Most people worry about the gradual loss of stamina, strength, and mental sharpness that comes with aging. Scientists have been exploring new ideas to tackle these concerns and increase not just our years but also our quality of life. 



An international team has been testing a special approach that raises levels of a natural protein in the body.



Their research was led by Professor Miguel Chillón at the Institute of Neurosciences of the Autonomous University of Barcelona (<a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UB</a>), and it shines a light on what might someday help people stay healthier for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longer period</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-s-kl-and-its-role-in-aging">Protein s-KL and its role in aging</h2>



The protein at the center of this work is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41581-018-0078-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Klotho</a>, and the form used in the experiments is the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26599613/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">secreted version</a> known as s-KL. 



Some studies suggest that Klotho may influence a wide range of biological processes by managing signals that affect inflammation and cell aging.



The name Klotho first appeared in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/36285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientific journals</a> in the late 1990s, when experiments showed that a deficiency of this protein made mice look older and more frail at younger ages.



"We have been working with the Klotho protein for some time, due to its therapeutic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-old-are-you-really-new-tool-measures-aging-from-the-inside-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential</a> for treating neurodegenerative diseases. 



In this study, we wanted to see whether s-KL could also be beneficial for healthy aging by examining a broad range of factors," explained Professor Chillón.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-between-males-and-females">Differences between males and females</h2>



The effects of s-KL weren’t the same for male and female mice. Males showed clearer gains in lifespan and muscle strength, while females responded more strongly in measures of bone structure, especially when treated earlier in life.



These sex-based differences might be tied to how male and female bodies process viral vectors or express the s-KL protein. 



Hormonal factors could also play a role, suggesting future human trials may need sex-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-might-help-you-stay-sharp-as-you-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> to get the best results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-improvements-with-s-kl-protein">Aging improvements with s-KL protein</h2>



Researchers noticed that mice given s-KL retained better muscle tissue composition, with less of the scarring often linked to older age. They also had stronger performance in tasks that tested endurance and coordination.



Weakened bones can be a big danger in older adults, so it was intriguing that s-KL seemed to keep the inner bone structure more intact. 



This finding aligns with earlier <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16436465/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observations</a> that Klotho influences mineral balance in bone and may reduce the chances of fractures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-timing-may-matter">Why timing may matter</h2>



Mice treated at 12 months old showed more pronounced improvements in longevity and physical health than those treated at 6 months. One reason could be that the aging mice produced higher levels of the s-KL protein after treatment, which may have amplified its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>.



This finding raises an important question: Could middle age be a better window for intervention than early adulthood? If so, the timing of s-KL therapy in humans could be just as critical as the treatment itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-brain-support">Signs of brain support</h2>



Aside from the physical improvements, the investigators measured changes in the hippocampus, a region crucial for memory and cognitive ability. 



They detected heightened markers of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4563705/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adult neurogenesis</a>, which is the process by which new neurons form in mature brains.



There was also evidence that key immune cells in the brain might be working in a more balanced way. This could help remove cellular waste and reduce the chronic inflammation tied to age-related brain diseases.



The researchers used gene therapy vectors that prompted cells to produce s-KL over an extended period. These vectors included genetic instructions, and once inside the mice, the cells took over production of the protein.



The approach was designed to boost s-KL levels in both the brain and other areas of the body. This helped ensure that many of the organs linked to muscle, bone, and memory got the extra support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-s-kl-protein-and-human-aging">s-KL protein and human aging?</h2>



Although this study was done in mice, the results open the door to potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapies</a> for humans. 



Age-related decline in mobility, memory, and bone strength all contribute to lower independence and quality of life in older adults. A treatment that addresses these together could shift how we think about aging.



Many current drugs only target one issue at a time, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-exercise-amplifies-physical-and-mental-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">osteoporosis</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-sleep-may-predict-memory-loss-years-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory loss</a>. But the effects of s-KL span across systems. 



This points toward the possibility of a more unified strategy to aging - one that works with the body’s existing repair mechanisms rather than replacing them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-s-kl-protein-research">What’s next for s-KL protein research?</h2>



If we can find a viable delivery method, s-KL could make a significant contribution to improving people’s quality of life and helping to build the healthiest society possible.



Scientists continue to explore whether direct protein administration or refined gene-based aging options might work best for humans. They plan to keep studying how s-KL weaves into different biological pathways.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-therapy-family/molecular-therapy/fulltext/S1525-0016(25)00120-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Therapy</a>.



