corn is a staple, methionine is also important for people, especially children. It's vital nutrition, like a vitamin,” said Joachim Messing, the study’s senior author. 

In order to create chicken feed with methionine, the researchers inserted an E. coli bacterial gene into the corn plant’s genome and grew a few generations of corn. 

The bacteria drove methionine production, but only in the corn plant’s leaves, and levels of methionine in the corn kernels increased by 57 percent according to the study’s results. 

The bacteria and methionine didn’t affect the corn’s natural growth process, and when fed to chickens, it had the nutritious value that most animal feed lacks. 

The exciting finds offer new opportunities for developing countries and the growing demand for corn to satisfy the demand for animal feed. Although the debate surrounding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enviromental-impact-genetically-modified-crops/">genetically modified food</a> continues, boosting the nutritional value of corn can provide solutions to feed those in need. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Genetically modifying corn enhances nutritional content

Corn is the world’s largest commodity crop. Many people in...

Today, EPA administrator Scott Pruitt <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pruitt-clean-power-plan/">announced the repeal</a> of the Clean Power Plan as a clear nod of support to the flailing coal mining industry. While the landmark legislation aimed to curb greenhouse gases, manage climate change, and improve public health, Pruitt argues it was an overreach by the federal government and devastating to the coal industry. Now, a new study has found that the events that created much of the world’s coal that we use today nearly caused global glaciation millions of years ago.

The study, published in the journal Proceedings of the US Academy of Sciences, documents a scientific first for the researchers who were able to show how the world was very nearly turned into a giant snowball 300 million years ago. 

Coal forms when plant matter turns into peat, layers of soggy, decaying organic plant matter which later hardens into coal. Most of the world’s coal that we use today was created hundreds of millions of years ago during the Carboniferous and the Permian periods. 

During the Carboniferous period, swamp conditions were perfect for the creation of peat, and as many trees died, they sank to the bottom of the swamps. 

All of the carbon dioxide the trees had absorbed was buried in the swamps, and as a result, levels of atmospheric CO2 were significantly lower than normal, causing a major cooling effect that almost pushed the Earth into a “snowball state.”

“This illustrates the enormous dimension of the coal issue,” said Georg Feulner, lead author of the study from the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/pik-frontpage">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a>. “The amount of CO2 stored in Earth's coal reserves was once big enough to push our climate out of balance. When released by burning the coal, the CO2 is again destabilizing the Earth system.” 

Feulner used computer simulations to model what the Earth was like during the Carboniferous and Permian periods. The study also estimated temperatures based on ancient soil samples and fossils and showed drastic fluctuations. 

At one point, CO2 concentrations were below 100 parts per million which is harrowing considering global glaciation occurs below 40 parts per million. 

The findings reveal how much of an impact coal has and had on our planet, causing both major warming and cooling. 

Rapid climate changes were a part of Earth’s early history. But with the amount of fossil fuels burned today, many scientists fear that, unless something is done to keep CO2 concentrations down, the effects will be irreversible. 

“We should definitely keep CO2 levels in the atmosphere below 450 parts per million to keep our climate stable, and ideally much lower than that. Raising the amount of greenhouse gases beyond that limit means pushing ourselves out of the safe operating space of Earth,” said Feulner. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

300 million years ago, coal almost turned the Earth to ice

Today, EPA administrator Scott Pruitt announced the repeal of the...

According to a recent study, open ocean wind farms may be able to generate three times more power than wind turbines on land. 

The discovery opens up new opportunities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-farms-emissions-great-britain/">wind farms</a> in deep water and the possibility of harvesting wind energy over the ocean.

The study was conducted by Anna Possner and Ken Caldeira from <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">The Carnegie Institution for Science</a> and published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

The researchers have theorized that open ocean wind farms could generate more power because winds are faster over the water than on land.

Faster winds mean that wind turbines could even generate up to five times more power, but the researchers wanted to make sure that the presence of the turbines wouldn’t hinder the wind speeds. 

“Are the winds so fast just because there is nothing out there to slow them down? Will sticking giant wind farms out there just slow down the winds so much that it is no better than over land?” asked Caldeira. 

The team used modeling tools and collected data from large wind farms in Kansas as a point of comparison. 

The results show that open ocean wind farms could potentially generate three times more power than those wind farms on land, especially in the North Atlantic. 

The researchers also found that the wind turbines wouldn’t hinder speeds as they do on land. The Atlantic is home to frequent, low-pressure systems and cyclones due heat escaping the ocean into the atmosphere in the winter. 

