In the arid, fossil-rich landscape of Arizona’s Petrified Forest National Park, a team of paleontologists stumbled across something unexpected. The experts found the fossilized jawbone of a pterosaur that may be the oldest ever found in North America.



The discovery came from a remote site that revealed not just one remarkable creature, but a whole ecosystem preserved in stone.



The study was led by scientists from the Smithsonian’s <a href="https://www.si.edu/museums/natural-history-museum">National Museum of Natural History</a> and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/pefo/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Petrified Forest National Park</a>. The research introduces a new pterosaur species alongside more than 1,000 other fossils.



Some of these include one of the world’s oldest turtle specimens. Together, the fossils paint a vivid picture of life just before one of Earth’s biggest mass extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-before-mass-extinction">Life before mass extinction</h2>



The pterosaur fossils come from rock layers that date back to the Late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-did-not-impact-dinosaur-abundance-in-the-triassic/">Triassic</a> period. During this time, ancient amphibians and crocodile-like reptiles lived side by side with animals that would go on to shape the future of the planet, including early turtles, frogs, and flying reptiles.



“The site captures the transition to more modern terrestrial vertebrate communities, where we start seeing groups that thrive later in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/">Mesozoic</a> living alongside these older animals that don’t make it past the Triassic,” said study lead author Ben Kligman.



This glimpse into prehistoric life is especially valuable because it dates to just before the end-Triassic extinction - about 201.5 million years ago - when massive volcanic eruptions dramatically altered Earth’s climate. 



The event wiped out roughly 75% of all species, paving the way for dinosaurs to rise to dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-hidden-by-ash">Fossils hidden by ash</h2>



Direct fossil evidence from just before this extinction is hard to come by. Few fossil-rich outcrops from this time exist, but Petrified Forest National Park is one of the rare exceptions. 



Known for its colorful layers of petrified wood and Triassic fossils, the park has long been a treasure trove for paleontologists.



One rock layer, called the Owl Rock Member, has proven especially important. It’s full of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/">volcanic ash</a>, which helped scientists date it precisely to around 209 million years ago. These are some of the park’s youngest rocks - but also among its least explored.



Study co-author William Parker explained that the Owl Rock exposures are tucked away in extremely remote areas. Few teams have been able to study them in detail.



In 2011, a research group led by Kay Behrensmeyer decided to take on the challenge. Braving the rugged terrain - complete with rattlesnakes and wild horses - they went in search of mammal-like fossils. 



What they found instead was a densely packed bonebed, full of life from a vanished world.



“That’s the fun thing about paleontology: you go looking for one thing, and then you find something else that’s incredible that you weren’t expecting,” said Kligman, who started working at the site during his PhD studies in 2018.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-life-buried-by-floods">Ancient life buried by floods</h2>



Back in the Triassic, this part of Arizona was located near the equator and sat in the center of the supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/">Pangaea</a>. 



The land was semi-arid, with winding river channels and a seasonal flood cycle. One of those floods likely buried the animals that are now preserved in the bonebed.



The fossil layer was so dense with tiny remains that collecting them onsite was impossible. Instead, researchers carved out large blocks of sediment, wrapped them in plaster, and brought them back to the lab.



Many of these blocks were sent to the Smithsonian’s FossiLab, where volunteers spent thousands of hours carefully exposing the bones. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fossils-major-clues">Small fossils, major clues</h2>



The rivers teemed with fish like coelacanths and freshwater sharks. Giant amphibians - some stretching over six feet long - swam through the streams. On land, armored herbivores and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodile-like-beast-was-a-terrifying-predator/">crocodile-like predators</a> ruled.



At the same time, smaller creatures were starting to make their mark. The team identified early frogs, relatives of today’s tuataras, and a turtle with spike-like armor that could fit in a shoebox. 



The remains of a small pterosaur were also hidden among the layers - just one part of a fossil record that shows how quickly new groups were emerging and spreading across Pangaea.



“This suggests that turtles rapidly dispersed across Pangaea, which is surprising for an animal that is not very large and is likely walking at a slow pace,” said Kligman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-that-perched-like-a-bird">Pterosaur that perched like a bird</h2>



One of the most exciting finds was a jawbone with teeth still in place. It belonged to a small pterosaur, one of the first vertebrates capable of powered flight. This early flier could have perched on a person’s shoulder.