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Protein discovered that boosts lifespan, muscle, and brain power with just one dose

Most people worry about the gradual loss of stamina, strength, and mental sharpness that comes with aging. Scientists have been exploring new ideas to tackle these concerns and increase not just our years but also our quality of life. An international team has been testing a special approach that raises levels of a natural protein in the body. Their research was led by Professor Miguel Chillón at the Institute of Neurosciences of the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UB), and it shines a light on what might someday...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, experts are describing how declining fish biodiversity can affect human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nutritional-value-of-crops-varies-by-location/">nutrition</a>. 

The research was focused on the Loreto region of the Peruvian Amazon, where inland fisheries serve as a critically important source of nutrition for 800,000 people. 

The findings are also applicable to fish biodiversity elsewhere. Worldwide, more than two billion people depend on fish as their primary source of animal-derived nutrients.

"Investing in safeguarding biodiversity can deliver both on maintaining ecosystem function and health, and on food security and fisheries sustainability," said study first author Sebastian Heilpern.

In Loreto, individuals eat about 110 pounds of fish annually. The experts report that this is one the highest fish consumption rates in the world and about half the amount of meat an average American consumes each year. 

According to catch data, Loreto residents eat a wide variety of fish, including about 60 species like large predatory catfish.  These migratory fish are declining due to overfishing and hydropower dams that block their paths. At the same time, however, the amount of fish caught has remained relatively consistent over time. 

"You have this pattern of biodiversity change but a constancy of biomass," said Heilpern. "We wanted to know: How does that affect nutrients that people get from the system?"

In collaboration with experts at Columbia University, the researchers took all these factors into account and ran extinction scenarios. They wanted to predict which species are more likely to go extinct, and which species are likely to replace those to compensate for a void in the ecosystem.

The model tracked seven essential animal-derived nutrients, including protein, iron, zinc, calcium and three omega-3 fatty acids, and simulated how changing fish stocks might affect nutrient levels across the population. 

The computer simulations revealed risks in the system regarding fish biodiversity. For example, when small sedentary fish species compensated for declines in large migratory species, fatty acids increased as zinc and iron supplies decreased. The region already suffers from high anemia rates.

"As you lose biodiversity, you have these tradeoffs that play out in terms of the aggregate quantity of nutrients," said Heilpern. "As you lose species, the system also becomes more and more risky to further shocks."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Changes in fish biodiversity lead to lower nutritional quality

In a new study from Cornell University, experts are describing...

A new study from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a> reveals that young tyrannosaurs practiced their biting and strengthened their jaws before their adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-ancient-whales-had-both-teeth-and-baleen/">teeth</a> came in. The researchers determined that a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex exerted a powerful bite force that was about one-sixth the force of an adult. 

Professor Jack Tseng teamed up with Professor Joseph Peterson of the University of Wisconsin to examine fossilized dinosaur bones that had teeth marks from a young tyrannosaur. 

The experts decided to replicate the bite marks and measure the force behind the bites. They developed a metal replica of a scimitar-shaped tooth of a 13-year-old T. rex, mounted it on a mechanical testing frame, and tried to crack a cow legbone with it.

"What we did, an actualistic study, is to say, 'Let's actually stab the thing with a tooth and see what it does,'" said Professor Peterson. "What we are finding is that our estimates are slightly different than other models, but they are within a close enough range - we are on the same page."

After 17 successful attempts to match the depth and shape of the bite marks on the fossils, the scientists determined that young tyrannosaurs exerted up to 5,641 newtons of force, somewhere between that of a hyena and a crocodile. By comparison, an adult T. rex applied about 35,000 newtons of force, while humans exert about 300 newtons.

Bite force measurements can help paleontologists understand the ecosystem in extinct animals lived, as well as which predators ate which prey.

"If you are up to almost 6,000 newtons of bite force, that places them in a slightly different weight class," said Professor Tseng. "By really refining our estimates of juvenile bite force, we can more succinctly place them in a part of the food web and think about how they may have played the role of a different kind of predator from their larger, adult parents."

The study reveals that juvenile T. rexes were developing their biting techniques and strengthening their jaw muscles to prepare for using their adult teeth.

"This actually gives us a little bit of a metric to help us gauge how quickly the bite force is changing from juvenile to adulthood, and something to compare with how the body is changing during that same period of time," said Professor Peterson. 