These winter systems would work in a turbine’s favor and generate enough electricity to power whole countries. In the summer, that surplus would diminish, and the wind farms might only be able to meet the demands of the United States or Europe. 

The implications of the Possner and Caldeira’s study offer an exciting development for low-cost, clean energy alternatives.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Image Credit: Terje Aase/Shutterstock.com

Wind farms in the open ocean could generate 3 times more power

According to a recent study, open ocean wind farms may...

A study from the <a href="http://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> provides new insight into some major differences in how men and women think. The research demonstrates that the reward system of the male brain is activated by selfishness, while the female brain shows more reward activity during prosocial behavior.

Based on previous behavioral studies which revealed that women are more generous in sharing a sum of money than men, the research team set out to get a closer look what is taking place inside of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-training-brain-structure/">brain</a> while decisions are being made. They looked for regions of the brain that become the most active during this type of decision-making process.

The ventral striatum, located in the middle of the brain, regulates reward cognition. This region of the brain, particularly the nucleus accumbens, is responsible for the assessment of reward and is active whenever a decision is made. 

The study revealed that the striatum was more strongly activated in female brains during prosocial decisions than during selfish decisions. On the other hand, selfish decisions led to a stronger activation of the striatum in male brains.

For a second study, medication was given to participants in order to disrupt their reward systems. Under these conditions, men became more prosocial and women behaved more selfishly. Lead author Dr. Alexander Soutschek explains that "these results demonstrate that the brains of women and men also process generosity differently at the pharmacological level.” 

Although his research demonstrates that the brains of men and women respond differently to prosocial and selfish behavior, Soutschek points out that it cannot be assumed that these characteristics are innate or genetic. 

"The reward and learning systems in our brains work in close cooperation,” says Soutschek. “Empirical studies show that girls are rewarded with praise for prosocial behavior, implying that their reward systems learn to expect a reward for helping behavior instead of selfish behavior. With this in mind, the gender differences that we observed in our studies could best be attributed to the different cultural expectations placed on men and women."

Soutcchek’s theory is further supported by other study findings which suggest there are notable differences in the sensitivity of the reward system to prosocial and selfish behavior across cultures. Nonetheless, Soutschek says that "future studies need to take into account gender differences more seriously.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The female brain is wired to be more generous

A study from the University of Zurich provides new insight...

From July to September most years, a wave of thunderstorms bring rain to the U.S. Southwest and northwestern Mexico. But now the wet weather, known as the North American monsoon, could be drying up.

"Monsoon rains are critical for the southwest U.S. and northwest Mexico, yet the fate of the North American monsoon is quite uncertain," said Dr. Salvatore Pascale, a researcher at the <a href="http://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>, who led a study of the monsoon. "The future of the monsoon will have direct impacts on agriculture, on livelihoods."

Pascale and a team of NOAA researchers used new climate data, including updated information about sea surface temperatures, to study how climate change might be affecting the annual weather pattern. 

By applying more accurate climate models to the North American monsoon, they found that the models reflect the current state of the weather phenomenon. The projections that the more accurate climate model showed could be bad news for the monsoon, the scientists found.

Climate change models that did not correct biases about sea surface temperatures showed that the monsoons were shifting to later in the year. This isn’t the case, the NOAA researchers said.

Instead, once the sea surface temperature corrections were made, the scientists found that the monsoon isn’t shifting. Instead, it’s losing water – dramatically.

The news could throw a wrench in the works for water agencies in the region. 

"Water infrastructure projects take years to a decade to plan and build and can last decades,” study co-author Dr. Sarah Kapnick said in a press release. “They require knowledge of future climate ... to ensure water supply in dry years."

The storms could also shift northward.

The researchers chose to update the climate models for the area because early models predicted the area would dry out, while more recent models contradicted that. The new model falls in line with the earlier projections.

"Models are critical but they are not perfect, and small imperfections can lead to big misunderstandings,” Pascale said. "We are not saying, 'We are sure that this is what will be,' but we wanted to point out some mechanisms which are key, and have to be taken into account in future research on the North American monsoon.”

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3412">Nature Climate Change</a>. It was funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

North American monsoon is drying up thanks to climate change

From July to September most years, a wave of thunderstorms...

Every year, millions of tourists visit Yellowstone to see the famous geyser Old Faithful. Now, scientists have mapped the geyser’s geological heart – the pathways of hot water that power each eruption. 