The pterosaur fossil was uncovered by Suzanne McIntire, a volunteer who spent 18 years working in the FossiLab.



“What was exciting about uncovering this specimen was that the teeth were still in the bone, so I knew the animal would be much easier to identify,” McIntire said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pterosaur_Eotephradactylus-mcintireae_Arizona_illustration_credit-Brian-Engh_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pterosaur_Eotephradactylus-mcintireae_Arizona_illustration_credit-Brian-Engh_1s.webp" alt="An artist's reconstruction of the fossilized landscape, plants and animals found preserved in a remote bonebed in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. The newly described pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae is seen eating an ancient ray-finned fish alongside an early species of turtle and an early frog species, with the skeleton of an armored crocodile relative lying on the ground and a palm-like plant growing in the background. Credit: Brian Engh" class="wp-image-1977432"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An artist's reconstruction of the fossilized landscape, plants and animals found preserved in a remote bonebed in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. The newly described pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae is seen eating an ancient ray-finned fish alongside an early species of turtle and an early frog species, with the skeleton of an armored crocodile relative lying on the ground and a palm-like plant growing in the background. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Brian Engh</figcaption></figure>



The wear on the teeth gave scientists a clue about the pterosaur’s diet. It likely fed on armored fish that were common in the area. 



The new species was named Eotephradactylus mcintireae, which translates to “ash-winged dawn goddess." This title honors McIntire, who retired last year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-a-pterosaur">What exactly is a pterosaur?</h2>



Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that existed during the time of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaurs</a>. They were the first animals with backbones to evolve powered flight, well before birds or bats came on the scene.



Powered by skin stretched across an extended fourth finger, they ranged in size and shape from something no larger than a crow to giants with wings up to 30 feet or more.



Pterosaurs were not dinosaurs. They formed their own group of reptiles and possessed special adaptations for flight. Some flew above coastlines, while others preyed on fish or small land animals inland.



The new fossil contributes to what is known about those early birds and how they expanded around the globe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2505513122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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North America's oldest known pterosaur discovered in a petrified forest

In the arid, fossil-rich landscape of Arizona’s Petrified Forest National Park, a team of paleontologists stumbled across something unexpected. The experts found the fossilized jawbone of a pterosaur that may be the oldest ever found in North America. The discovery came from a remote site that revealed not just one remarkable creature, but a whole ecosystem preserved in stone. The study was led by scientists from the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History and Petrified Forest National Park. The research introduces a new pterosaur species alongside more...

Golfers beware – a new golf course fungal disease is attacking southern U.S. courses.

Drought conditions, uninvited wildlife, and fungal growth are all common problems for golf courses from time to time. Recently, however, a strange new phenomenon has been popping up on golf courses in the southeastern United States, where patches of turf turned black and resembled a large ink spill. Not only has the golf course fungal disease ruined the famously pristine aesthetic of these courses, but it has also made some golfers fearful of playing.

Scientists from Mississippi State University have finally identified the culprit. Curvularia malina is a new fungus species previously unknown to experts. The name “malina” stems from the Sanskrit word meaning “dirty or stained,” due to its dark, blotchy appearance. The finding was published by Dr. Young-Ki Jo and his partner Dr. Maria Tomaso-Peterson in the Mycologia journal.

Because the pathogen is newly discovered, golf course managers have been sweating over how to address the issue. “If we don’t know the biology of a fungus, there is no management protocol,” said Dr. Jo. Fungicides can be incredibly expensive, costing over $5,000 per treatment, and may not even be effective against the new strain. 

Nevertheless, Jo and team were able to come up with a fungicide that could work preventatively against Curvularia malina at the times of year when it’s most likely to occur. Not surprisingly, it is during the more humid months when the fungus flourishes. Luckily, it doesn’t actually kill grass, and the condition often clears up once drier conditions return. 

Curvularia malina will still leave a blemish on the grass even after it clears up. As a result, southern golf courses will need to keep on top of preventative preparation in order to stay one step ahead of the new fungal threat.