"Are they already crushing bone? No, but they are puncturing it. It allows us to get a better idea of how they are feeding, what they are eating. It is just adding more to that full picture of how animals like tyrannosaurs lived and grew and the roles that they played in that ecosystem."

Professor Tseng emphasized that there is no one number describing the bite force of any animal - it depends on how the creature bites and adjusts the prey in its mouth for the best leverage.

"They probably were not just chomping down. If you look at modern predators, even reptilian predators, sometimes there is adjustment. Maybe they are finding the most mechanically advantageous place, or the strongest tooth to make their bite," said Professor Tseng. 

"Presumably, there is some tuning involved before they make that bite, so they can literally take the best bite forward to make that kill or to damage whatever they are trying to get into."

The measurements provide a starting point for charting the increase in young tyrannosaurs' bite force as they mature.

"Just as you can do a growth curve for such an organism, you can also do a strength curve for their bite force - what was their bite force at 12 or 13 years old, what was it at 30, 35 or 40 years old. And what does that potentially mean about the role that those animals played in that ecosystem at the time?" said Professor Peterson. 

"What's cool about finding bite marks in bone from a juvenile tyrannosaur is that it is tells us that at 13 years old, they weren't capable of crushing bone yet, but they were already trying, they were puncturing bone, pretty deep. They are probably building up their strength as they get older."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Young tyrannosaurs practiced biting as they waited for adult teeth

A new study from UC Berkeley reveals that young tyrannosaurs...

A new study from <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a> has revealed that over the past 1.2 million years, low-oxygen dead zones have repeatedly emerged in the subarctic North Pacific Ocean during warm <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/satellite-data-helps-scientists-predict-the-impacts-of-climate-change/">climates</a>. The findings provide critical information about the causes of low oxygen - or hypoxia - in the North Pacific, and will help to predict these conditions in the future.

"It is essential to understand whether climate change is pushing the oceans toward a 'tipping point' for abrupt and severe hypoxia that would destroy ecosystems, food sources, and economies," said study first author Karla Knudson.

The investigation was focused on the analysis of deep sediment cores from the Bering Sea. When organisms living in the seafloor sediments have been killed due to hypoxia, an orderly pattern of layers is preserved. Thus provides experts with a record of past low-oxygen events. 

At the end of the last ice age, a massive influx of fresh water into the ocean caused widespread hypoxia. The new study has produced the first records of earlier low-oxygen events.

"It doesn't take a huge perturbation like melting ice sheets for this to happen," said study co-author Professor Ana Christina Ravelo. "These abrupt hypoxic events are actually common in the geologic record, and they are not typically associated with deglaciation. They almost always happen during the warm interglacial periods, like the one we're in now."

While it remains unclear what triggers a hypoxic event, there is evidence that ocean warming, rising sea levels, and iron availability play a role. Hypoxia occurs after a surge in phytoplankton, which ultimately deplete the water of oxygen. 

"Our study shows that high sea levels, which occur during warm interglacial climates, contributed to these hypoxic events," said Knudson. "During high sea levels, dissolved iron from the flooded continental shelves can be transferred to the open ocean and promote intense phytoplankton growth in the surface waters."

Changes in ocean circulation - including intensified upwelling to bring more nutrients into the surface waters and stronger currents that could transfer iron from the continental shelf to the open ocean - likely play a critical role in triggering a hypoxic event, explained Knudson.

The sediment cores examined for the study were collected from a single site, which means the researchers do not know if the low-oxygen dead zones extended beyond the Bering Sea into other parts of the Pacific Ocean.

"We don't know how extensive they were, but we do know they were very intense and lasted longer than the deglaciation event that has been so well studied," said Professor Ravelo.

The findings raise new concerns about whether climate change and ocean warming will lead to a tipping point that will trigger widespread hypoxia in the North Pacific Ocean.

"The system is primed for this type of event happening," said Professor Ravelo. "We need to know how extensive they were, and we need to rethink how these events are triggered, because we now know that it doesn't take a huge perturbation. This study sets the stage for a lot of follow-up work."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warm climates linked to low-oxygen dead zones in the North Pacific

A new study from UC Santa Cruz has revealed that...

Oxygen levels are rapidly declining in the world's freshwater lakes. This trend, which is driven primarily by climate change, poses a threat to biodiversity and the quality of drinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-reservoirs-generate-much-higher-emissions-than-expected/">water</a>.
In lakes that were surveyed across the temperate zone, researchers found that oxygen levels have declined by 5.5 percent at the surface and by 18.6 percent in deep waters since 1980. 
Across some of the more nutrient-polluted lakes, the experts found that surface oxygen levels increased as water temperatures crossed a threshold favoring cyanobacteria.