Scientists from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> – including Dr. Robert B. Smith, who has been researching <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/index.htm">Yellowstone National Park</a>’s geology for 60 years – have used small seismometers to map the geological anatomy of the area surrounding the geyser. 

In the process, they’ve uncovered vital information about the network of groundwater, heated by two giant magma reservoirs, that fuel Old Faithful and other Yellowstone geysers. They used the seismic activity around the geyser to map the underground waterways. 

“We try to use continuous ground shaking produced by humans, cars, wind, water and Yellowstone’s hydrothermal boilings and convert it into our signal,” said Dr. Fan-Chi Lin, a co-author of the study. “We can extract a useful signal from the ambient background ground vibration.”

The small, portable seismometers supplemented information from 30 permanent seismometers installed around Yellowstone by the University of Utah. 

The instruments showed that Old Faithful erupts not when the seismic activity underneath the geyser is at its peak, but in a burst at the end of about 60 minutes of movement. After the eruption, the geyser goes quiet for about 30 minutes, before the cycle begins again, the researchers said. 

By analyzing where the seismic activity was picked up by the seismometers, the scientists were able to determine where the reservoir of heated water that powers Old Faithful is located. 

They believe the reservoir holds about 79 million gallons of water, west and slightly south of the geyser.

“Although it’s a rough estimation, we were surprised that it was so large,” said Sin-Mei Wu, a doctoral student at the university and the study’s lead author.

The team plans to continue researching the geyser and surrounding seismic activity, to confirm their findings and see what else they can learn.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2017GL075255/full">Geophysical Research Letters</a>. Funding was provided by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, <a href="https://www.kaust.edu.sa/">King Abdullah University of Science and Technology</a>, the <a href="http://www.brinsonfoundation.org/">Brinson Foundation</a> and the Carrico Fund.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Scientists in Yellowstone map the geological heart of Old Faithful

Every year, millions of tourists visit Yellowstone to see the...

About 800 million people – about a tenth of the world’s population – live within about 60 miles of active volcanoes, and that could put them in danger from volcanic hazards, according to a new study.

A team of researchers led by Dr. Sarah Brown of the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> found that more than 278,000 people were killed by volcanic activity between 1500 and the present day – an average of 540 deaths per year.

While about half of these deaths took place less than 6 miles from an active volcano, fatalities were recorded as far as 105 miles away.

Nowadays, there are 1,508 active volcanoes, and the people who live near them, visitors and scientists face dangers because of their proximity.

“Understanding how volcanic threat varies with distance from the volcano and which groups of people are affected most can contribute to risk reduction by providing empirical data on which to forecast impacts or support evidence-based eruption planning and preparedness,” the researchers wrote.

The locations of fatalities were taken from official records, volcanic activity bulletins, news and scientific reports, and other reliable sources. The researchers used these records to update databases cataloging deaths due to volcanic hazards such as “volcanic bombs” – explosions at the time of eruption at the volcanic site – to pyroclastic flows of hot ash and gas, to mud flows and tsunamis triggered by volcanoes. 

The team worked to identify and categorize the victims of volcanic hazards.

"The identification of these groups of victims is key for improving safety and reducing deaths and injuries in these groups,” Brown said. "While volcanologists and emergency response personnel might have valid reasons for their approach into hazardous zones, the benefits and risks must be carefully weighed. The media and tourists should observe exclusion zones and follow direction from the authorities and volcano observatories.”

Brown pointed to the 2014 eruption of the Ontake volcano in Japan as an example of tourist fatalities. A group of 57 visitors to the mountain were killed when it suddenly became active. 

Thirty media employees reporting on eruptions from restricted areas have also been killed by volcanic activity, the researchers said.

The data collected by Brown and her team will help researchers better estimate the risk of volcanic hazards and aid in determining how large exclusion zones should be during periods of volcanic activity.

The study has been published in the <a href="https://appliedvolc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13617-017-0067-4">Journal of Applied Volcanology</a>. 

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Dr. Sarah Brown, <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>

Volcanic hazards put millions at risk, new study says

About 800 million people – about a tenth of the...

Earthquakes are notoriously unpredictable, but if scientists could forecast them with any accuracy, it would mean quicker response times, evacuation orders, and save countless lives.

Even though scientists constantly monitor seismic activity and active zones all over, correctly predicting when the ground will release built-up stress is an entirely different task.