Golfers beware – new golf course fungal disease

Golfers beware – a new golf course fungal disease is...

Southern Spain climate change fears are at the forefront in a new report suggesting the Mediterranean could turn to dust as soon as the year 2100.

Using historical data and computer models, experts predict a dramatic change for Southern Spain in the face of global warming.

The researchers say any warming above 2°C will cause these drastic results. Even more dramatically, they did not factor in any additional impact caused by human activity.

Scientists warn that Southern Spain climate will cause deserts to form, and forests will vanish by 2100 unless urgent changes are made. Such drastic climate changes have not been seen in the past 10,000 years.

Co-leader of the study Dr. Joel Guiot, researcher at the National Centre of Scientific Research in France, said: “The Paris Agreement says it's necessary to limit global warming to 2°C (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit), if possible 1.5°. That doesn't seem much to people, but we wanted to see what the difference would be on a sensitive region like the Mediterranean.”

The researchers used pollen records to gauge the effect temperatures had on plants, creating four scenarios based on various concentrations of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere. 

The richly biodiverse region has been long cultivated by humans. “Climate has always been important there,” said Mr. Guiot. The ancient Egyptians to the Greeks and the Romans all emerged from the Mediterranean. He noted that their demise would have been influenced by socio-political factors but climate may have played a large role.

Dr. Guiot warned that climate change could spark mass migrations of people.

The Mediterranean basin is already experiencing severe water shortages, exacerbated by intensive agriculture and tree clearing.

“If anything, human action will exacerbate what the study projects, and it could turn out to be too optimistic,” Dr. Guiot said.

The Paris Climate Agreement comes into effect this week.

—

Read the full story over at <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/354/6311/465people%20due%20to%20climate%20change" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Science Journal</a>.

Southern Spain climate change will turn country into a giant desert

Southern Spain climate change fears are at the forefront in...

Scientists baffled by big cat brain research – as usual cats do exactly the opposite of what you expect.

Cats, the elusive, ornery species as famous for their grace as their characteristic nonconformity, are baffling researchers once again.

It has been reported in a study today that the brains of wild cats evolve in very different ways to fellow mammals.

Dr. Sharleen Sakai, neuroscientist at Michigan State University, led the study which suggests many factors influencing carnivores’ brain anatomy, beyond socialization. She commented, “Studying feline brain evolution has been a bit like herding cats – our findings suggest the factors that drive brain evolution in wild cats are likely to differ from selection pressures identified in primate brain evolution.”

Scientists believe that mammals who possess large frontal lobes are social creatures, which include humans and monkeys. However, in direct contradiction to this theory, cheetahs are also highly socialized, but their frontal lobes are relatively small, while leopards are solitary hunters and yet their frontal lobes are enlarged.

Dr. Sakai and her team obtained 75 wild feline skulls representing 13 species from museum collections. The researchers used CT scans and sophisticated software to digitally "fill in" the areas where the brains would have been present. By doing this, they could determine brain volume.

Dr. Sakai's big cat brain research is attempting to understand factors which influence carnivore brain evolution. It is a common belief that making and retaining relationships is more demanding than solitary living and hence requires a larger brain.

"We wanted to know if this idea, called the 'social brain' hypothesis, applied to other social mammals, especially carnivores and, in particular, wild cats," Dr. Sakai explained.

Her team's big cat brain research included 13 wild feline species, 11 of which were solitary and two social. They made some surprising discoveries from this data:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Overall brain size did not differ between the social and solitary species of wild cats – but the part of the brain that includes the frontal cortex did differ between them.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The female lion had the largest frontal cortex; female lions are highly social, working together to protect and feed their young, hunt large prey, and defend their territory. In contrast, males may live alone and may be dominant in a pride for only a few years. The larger frontal cortex in females compared to male lions and the other wild cats may reflect lionesses' demands for processing the social information necessary for life in the pride.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The social cheetahs, in contrast, had the smallest overall brains and the smallest frontal cortex of the wild cats. Small brains weigh less and require less energy, factors that might contribute to the cheetah's remarkable running speeds. "Cheetah brain anatomy is distinctive and differs from other wild cats," Dr. Sakai described. "The size and shape of its brain may be a consequence of its unusual skull shape, an adaptation for high-speed pursuits."</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Leopards' frontal lobes were relatively large. Although the leopard is solitary, it is noted for its flexibility and adaptability – behaviors associated with enhanced brain processing and larger brain size in other species.</li>
</ul>
—

The full study can be read over at <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnana.2016.00099/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Frontiers in Neuroanatomy</a>.