"All complex life depends on oxygen. It's the support system for aquatic food webs. And when you start losing oxygen, you have the potential to lose species," said study co-author Professor Kevin Rose of the <a href="https://www.rpi.edu/">Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute</a>. "Lakes are losing oxygen 2.75 - 9.3 times faster than the oceans, a decline that will have impacts throughout the ecosystem."

The researchers analyzed more than 45,000 dissolved oxygen levels and temperature profiles that were collected from nearly 400 lakes worldwide. 

Study lead author Stephen F. Jane said the changes are concerning both for their potential impact on freshwater ecosystems and for what they suggest about environmental change in general.

"Lakes are indicators or 'sentinels' of environmental change and potential threats to the environment because they respond to signals from the surrounding landscape and atmosphere," said Jane.  

"We found that these disproportionally more biodiverse systems are changing rapidly, indicating the extent to which ongoing atmospheric changes have already impacted ecosystems."

The link between global warming and changing freshwater oxygen levels is controlled by mechanisms between surface water and deep water.

The study shows that as surface water temperatures increased by .38 degrees Centigrade per decade, dissolved oxygen concentrations declined by .11 milligrams per liter.

"Oxygen saturation, or the amount of oxygen that water can hold, goes down as temperatures go up. That's a known physical relationship and it explains most of the trend in surface oxygen that we see," said Professor Rose.

At the same time, some lakes experienced increasing dissolved oxygen concentrations as the temperature rose. According to the researchers, these lakes tended to be more polluted with nutrient-rich runoff from agricultural and developed watersheds and have high chlorophyll concentrations. 

"The fact that we're seeing increasing dissolved oxygen in those types of lakes is potentially an indicator of widespread increases in algal blooms, some of which produce toxins and are harmful," said Professor Rose. "Absent taxonomic data, however, we can't say that definitively, but nothing else we're aware of can explain this pattern."

In deeper waters, temperatures have remained largely stable. The loss of oxygen in this part of the lake follows a more complex path that is most likely tied to increasing surface water temperatures and a longer warm period each year. 

The combination of warming surface waters and stable deep-water temperatures means that the difference in density between these layers, known as "stratification," is increasing.

"The increase in stratification makes the mixing or renewal of oxygen from the atmosphere to deep waters more difficult and less frequent, and deep-water dissolved oxygen drops as a result," said Professor Rose. 

Some bacteria thrive in environments without oxygen, such as those that produce methane. This indicates that lakes have the potential to release more methane as they lose oxygen. 

"Ongoing research has shown that oxygen levels are declining rapidly in the world's oceans. This study now proves that the problem is even more severe in fresh waters, threatening our drinking water supplies and the delicate balance that enables complex freshwater ecosystems to thrive," said Dr. Curt Breneman. 

"We hope this finding brings greater urgency to efforts to address the progressively detrimental effects of climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lakes are losing oxygen much faster than oceans

Oxygen levels are rapidly declining in the world's freshwater lakes....

In a new study from <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a>, researchers have discovered a method that ducks use to balance water pressure in their feathers while diving. The investigation is part of a decade of research in fluid mechanics by Professor Jonathan Boreyko.

"I got this idea when I was at Duke University," said Professor Boreyko. "I had a really bad parking spot, but my walk took me right through the scenic Duke Gardens. I passed by ponds with lots of ducks, and I noticed that when a duck comes out of the water, they'd shake their feathers and water would fly off."

"I realized that what they were doing was a de-wetting transition, releasing water that was partially inside of their feathers. That was the germ of the idea. In my research, purely by coincidence, I was studying the same kind of thing. I realized that these transitions work only if the water isn't allowed to get all the way to the bottom of the porous feather structure."

Professor Boreyko was intrigued with this delicate balance, and was curious about the mechanisms that allow ducks to hold water in their feathers without sinking. In collaboration with PhD student Farzad Ahmadi, Professor Boreyko attempted to force a single drop of water through a natural duck feather.

"It didn't work," said Ahmadi. "Then we had the idea to build a pressure chamber to force a pool of water through several layers of feathers."

First, the researchers needed to ensure the water could only penetrate directly through the feathers, as opposed to simply leaking around their outer edges. They sealed each layer of feathers, leaving an area exposed in the same place on each surface.

