Thirty‑five millennia may sound like a long time, yet for a mammal, it is practically yesterday. A new study uses whole‑genome data to show that the Norwegian lemming, Lemmus lemmus, split from its Siberian cousin only about 35,000 years ago.



“The Norwegian lemming is a key ecological species in the Fennoscandian tundra. Among other things, it serves as primary food for many predator <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-animals-evolved-in-different-ways-to-beat-the-cold/">species</a>, including some threatened ones such as the Arctic fox,” said David Díez del Molino, a researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics, <a href="https://www.su.se/">Stockholm University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemmings-shape-arctic-life">Lemmings shape Arctic life</h2>



Ecologists have tracked lemming booms and busts for decades because those <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2656.1999.00258.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cycles</a> ripple through the tundra food web, shaping the breeding success of Arctic foxes, owls, and even geese. 



When rodent numbers crash, fox litters shrink, snowy owls skip nesting, and grasses rebound after seasons of heavy grazing.



Unlike most small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/">mammals</a>, Norwegian lemmings overwinter aboveground by tunneling under snow, a habit that keeps them active when many rodents lie low. Their winter wanderings aerate soil, mix plant nutrients, and feed predators during the hungriest months.



During peak years, the species can reach densities of hundreds per acre. Yet its loud squeaks and bold charge‑and‑bite defense make predators think twice, granting the animal an outsized ecological voice relative to its three‑ounce frame.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemmings-became-a-separate-species">Lemmings became a separate species</h2>



Researchers compared nine modern and two ancient lemming genomes and found a clean split from the Western Siberian lemming with no evidence of crossbreeding, even in areas where the two meet today. 



That result stands in sharp contrast to polar bears and brown bears, whose DNA still shows <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22517859/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient admixture</a> from repeated hybridization events.



“Our findings indicate that the Norwegian lemming is among the most recently evolved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-otter-day-2025-on-the-front-lines-of-a-habitat-crisis/">mammals</a>, diverging from its sister taxon, the Western Siberian lemming, at a remarkably shallow time depth,” said <a href="https://palaeogenetics.com/people/edana-lord/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Edana Lord</a>, a postdoctoral researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics.



The team’s high‑resolution sequencing also resolved relationships within the genus Lemmus, confirming that Eastern Siberian lemmings belong to a separate species and helping clean up a century of contested rodent taxonomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-born-in-an-ice-age">A species born in an ice age</h2>



The divergence date places the split just before the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1172873" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a>, when ice sheets peaked between roughly 26,500 and 19,000 years ago. 



Glacial barriers likely trapped an ancestral lemming population in a Scandinavian refuge, cutting gene flow with Siberian relatives and setting the stage for rapid speciation.



Once the ice retreated, the newly minted Norwegian lineage expanded westward, but climatic swings had already written separation into the animals’ DNA. Modern population genetics shows no trace of later contact, suggesting that geography and behavior together kept the young species distinct.



Because the entire living population coalesces to a common ancestor only about 6,400 years ago, every Norwegian lemming alive today shares surprisingly shallow roots, a reminder that dramatic evolutionary change can happen fast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-blocks-crossbreeding">Color blocks crossbreeding</h2>



Hybridization often lingers for thousands of years after a split, yet these rodents seem to have slammed the door shut. 



One reason may be their vivid black‑and‑yellow coat, a pattern that functions as an <a href="https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/aposematism-warning-signals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic warning</a> and an instant badge of identity, reducing mating mistakes with the drab Siberian form.



Aggressive ritual boxing, loud chirps, and high‑speed chases further isolate the species by favoring individuals that court their own kind and bully outsiders away from snow burrows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-that-power-survival">Genes that power survival</h2>



Sequencing uncovered unique changes in the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3093193/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LYST pigment gene</a> that help produce the lemming’s splashy jacket, a mutation class also linked to altered melanosome function in laboratory mice. 



The same region shows signs of a recent selective sweep, hinting at strong predator‑driven pressure for conspicuous colors.



Other <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30006135/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mutations</a> appear in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/53630" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BCO1</a>, <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/apob/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APOB</a>, and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=RELCH" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RELCH</a> - genes involved in fat transport and storage; in mice, knocking out BCO1 triggers fatty‑liver disease and shifts cholesterol pathways. Extra‑efficient lipid metabolism may keep lemmings fueled through subzero winters when seeds are scarce.



The researchers also found clusters of rapidly evolving olfactory receptor genes, suggesting that a refined sense of smell guides the rodents through deep snow tunnels to mates, food, and lurking stoats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-arctic-mammals">Lessons for Arctic mammals</h2>



Climate upheaval can spin off new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquatic-robot-inspired-by-flatworms-can-swim-in-harmony-with-nature/">species</a> in a geological blink, and the lemming’s youth underscores how quickly isolation plus selection can rewrite a mammal’s genetic blueprint. 



Similar patterns play out in Arctic whales, foxes, and hares as shrinking ice opens and closes migration corridors.



“This work represents a big step in our understanding of lemming speciation and evolution,” said Love Dalén, a professor in <a href="https://utbildning.su.se/english/education/course-catalogue/bl/bl7082" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Genomics at Stockholm University</a>. 