Big cat brain research baffles scientists

Scientists baffled by big cat brain research – as usual...

Chinchorro Chilean mummies were reduced to slime by increasing humidity.

Chile needs help in preserving some of the oldest mummies in the world. These ancient preserved corpses have become unstable in the last ten years – no researchers are seeing help in conserving these relics of our past.

The Chinchorro Chilean mummies were preserved and buried by the Chinchorro people over 7,000 years ago in the arid regions of northern Chile. Rising humidity in the region has triggered bacteria living on the preserved skin of the Chinchorro mummies to cause rotting, with some mummies transformed into nothing more than black slime.

The Chinchorro were a prehistoric people living in communities around the desert coast of Chile and Peru. Nearly 300 mummies were found in the area and are thought to date from between 5000 to 1500 BC.

“The dates that we have for the bodies are from 7,000 years ago . . . so they have more relative antiquity in terms of intentional work on the human body than that found in Egypt,” said Dr. Sergio Medina Parra, anthropologist and department head at University of Tarapacá in the northern Chilean city of Arica.

Dr. Medina is attempting to get this area to be recognized by UNESCO as a world heritage site. He said, “The application is not a goal in itself, but the start of a process, of improved conservation tools, with the Chilean state and the international community.”

Unless the Chinchorro Chilean mummies are kept in specific heat and humidity conditions, they will deteriorate. When humidity is present in the air, the preserved skin falls foul to bacteria which feeds on the skin. The 120 Chinchorro mummies at the University of Tarapacá's museum are at risk due to rising humidity perhaps caused by climate change.

282 mummies have been excavated from the region, but scientists predict there are hundreds more beneath, estimating they are almost 4000 years older than their Egyptian counterparts.

Researchers believe that the mummification process became popular around 5,000 BC. Arica and the surrounding desert is one of the driest places in the world, with these preserved corpses often being found as sand shifts. The local climate has aided the mummies’ preservation over all these years, but as humidity rises, the future preservation of these important archaeological finds is in great danger.

Staff at the museum first noticed greasy patches on the mummies around 10 years ago and report the mummies have degraded at an accelerated rate.

Researchers at the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences jumped in to help answer what was causing this degradation. By running a series of tests, they found bacteria normally on the human skin become “supercharged” when placed on mummy skin in high humidity. Their findings revealed that the optimum humidity level to avoid further degradation was between 40 and 60 percent.

Not all the mummies were deliberately preserved; some were preserved in the desert naturally due to the extremely dry conditions.

The mummification techniques used by the Chinchorro were very sophisticated for their time.
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">They would often take the most care when preserving the remains of dead children and babies.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">They would extract the brains and organs first.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">They then reconstructed the body with fibres. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">They filled the empty skull with straw or ash.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Reeds were used to sew the bodies back together.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">A stick was used to keep the spine straight.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The skin was the patched back together.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Finally, they would be covered with a paste made from manganese, red ochre or mud.</li>
</ul>

Chinchorro Chilean mummies reduced to slime by climate change

Chinchorro Chilean mummies were reduced to slime by increasing humidity....

A new UNICEF air pollution report claims almost 2 billion children are affected by air quality issues around the world.

Shocking news came from UNICEF today as they report recent statistics indicating almost 2 billion children in the world are breathing polluted air. These air pollution levels exceed international guidelines and are the result of fossil fuel use, vehicle emissions, dust and burning. Almost 1 in 7 of the children at risk live in areas with the most toxic air, at a whopping six or more times higher than guidelines recommend. These dangerous levels of pollution increase bronchial illnesses such as asthma, stroke, and lung cancer. Sadly, children are the most susceptible to the effects of these pollutants.