Ultimately, the experts found that as the number of feather layers increases, the pressure required to push water through all the layers must also increase. This establishes a maximum pressure up to which feathers hold the water entering them, but do not allow the water to reach a duck's skin.

"Our hypothesis was to use multiple layers of feathers so that the water only comes in part way, but there are air pockets under that," explained Professor Boreyko. "As long as those air pockets are present, it prevents something called irreversible wetting. As long as the wetting is only partial, they can shake it out when they surface."

Ahmadi discovered that various species of ducks tend to have the exact number of feather layers needed to avoid irreversible wetting during their dives. At least one layer of feathers remains dry after a dive, and this allows the duck to shake out the water when it emerges.

Professor Boreyko believes there is potential for applying layered synthetic feathers to the exterior of a boat to make the boat travel more easily through the water.

"If we think of a ship moving over the water as an engineered bird, right now it's swimming naked," said Professor Boreyko. "We wonder if clothing the ship in feathers could impart the same enhancements that waterfowl benefit from."

The study is published in the journal ACS <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/aamick">Applied Materials &amp; Interfaces</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How ducks balance water pressure while diving

In a new study from Virginia Tech, researchers have discovered...

Many plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-rarely-try-to-avoid-inbreeding/">animals</a> that are in need of conservation are still undiscovered or lumped in with similar species. In a study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, experts have developed a "return-on-investment" approach to best direct efforts to identify unknown species before they are lost. 

Humans have negatively impacted global biodiversity through many direct and indirect stressors including pollution, overexploitation, and habitat destruction. 

The results of the new study suggest that, due to the unknown number of undocumented species, the human impact on biodiversity may be even greater than what is realized.

In order to protect and preserve plants or animals, the organisms must first be identified and described by specialized scientists called taxonomists. However, with so many groups at risk, it is not simple to determine where taxonomists should focus their limited time and resources.

Led by Dr. Jane Melville of Museums Victoria, the researchers devised a method to determine which groups need taxonomic documentation to support conservation efforts. Their technique compares the human effort and cost of identifying and classifying a species with the likelihood of finding a previously unknown species that is at risk. 

The team applied the return-on-investment method to a highly diverse group of Australian lizards and snakes. Out of the 870 reptile species they analyzed, about one third were poorly classified, and 24 needed protection.

Across the world, there is a significant backlog of species awaiting description, and this is largely due to the lack of resources to undertake taxonomic projects. 

The current study provides a framework, which can be applied to almost any group, for taxonomists and wildlife managers to prioritize the organisms that are most in need of immediate taxonomic documentation. 

The researchers hope their approach will help to save more at-risk species before they silently go extinct.

"We can't put effort into conservation of a species if we don't know it exists," said Dr. Melville. "Taxonomy allows us to identify these species and put a name to them so we can act before they are lost. Describing these as new species will allow conservation assessments to be undertaken to ensure they can be protected."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study aims to protect species before they secretly vanish

Many plants and animals that are in need of conservation...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, researchers have identified the key factors that influence the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC). This critical ocean current pattern carries warm water from the tropics northward.

"The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is pivotal for regional and global climate due to its key role in the uptake and redistribution of heat and carbon," wrote the study authors.

"Establishing the causes of historical variability in AMOC strength on different timescales can tell us how the circulation may respond to natural and anthropogenic changes at the ocean surface."

Many scientists believe that heat transport through the AMOC is responsible for making some regions, including northwest Europe and the UK, warmer than they would be otherwise. Climate model simulations suggest that the AMOC could weaken in the coming decades, with widespread implications for regional and global climate.

In collaboration with experts at the University of Oxford, the Exeter team has managed to pinpoint the causes of monthly and annual AMOC variation.

The study was focused on observational data from large arrays of monitoring equipment off the coasts of Florida and Africa, and in the North Atlantic between Greenland and Scotland.

"Understanding AMOC variability is challenging because the circulation is influenced by multiple factors that all vary and whose overlapping impacts persist for years," explained study lead author Dr.  Yavor Kostov. "Our findings reveal the vital role of winds in driving changes in this ocean circulation."

"Winds were a key factor both in the sub-tropical and sub-polar locations we examined. As the climate continues to change, more efforts should be concentrated on monitoring those winds - especially in key regions on continental boundaries and the eastern coast of Greenland - and understanding what drives changes in them."