But now, a new study from <a href="http://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> suggests that earthquakes have a “tell,” where slow earthquakes can often signal upcoming larger earthquakes.

The study was published in the Journal of Geophysical Researcher: Solid Earth and focuses these “slow” earthquakes that release energy over a longer period of hours to months as a precursor to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadliest-earthquakes-top-10/">bigger quakes</a>. 

“While the buildup of stress in the Earth's crust is largely predictable, stress release via regular earthquakes is more chaotic in nature, which makes it challenging to predict when they might occur,” said Kevin Chao, a data science scholar in the Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems. 

The researchers gathered data on a region in Taiwan that has been heavily monitored for seismic activity. The researchers specifically focused on deep tremors, which are a kind of slow earthquake that has a cyclical recurrence. 

After the application of algorithms to the deep tremor data, they noticed a deep tremor shift in activity a couple of months before a 6.4 earthquake in March of 2010 in southern Taiwan. 

Further investigations led the researchers to conclude that deep tremors could be a precursor to earthquakes in the same area. 

This study is one step closer for scientists and seismologists to accurately predict major quakes before they occur with adequate time and warning for those living nearby. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

One step closer to predicting large earthquakes

Earthquakes are notoriously unpredictable, but if scientists could forecast them...

According to a new study, a major change in climate likely caused early humans to migrate out of Africa 70,000 years ago.

“There’s always been a question about whether climate change had any influence on when our species left Africa. Our data suggest that when most of our species left Africa, it was dry and not wet in northeast Africa,” said Jessica Tierney, a <a href="http://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> Associate Professor of Geosciences.

Researchers gathered data on ocean sediment cores that were collected in the 1960s and found that some dated back 200,000 years, shedding light on climate conditions further back in human history than was previously known.

The research team’s analysis showed that a major change in climate and an extremely dry period likely caused a mass migration of humans away from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-wild-dogs-sneezing/">Africa</a> to Eurasia even earlier than was thought. 

The team had samples that represented periods of 1,600 years and were specifically looking for marine algae called alkenones. 

The researchers also looked at rainfall patterns by studying leaf wax in the core samples and discovered further evidence that the climate had indeed changed and Africa became much cooler and drier.

“Perhaps people left because the environment was deteriorating. There was a big shift to dry, and that could have been a motivating force for migration. Our data say the migration comes after a big environmental change,” said Tierney.

Tierney notes that understanding how early humans interacted with major changes in climate is important in piecing together the Earth’s geological history and how it affected life on the planet.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change drove humans out of Africa 70,000 years ago

According to a new study, a major change in climate...

When Neanderthals and humans came together thousands of years ago, the two species began to interbreed. And even though the Neanderthal population eventually went extinct, their DNA can still be found in roughly two percent of the DNA of non-African people living today. In fact, recent studies have found that some of these genes that came from Neanderthals have contributed to both human immunity and modern diseases.

In a new study from Janet Kelso and her team at <a href="http://www.eva.mpg.de/index.html">the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> in Germany, the researchers found that Neanderthal genes have contributed to other human characteristics as well – such as skin tone, hair color, sleep patterns, mood, and even whether or not a person smokes. In embarking on this study, Kelso wanted to find the “influence Neanderthal DNA might be having on ordinary variation in people today.”

By using data representing more than 112,000 people from the UK Biobank pilot study, the researchers were able to have a large data set to find these relatively rare alleles. This data set included genetic data along with information on traits related to physical appearance, behavior, disease, diet, and sun exposure. 

Although earlier studies have hinted that human genes involved in skin and hair biology were partially a result of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-population-larger/">Neanderthal</a> DNA, it hadn’t been made clear how this occurred. Kelso and her team analyzed Neanderthal alleles related to skin and hair tones, finding that some Neanderthal alleles are associated with lighter skin tones, and others with darker skin tones. This was also consistent for hair color.

“These findings suggest that Neanderthals might have differed in their hair and skin tones, much as people now do,” explains Michael Dannemann, first author of the study.

Interestingly, the authors note that the traits linked to Neandertal DNA – mood, sleep patterns, skin and hair DNA – are all linked to sunlight exposure. They state that when modern humans arrived in Eurasia about 100,000 years ago, Neanderthals had already lived there for thousands of years. Because of this, they were likely better adapted to lower and more variables levels of ultraviolet radiation from the sun than the humans arriving from Africa were used to.