Using satellite imagery, the UNICEF air pollution report shocked the world today by showing how many children are exposed to pollution exceeding guidelines set out by the World Health Organization (WHO). The biggest offenders are South Asia, East Asia, and the Pacific region. It is claimed that 620 million children are breathing in polluted air in South Asia.

“Air pollution is a major contributing factor in the deaths of around 600,000 children under five every year – and it threatens the lives and futures of millions more every day. Pollutants don’t only harm children’s developing lungs – they can actually cross the blood-brain barrier and permanently damage their developing brains – and, thus, their futures. No society can afford to ignore air pollution. We protect our children when we protect the quality of our air. Both are central to our future,” UNICEF Executive Director Anthony Lake commented.

As children’s bodies are still developing, they are more vulnerable to these positions. Juveniles breath faster than adults and inhale more air – toxic particles drill deep into their lungs and circulatory system, which can develop into disease.

“Air pollution is a major contributing factor in the deaths of around 600,000 children under five every years – and it threatens the lives and futures of millions more every day,” Dr. Lake added.

Experts say the poorest people are the most defenseless to these risks, as they already suffer from poor health. In New Delhi, India, air pollution is thought to be amongst the worst in the world, spiking each winter as residents use garbage fires to stay warm. This morning, New Dehli was reported at PM 2.5 levels above 900 mcg per cubic meter – 90 times higher than the WHO recommendation – and it was recommended for residents to stay indoors.

UNICEF wants world leaders to take four steps towards a cleaner air for our world:
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Reduce fossil fuel consumption and move towards renewable energy.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Expand children’s access to health care, including health education.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Reduce children’s exposure to toxic air pollutants by building schools far away from pollution-causing industry and using clean energy in homes.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Improve the monitoring of air pollution.</li>
</ol>
In New Dehli, local surveys reveal that up to a third of children suffers with respiratory ailments. New Delhi has taken steps to clean its air by creating restrictions on the type of vehicles which can drive on its busy city streets. However, large-scale construction creating dust and other pollution still continues.

The city recently launched a smartphone app called <a href="http://changetheair.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Change the Air</a>, which asks residents to contribute photos and complaints pertaining to illegal pollution sources, from the burning of leaves and garbage in public parks to construction crews working without dust control measures.

The UNICEF air pollution report comes after research last month found more than 90 percent of the UK’s population are living in areas where air pollution exceeds safe limits.

—

You can read the full report over at <a href="http://www.unicef.org/media/media_92979.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UNICEF</a>.

UNICEF air pollution report: 2 billion children affected

A new UNICEF air pollution report claims almost 2 billion...

UK butterflies dying in warm winters: a new report highlights concerns for UK butterfly population.

Warm winters are terrible for butterflies dying populations, experts revealed today.

The beautiful insects emerge too early from their pupae, limiting their chances of survival. The research was conducted by the University of East Anglia for the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme and demonstrated that extreme weather conditions are creating havoc for the butterfly populations. The yo-yoing weather scenarios created by climate change are much more damaging for our insect friends than moderate temperature increases.

Warm summers may boost butterfly population, while warm winters confuse the natural development of pupae and cause early hatching. Researchers collected data from more than 1800 sites in the UK over the past 37 years. Sadly, extremely heavy rainfall last year affected more than a quarter of the UK butterfly population.

Study co-author Dr. Aldina Franco from the University of East Anglia said: “Although the summer was warm, the number of butterflies counted was particularly low. For example, recent low counts of gatekeeper, common blue, comma, peacock and small tortoiseshell butterflies could be . . . due to their negative response to warm winters.”

Lead author Osgur McDermott-Long commented, “The study has demonstrated previously unknown sensitivities of our butterflies to extreme climatic events, which are becoming more frequent with climate change . . . . Some of these effects are undoubtedly putting future populations at risk, such as extremely warm winters.”

Dr. Tom Brereton from Butterfly Conservation, a co-author of the study, said: “If we are to mitigate against extreme events as part of conservation efforts, in particular, we need a better understanding of the habitat conditions which can lead to successful survival of adult, pupal and overwintering life stages of UK butterflies in these situations.”