While AMOC variability off the southern United States was found to be dominated by wind variability, the combined effects of wind, heat, and freshwater anomalies were found to influence variability in the North Atlantic. 

"Our reconstruction suggests that, compared to the subtropics, the overturning circulation in the subpolar North Atlantic is more sensitive to changes in the background ocean state such as shifts in the sites of deep convection," said Dr. Kostov.

"This implies that future climate change may alter annual AMOC variability in this region. It emphasises the need for continued observations of the subpolar North Atlantic ocean."

The researchers also discovered that changes in the surface temperature and salinity near Canada and Greenland can trigger a delayed remote impact on the Atlantic circulation as far south as Florida.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/">Nature Geoscience</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Atlantic Ocean circulation driven largely by winds

In a new study from the University of Exeter, researchers...

A team of scientists at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has discovered how to turn food waste into robust construction materials that retain their edible nature. Pulverized banana peels, cabbage leaves, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-livestock-methane-emissions/">seaweed</a> were used to create materials that have the strength of concrete.

Study senior author Yuya Sakai is a sustainable construction materials specialist and a professor in the Institute of Industrial Science at The University of Tokyo.

"Our goal was to use seaweed and common food scraps to construct materials that were at least as strong as concrete," said Professor Sakai. "But since we were using edible food waste, we were also interested in determining whether the recycling process impacted the flavor of the original materials."   

The experts tested out a heat-pressing technique that is used to compress wood powder into construction materials. In place of wood, the team pulverized a variety of vacuum-dried food waste items, including onion and banana peels.

According to the researchers, the processing technique involved mixing the food powder with water and seasonings, then pressing the mixture into a mold at high temperature.

"With the exception of the specimen derived from pumpkin, all of the materials exceeded our bending strength target," said study co-author Kota Machida. "We also found that Chinese cabbage leaves, which produced a material over three times stronger than concrete, could be mixed with the weaker pumpkin-based material to provide effective reinforcement."

The World Food Program estimates that one-third of the world's food is wasted every year, valued at $1 trillion. With this in mind, the researchers said it is crucial for develop methods for recycling food waste. 

The experts noted that since the new materials are strong enough for construction projects yet still edible, there could be a number of creative applications to come from this research.

The study is published by <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jsms">The Society of Materials Science</a> of Japan. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Food waste can be recycled into construction materials

A team of scientists at the University of Tokyo has...

In a new study from <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a>, experts report that greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ghost-forests-release-greenhouse-gas-emissions-in-tree-farts/">emissions</a> from the world's water reservoirs are around 29 percent higher than previously estimated. 

Much of this increase in emissions is tied to a process where methane passes through a dam and bubbles up downstream, known as methane degassing. 

In collaboration with the University of Quebec at Montreal, the researchers found that water reservoirs are producing the equivalent of 1.07 gigatons of carbon dioxide in greenhouse gases each year. This figure is larger than the annual emissions from the entire country of Germany.

In addition to methane degassing, the researchers considered numerous other variables such as water temperature, water depth, and the amount of sediment entering into thousands of different reservoirs located around the world. 

"While a number of papers have pointed out the importance of aquatic systems as sources of methane to the atmosphere, this is the first paper that I know of to look explicitly at which kinds of reservoirs are big sources and why," said study lead author Professor John Harrison. 

"It gives us the ability to start working toward understanding what we could do about methane emissions from these types of systems."

The production of methane is fueled by decomposing plant matter near the bottom of reservoirs. This greenhouse gas is 34 times more potent than carbon dioxide over the course of a century.

Professor Harrison and colleagues determined that methane degassing accounts for roughly 40 percent of overall emissions from water reservoirs. The team's estimates of carbon dioxide emissions were found to be similar to those in previous reports. 

The study showed that the highest rates of greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs occur in the tropics and subtropics, which is also where the majority of ongoing and planned new reservoir construction projects are taking place.

According to the experts, it may be possible to reduce methane emissions from reservoirs by selectively withdrawing water from near the surface rather than from greater depths, where methane often accumulates.

In a related study, a simulated decrease in water withdrawal depth by as little as 3 meters yielded a 92 percent reduction in methane degassing emissions from a Malaysian reservoir.

"We aren't saying that reservoirs are necessarily bad. Many provide important services like electrical power, flood control, navigation and water," said Professor Harrison. "Rather, we want to bring attention to a source of greenhouse gas emissions that we think can be reduced in the years ahead as we work towards carbon neutral emissions."

The research has helped lead the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to recognize water reservoirs as an integral part of each country's overall emissions.