“Skin and hair color, circadian rhythms and mood are all influenced by light exposure,” the authors wrote. “We speculate that their identification in our analysis suggests that sun exposure may have shaped Neanderthal phenotypes and that gene flow into modern humans continues to contribute to variation in these traits today.”

The researchers plan on continuing to analyze the Neanderthals’ influence on our human traits as more data is presented.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Neanderthal DNA linked to modern day human traits

When Neanderthals and humans came together thousands of years ago,...

An unprecedented study demonstrates that potassium-packed foods such as bananas and avocados may help to prevent hardening of the arteries, or pathogenic vascular calcification. Researchers at the <a href="http://www.uab.edu/">University of Alabama at Birmingham</a> have shown that a diet lacking in potassium promotes elevated arterial stiffness, while a diet with increased potassium levels can actually lessen arterial stiffness.

Vascular calcification is linked to an increased risk of fatal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakfast-prevent-cardiovascular-disease/">heart disease</a> and other cardiovascular events. The research team set out to examine the underlying mechanisms of this vascular condition in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, which are prone to cardiovascular disease. The mice were fed either high, low, or normal levels of dietary potassium.

The team discovered that the mice fed a low-potassium diet had a significant increase in vascular calcification. On the other hand, the mice fed a high-potassium diet had significantly restrained vascular calcification. By using an arterial stiffness indicator called pulse wave velocity, the researchers also found that the low-potassium mice had increased stiffness of their aortas and high-potassium mice had decreased aortic stiffness.

"The findings have important translational potential since they demonstrate the benefit of adequate potassium supplementation on prevention of vascular calcification in atherosclerosis-prone mice, and the adverse effect of low potassium intake,” explained co-author Paul Sanders.

The researchers also took a look into the vascular effects of potassium intake on a molecular level. Low potassium amounts in a cell culture noticeably strengthened calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells. Previous research has shown that calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells resembles the differentiation of bone cells, which leads to the conversion of smooth muscle cells into bone-like cells.

With this in mind, the researchers set out to examine the growth of vascular smooth muscle cells in low-potassium cell culture. They found that the low-potassium conditions triggered the expression of several gene markers that are characteristic of bone cells while inhibiting the expression of vascular smooth muscle cell markers. This indicates that low-potassium conditions promote the transformation of the vascular smooth muscle cells into bone-like cells.

The findings of this study, which will appear in the journal <a href="https://www.jci.org/this-month">JCI This Month</a> in November, emphasize the importance of potassium in the diet. The research also provides a foundation for the development of new therapies to prevent or treat atherosclerotic vascular calcification.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bananas may be crucial for keeping your arteries healthy

An unprecedented study demonstrates that potassium-packed foods such as bananas...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> have determined that many of the In-Vehicle Information Systems available in 2017 will be dangerously distracting if enabled while automobiles are in motion. The study, conducted for the <a href="https://www.aaafoundation.org/">AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety</a>, revealed that these car features take the driver's attention off the road for too long to be safe.

"This is troublesome because motorists may assume that features that are enabled when they are driving are safe and easy to use," said lead author David L. Strayer. "Greater consideration should be given to what interactions should be available to the driver when the vehicle is in motion rather than to what features and functions could be available to motorists.”

The researchers investigated infotainment systems in 30 different 2017 vehicles. Participants in the study engaged in tasks using voice, touch screen, and other interactive technologies. The tasks included making a call, sending a text message, tuning the radio, or navigating a program while <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/reasonable-driving-saves-gas/">driving</a>.

The team developed an advanced rating scale which ranged from low to very high demand to measure which activities were most distracting to the drivers. The study demonstrated that drivers using features such as touch-screen technology took their hands, eyes, and mind off the road for more than 24 seconds.

Programming navigation proved to be the most distracting task, which took drivers an average of 40 seconds to complete. The second most distracting activity was text messaging, while tuning the radio and calling were the easiest tasks with about the same demand rating.

"We're putting more and more technology in the car that just does not mix with driving," said Strayer. "We're expecting to see more problems associated with distracted driving as more stuff is at the fingertips of the driver to distract them."

AAA said the findings of this study will ideally help automakers and system designers improve the functionality of infotainment systems and the level of attention they require. Strayer said his team hopes the research will also be used by consumers "to help make a good decision about what vehicle and what technology in the vehicle is best for them."

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Are new high-tech car features too distracting to be safe?

Researchers from the University of Utah have determined that many...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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