—

You can read the news release over at <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/about/-/extreme-weather-effects-may-explain-recent-butterfly-decline" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The University of East Anglia</a>.

Butterflies are dying in warm winters

UK butterflies dying in warm winters: a new report highlights...

California water agencies are questioning if a lawn experiment was worth it.

More than $350 million has been spent by California water agencies in the past two years encouraging property owners to rip out their lawns and replace them with decorations that don’t guzzle quite as much water, and now they are asking, was it worth it?

Throughout California, researchers are using satellite images, infrared aerial photos, neighborhood drive-bys, and complex algorithms to understand how much grassy turf was replaced.

"How well did it work? That's really key when we're working on historic investments," said Patrick Atwater, project manager at the California Data Collaborative, who have been recruited to answer the questions posed by California water agencies.

The U.S. <a href="http://abcnews.go.com/topics/news/us/environmental-protection-agency.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Environmental Protection Agency</a> suggested one third of water consumption in households is used to quench thirsty lawns. That works out to roughly 9 billion gallons of water per day.

Last year after a prolonged, dry winter, Governor Jerry Brown ordered 25% water conservation in California cities and towns. He bequeathed $25 million to low-income families to assist removing their grass lawns and replacing them with less thirsty alternatives. The governor set a lofty goal of eradicating 50 million square feet of lawn.

It’s not only the state funding this initiative – the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California dropped just over $300 million into lawn rebates, doubling its rebate offer in 2015. Santa Clara Valley Water District, serving Silicon Valley, provided around $30 million in rebates, with dozens of other water districts adding millions of dollars to the fund.

The initiative was not without controversy – water districts were forced to make rules up as they went along, pertaining to businesses like golf courses and estates which received several million dollars in rebates. Each district's mandate was different: some requested homeowners use plants more suitable for a dry climate, others allowed artificial turf and gravel.

Water-district managers today are concerned about the potential fallout if rebate costs don’t outweigh the benefits.

Two questions remain:
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Will these efforts last for generations, or will families return to lawns?</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Will the publicity relating to this scheme help move Californian tastes towards more climate-appropriate garden trends, regardless of future rebates?</li>
</ol>
The state is employing all the data it can find, using infrared imagery from airplanes and tallying water &amp; spin-off savings, including lower energy costs for piping less water to households, and reduced climate-changing pollution from lawn mowers. Some districts are sending out surveys to rebate-takers, and most are driving up and down neighborhoods to judge the effects of the campaign.

A survey in Irvine revealed that, for every three homeowners who were granted a rebate, at least four others converted their lawns. Researches believe that other factors played into these findings, including news reports and the governor's drought-messaging.

Ellen Hanak, director of the water-policy center at the Public Policy Institute of California, states that rebates are considered an audience development initiative working to raise awareness of the other alternatives to lawns.

There was widespread criticism of these schemes when it emerged that <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/business-36161580" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Nestlé had extracted</a> 36 million gallons of water from a Californian national forest in 2015 alone. 

—

Read all about the Californian water conservation project <a href="http://www.bewaterwise.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">here</a>.

California water agencies questioning lawn experiment

California water agencies are questioning if a lawn experiment was...

Drones elevate ecological research, a new report out today reports, discussing their wide benefits.

Collecting large sample databases is fundamental for plant research, but it’s often tricky to collect data from broad sites by foot. Data collection can be a time sap, occur in dangerous areas, and even compromise the areas you are researching. However, a solution has been addressed today in a new review. Scientists are succeeding in using micro-unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or drones as you and I know them, to conduct these field data experiments.

These drones elevate ecological research and would have nearly zero impact on the area of study, simply flying over the landscape and gathering inconspicuous aerial photographs for data.

Dr. Mitch Cruzan, professor at the Department of Biology at Portland State University and lead author of the review published today, says, “The potential of drone technology in research may only be limited by our ability to envision novel applications . . . . This technology has the potential for the acquisition of large amounts of information with minimal effort and disruption of natural habitats.”