"We're interested in using this work to improve these models and global estimates," said Professor Harrison. "One end goal of this work is to improve our ability to estimate the amount of greenhouse gases coming from reservoirs on a per country basis so that countries can address this source and include it in the way that they are managing their greenhouse gas liabilities."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19449224">Global Biogeochemical Cycles</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Water reservoirs generate much higher emissions than expected

In a new study from Washington State University, experts report...

Three to four billion years ago, a young Earth was heated up by extremely high atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-trees-with-thick-leaves-may-thrive-in-higher-co2-conditions/">CO2 levels</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://portal.uni-koeln.de/en/sub/uoc-home">University of Cologne</a>. The greenhouse gas effect may also explain why ocean temperatures were high at this time. 

Despite the fact that the sun shone on the young Earth with only 70 to 80 percent of its current intensity, the climate must have been quite warm because there was hardly any glacial ice. This phenomenon is referred to as the "paradox of the young weak Sun." 

If it was not for the presence of a potent heat-trapping greenhouse gas, the young planet would have frozen into a lump of ice. But whether it was CO2, methane, or an entirely different greenhouse gas is a matter of debate among scientists. The new research suggests that high CO2 levels are a plausible explanation.

A long-standing question in Earth science concerns the temperatures of the early oceans. Measurements of oxygen isotopes on very old limestone rocks indicate that seawater temperatures exceeded 70 degrees Celsius. Model simulations in the new study show that high CO2 levels in the atmosphere may be responsible for heating up the oceans.

"High CO2 levels would thus explain two phenomena at once: first, the warm climate on Earth, and second, why geothermometers appear to show hot seawater. Taking into account the different oxygen isotope ratio of seawater, we would arrive at temperatures closer to 40°C," said Dr. Daniel Herwartz. 

It is also possible that there was also a lot of methane in the young Earth's atmosphere, but this would not have had any effect on the composition of the ocean. "Both phenomena can only be explained by high levels of CO2," said Dr. Herwartz. 

The study authors estimate the total amount of CO2 to have totalled approximately one bar, or the equivalent of today's entire atmosphere being filled with CO2.

"Today, CO2 is just a trace gas in the atmosphere. Compared to that, one bar sounds like an absurdly large amount. However, looking at our sister planet Venus with its approximately 90 bar of CO2 puts things into perspective," explained Andreas Pack from the University of Göttingen.

On our planet, CO2 was eventually removed from the atmosphere and the ocean and stored in the form of coal, oil, gas, limestone, and black shales. Since early Earth was largely covered by oceans, the storage capacity for carbon was limited. 

"That also explains the enormous CO2 levels of the young Earth from today's perspective. After all, roughly three billion years ago, plate tectonics and the development of land masses in which carbon could be stored over a long period of time was just picking up speed," explained Thorsten Nagel from Aarhus University.

The onset of plate tectonics changed everything for the carbon cycle. Large land masses with mountains provided faster silicate weathering, which converted CO2 into limestone. Carbon also became trapped in the Earth's mantle as oceanic plates were subducted. 

Plate tectonics caused the CO2 content of the atmosphere to drop sharply, and repeated ice ages show that Earth became significantly colder. 

"Earlier studies had already indicated that the limestone contents in ancient basalts point to a sharp drop in atmospheric CO2 levels. This fits well with an increase in oxygen isotopes at the same time," explained Dr. Herwartz.

"Everything indicates that the atmospheric CO2 content declined rapidly after the onset of plate tectonics." In this context, however, "rapidly" refers to several hundred million years.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Young Earth was heated by extreme levels of atmospheric CO2

Three to four billion years ago, a young Earth was...

Researchers have discovered that duetting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-abandon-their-offspring-early-but-its-for-their-own-good/">songbirds</a> have a surprising strategy to stay in sync while they are performing. The study revealed that each singer mutes the brain of the other by inhibiting the song-making regions as they exchange phrases.

The researchers analyzed the brain activity of male and female plain-tailed wrens in Ecuador. The experts report that the auditory feedback exchanged between wrens during their opera-like duets momentarily inhibits motor circuits used for singing in the listening partner, which helps link the pair's brains and coordinate turn-taking for a seemingly telepathic performance. 

Study co-author Eric Fortune is a neurobiologist in the Department of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://www.njit.edu/">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a>.

"You could say that timing is everything," said Fortune. "What these wrens have shown us is that for any good collaboration, partners need to become 'one' through sensory linkages. The take-home message is that when we are cooperating well, we become a single entity with our partners."

"Think of these birds like jazz singers," said study co-author Professor Melissa Coleman of Scripps College. "Duetting wrens have a rough song structure planned before they sing, but as the song evolves, they must rapidly coordinate by receiving constant input from their counterpart."

"What we expected to find was a highly active set of specialized neurons that coordinate this turn-taking, but instead what we found is that hearing each other actually causes inhibition of those neurons - that's the key regulating the incredible timing between the two."

To study the duets of the plain-tailed wren, the research team traveled to remote bamboo forests on the slopes of Ecuador's Antisana Volcano. 

The experts made neurophysiological recordings of four pairs of native wrens as they sang solo and duet songs, analyzing sensorimotor activity in a premotor area of the birds' brains where specialized neurons for learning and making music are active.

The recordings revealed that during duet turn-taking, the birds' neurons fired rapidly when they produced their own syllables. However, as one wren began to hear their partner's syllables sung in the duet, the neurons quieted down significantly. 

"You can think of inhibition as acting like a trampoline," explained Fortune. "When the birds hear their partner, the neurons are inhibited, but just like rebounding off a trampoline, the release from that inhibition causes them to swiftly respond when it's their time to sing."

Next, the team played recordings of wrens duetting while they were in a sleep-like state. The birds had been anesthetized with a drug that affects a major inhibitory neurotransmitter, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). 

The drug transformed the activity in the brain, shifting from inhibition to bursts of activity when the wrens heard their own music. 

"These mechanisms are shared or similar to what happens in our brains because we are doing the same kind of things," said Fortune. "There are similar brain circuits in humans that are involved in learning and coordinating vocalizations."

According to the researchers, their findings offer a fresh look into how the brains of humans and other cooperative animals use sensory cues to act in concert with each other, from flowing musical and dance performances, or even the disjointed feeling of inhibition commonly experienced today during video conferencing.

"These days, inhibition is occurring at all the wrong times when we have poor internet connections during our Zoom, WebEx, and Facetime conferences. The delays affect the sensory information that we rely on for coordinating the timing of our conversations," said Professor Coleman. 

"I think this study is important for understanding how we interact with the world whenever we are trying to produce a single behavior as two performers. We are wired for cooperation, the same way as these jazz singing wrens."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wrens "mute" the brain of their partner to stay in sync

Researchers have discovered that duetting songbirds have a surprising strategy...

More than a third of all heat-related deaths between 1991 and 2018 are tied to anthropogenic climate change, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/">London School of Hygiene &amp; Tropical Medicine</a> (LSHTM). The researchers found that Central and South America have been the hardest hit regions. 

The study, which was focused on data from 732 locations in 43 countries, reveals for the first time the contribution of human-induced climate change to heat-related mortality rates. 

Overall, the researchers determined that 37 percent of all heat-related deaths during recent summer periods were linked to global warming. The percentages were highest in Central and South America. For example, up to 76 percent of heat-related deaths were tied to anthropogenic warming in Ecuador and Colombia.

"We expect the proportion of heat-related deaths to continue to grow if we don't do something about climate change or adapt. So far, the average global temperature has only increased by about 1°C, which is a fraction of what we could face if emissions continue to grow unchecked," said study first author Dr. Ana M. Vicedo-Cabrera from the University of Bern.

The experts calculated the number of heat-related deaths from human-induced climate change that occurred in specific cities. These estimates include 136 additional deaths per year in Santiago de Chile, 189 in Athens, 172 in Rome, 156 in Tokyo, 177 in Madrid, 146 in Bangkok, 82 in London, 141 in New York, and 137 in Ho Chi Minh City. 

According to the researchers, their findings are further evidence of the need to adopt strong mitigation policies to reduce future warming, and to implement interventions to protect populations from the adverse consequences of heat exposure.

The team used a "detection &amp; attribution" study, examining past weather conditions simulated under scenarios with and without anthropogenic emissions. This made it possible to distinguish between heat-related deaths linked to human activities, and those linked to natural trends. 

"This is the largest detection &amp; attribution study on current health risks of climate change," said study senior author Professor Antonio Gasparrini. "The message is clear: climate change will not just have devastating impacts in the future, but every continent is already experiencing the dire consequences of human activities on our planet. We must act now."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

One in three heat-related deaths tied to global warming

More than a third of all heat-related deaths between 1991...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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