In his study, Dr. Cruzan states that drones can amass years of data noninvasively, helping to monitor vital trends such as habitat restoration efforts, rare and threatened plant populations, agriculture surveys, and carbon storage measures. He believes that drone surveys can become the “holy grail of ecological data.” The capabilities of this technology for research are nearly limitless, with drone-captured data being paired with additional technology such as 3D rendering to reach a variety of scientific conclusions. The professor believes scientists can learn about plant health, phenology, reproduction, diseases, and human-mediated disturbances all from the safety and comfort of their labs.

Researchers can fly small drones along research areas of up to 40 hectares in size. The drones' internal GPS system enables hovering over pinpointed locations and altitudes, collecting high-resolution images. However, this method is not impervious to problems – Cruzan warns researchers of "shadow gaps" when collecting data. Taller vegetation can obscure shorter vegetation, hiding it from view in aerial photographs. In order to get accurate data relating to each area, researchers must create overlapping images. 

You don’t need to be David Bailey to operate a drone, but you do need some training in order to ensure your precious data is usable. The report talks about operator requirements and how to guarantee that your video feeds are aligned properly with camera stabilization, and using the right lenses for each area. Most importantly, it talks about metadata of the drone's altitude, speed, and elevation for every captured image.

Following the data collection, georeferenced images are joined together into a digital surface model (DSM), which looks to us a little like a photo collage, to be analyzed. The GIS software classifies vegetation types, landscape features, and even individual species in the DSMs, using manual or automated, machine-learning techniques.

To test their concept, Cruzan and colleagues used drone technology for a landscape genetics study on the Whetstone Savanna Preserve in southern Oregon, USA. "Our goal is to understand how landscape features affect pollen and seed dispersal for plant species associated with different dispersal vectors," says Dr. Cruzan. They flew drones over threatened vernal pools and then analyzed the images, claiming if they had manually researched these habitats, not only would it have taken hundreds of hours, they also may have compromised the ecological integrity of these highly sensitive areas.

Before drones, research teams used light detection and ranging (LiDAR) equipment. LiDAR uses remote sensing technology to capture aerial images, but has several pitfalls: it’s expensive, requires specialist equipment, requires flyovers, and is conducted at a much higher elevation. Due to this high elevation, LiDAR isn’t really useful for analyzing subtle differences in vegetation, a task drone research excels in with its low-altitude, high-resolution footage.

The drone method is not perfect, however. Drones, though more affordable, range greatly in quality, low-end models sporting much cheaper cameras offering lower resolution. Flight regulations limit drone use, so you must be mindful of any limitations before you embark on a drone study. Finally, if a researcher can’t identify plant species from data, they still must return to the field the old-fashioned way, collecting data on foot.

Dr. Cruzan stresses that, despite its limitations, robotic drones elevate ecological research incredibly flexibly, believing it a highly versatile addition to the more traditional methods of data collection. He states that “using a broad range of imaging technologies and analysis methods will improve our ability to detect, discriminate, and quantify different features of the biotic and abiotic environment." As drones elevate ecological research increasingly, access to open-source software and better equipment will continue to advance ecological research.

—

From <a href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.3732/apps.1600041" target="_blank">Applications in Plant Sciences</a>

Drones elevate ecological research

Drones elevate ecological research, a new report out today reports,...

Spawning sockeye salmon, Lake Aleknagik, Alaska, USA

Extinct giant salmon used their huge teeth as weapons, says new report.

Roughly 15 million years ago, Pacific coastal waters hosted a fascinating species of extinct giant salmon who boasted terrifying spike-like teeth. These extinct beasties were massive compared to the salmon we know and love today, reaching 9 feet in length and weighing up to 400 pounds. Their sharp teeth were over one inch long. 

California State University researchers have been studying these fish, revealing clues into their ancient lives.

Much like their modern cousin the Pacific salmon, giant salmon were presumed to be filter-feeders, meaning their teeth were not for hunting. As modern salmons encounter physical changes before migrating upriver to spawn, where males fight to defend their fertilized eggs, it was hypothesized that these extra-large teeth could be part of the mating ritual.

Dr. Julia Sankey led a team of researchers to compare 51 different fossils. The teeth of these salmon found in past freshwater environments consistently had longer teeth with much larger bases showing signs of wear. Fossil teeth found in saltwater deposits were much smaller and less worn, suggesting their teeth had changed before they migrated upriver.

These results prove the hypothesis. Researchers believe these gargantuan gnashers were used to intimidate and eventually fight any creatures who came near their fertilized eggs. "These giant, spike-toothed salmon were amazing fish. You can picture them getting scooped out of the Proto-Tuolumne River by large bears 5 million years ago," said Dr. Sankey. "Scientifically, our research on the giant salmon is filling in a gap in our knowledge about how these salmon lived, and specifically, if they developmentally changed prior to migration upriver like modern salmon do today.”

—

Dr. Sankey and colleagues presented their findings at this year's meeting of the <a href="http://vertpaleo.org/" target="_blank">Society of Vertebrate Paleontology</a> in Salt Lake City, Utah.

Extinct giant salmon used huge teeth as weapons

Extinct giant salmon used their huge teeth as weapons, says...

NASA pumpkin carving contest shows that NASA engineers are good at most things. Earlier today their pumpkin carving contest went viral. See why<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa-jpl/sets/72157672207667603/with/30490806042/"> here.</a>

Happy Halloween from Earth.com.

NASA pumpkin carving contest puts us all to shame

NASA pumpkin carving contest shows that NASA engineers are good...

Harlequin ladybug swarms are thought to be making themselves at home in Great Britain.

Swarms of Harlequin ladybugs are invading Great Britain, having come from Asia and North America seeking cozy hibernation spots and carrying dangerous STDs.

Dozens of British homes are already said to be infested. The disease they carry is not dangerous to humans, but their arrival could have catastrophic effects on the indigenous ladybugs living on the British Isles. The Harlequin ladybugs carry a fungus called Laboulbeniales, which is passed via mating.

These ladybugs are much larger and have different color patterns than the local two-spot variety common to Great Britain. As the species hibernates in large numbers, scientists are warning households to be vigilant and keep their windows closed.

Since the first sightings in 2004, the regular British ladybug population has fallen by one third.

Dr. Peter Brown of Anglia Ruskin University in Cambridge said: “The harlequin is having a damaging effect on native species across Europe.”

—

Entomologists over at <a href="http://www.ladybird-survey.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Ladybird Survey</a> in Great Britain are keen to learn more about these alien invaders.

Harlequin Ladybug settles in Great Britain

Harlequin ladybug swarms are thought to be making themselves at...

In human evolution, the eyes came first.

Human evolution from aquatic ancestors is heavily documented and supported by evidence found in fossils. We know that our fishy forefathers used their limbs to move into the shallows and then up onto land, eventually evolving into four-legged vertebrates.

Until recently, we have not studied how we came about seeing in the air. Vision in air is very different from seeing underwater – experts say it’s much easier than seeing in water. However, a new study led by Dr. Malcolm MacIver of Northwestern University and Dr. Lars Schmitz of the Claremont Colleges opens our eyes on the subject. The scientists claim early tetrapod ancestors may have learned to see in the air before anything else.

Said Dr. Schmitz, "We were surprised to find that large eyes evolved in aquatic tetrapods, preceding the evolution of complete limbs and terrestriality." 

Millions of years before the animals moved to land, their eyes moved to the top of the head and nearly tripled in size.

The researchers measured the eye sockets of over 50 fossil taxa found within their study. They discovered that these animals’ large eyes would have enabled a great range of behaviors including a wider sight line, as they would have been able to see over the water. Land-based invertebrates – insects and other arthropods – would have provided a rich source of prey. "With eyes above the water surface, fish were able to spot a cornucopia of unexploited invertebrate food on land from distances much further than aquatic prey," said MacIver.

"Animals like Tiktaalik (an early tetrapod) have their eyes on the top of their heads, suggesting that they may have hunted like modern crocodiles: swimming calmly near the surface, the head slightly raised, with eyes above the water, trying to detect prey across the water or even on land," added Schmitz.

—

Join the conversation at the <a href="http://vertpaleo.org/Home.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.

Human evolution shows the eyes came first

In human evolution, the eyes came first. Human evolution from aquatic...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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