Professor Dalén noted that tracing ancient DNA in more Pleistocene specimens could reveal exactly when each adaptive mutation took hold.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424333122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



 n

How Norwegian lemmings rapidly evolved into a new species

Thirty‑five millennia may sound like a long time, yet for a mammal, it is practically yesterday. A new study uses whole‑genome data to show that the Norwegian lemming, Lemmus lemmus, split from its Siberian cousin only about 35,000 years ago. “The Norwegian lemming is a key ecological species in the Fennoscandian tundra. Among other things, it serves as primary food for many predator species, including some threatened ones such as the Arctic fox,” said David Díez del Molino, a researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics, Stockholm University. Lemmings...

Red squirrels have a higher chance of survival and a greater number of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-abandon-their-offspring-early-but-its-for-their-own-good/">offspring</a> when they have the same neighbors for consecutive years. The study from Cell Press reveals that it does not matter whether the neighboring squirrels are related, because the fitness benefits are simply based on familiarity.

The benefits were even more noticeable among older squirrels, and the research suggests that living next to each other for many years can offset the effects of aging.

"Red squirrels live on their individual territory, and they rarely come into physical contact with one another, but given the value of familiar neighbors, our study raises this really interesting possibility that they might cooperate with their competitors," said study first author Erin Siracusa, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Exeter. 

"What this cooperation looks like, whether it's sharing of food resources, or actively alarm-calling to warn their neighbors of predators, or potentially even forming coalitions to protect the neighboring territories from usurpers, we don't know. But I would argue based on our findings that despite their solitary nature, red squirrels do engage in social interactions and can have important social relationships."

The researchers set out to investigate how social relationships affect solitary, territorial animals who rarely share physical interactions. Through the Kluane Red Squirrel Project, the team followed just over 1,000 individuals for more than 22 years. The squirrels were tagged each summer so that they could be distinguished.

Previously, Siracusa had observed that red squirrels with stable social relationships were less likely to intrude on each other's territories. 

"Once they live next to each other long enough to agree on these territory boundaries, they sort of enter into this gentleman's agreement, saying, 'Okay, we've established these territory boundaries. We know where they are. We're not going to waste our time and energy fighting over these boundaries anymore,'" said Siracusa. 

While this reduced aggression among familiar neighbors has been documented for many species, the current study is the first to link the phenomenon to a fitness advantage.

Siracusa and her team found that living near relatives did not provide any reproductive or survival benefits. This was surprising, considering that animals who share the same genes are generally more caring toward one another. Instead, the experts discovered that the longer squirrels lived with each other, the more likely they were to survive into the next year and produce more offspring.

"The benefits of familiarity were strong enough to completely offset the negative effects of aging," said Siracusa. "For example, for a four-year-old red squirrel that ages by one year, their survival probability decreases from 68% to 59%. But if that same squirrel that ages one year also maintains all of their neighbors, that probability of survival actually increases from 68% to 74%." 

At the same time, Siracusa explained that only a small percentage of squirrels maintain their neighbors from one year to the next. 

According to the researchers, the findings may help explain territorial behaviors such as migratory species returning to the same place year after year or sedentary species maintaining relatively stable territories or home ranges throughout their lifetime.

"In order for territorial systems to arise, the benefit of being territorial has to outweigh the costs of defending those resources, so it's not surprising that we should see the evolution of a mechanism that works to minimize those costs of territoriality," said Siracusa.

"At the risk of waxing poetic about squirrels, I think there is a sort of interesting lesson here that red squirrels can teach us about the value of social relationships. Red squirrels don't like their neighbors. They're in constant competition with them for food and mates and resources. And yet, they have to get along to survive."

"In the world right now, we're seeing a lot of strife and division, but perhaps this is a lesson worth bearing in mind: red squirrels need their neighbors, and maybe we do too."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/current-biology">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Red squirrels with familiar neighbors have a greater chance of survival

Red squirrels have a higher chance of survival and a...

The analysis of ancient <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/common-starfish-may-not-survive-extreme-ocean-conditions/">fish</a> fossils has revealed the developmental origins of teeth. Using high-resolution X-ray imaging, scientists have identified an evolutionary relationship between teeth and hard structures called dermal odontodes.

Study lead author Donglei Chen is a researcher in the Department of Organismal Biology at <a href="https://www.uu.se/">Uppsala University</a>.

Odontodes are made of dentine, the main substance in ivory. Teeth are an example of odontodes, but some animals also have them on their skin in the form of the tooth-like "scales" known as dermal odontodes.

"Teeth and dermal odontodes are thought to have evolved separately because they seem to develop in different ways," said Chen. "However, most of what we know is limited to modern sharks in which the difference between these structures has become very distinct. To understand the relationship between the two more clearly, we needed to turn to the fossil record."

The research was focused on fossils of one of the earliest bony fishes called Lophosteus, which lived more than 400 million years ago. The fish represents an early stage of tooth evolution, not long after teeth and dermal odontodes may have diverged. 

The researchers used high-resolution X-ray imaging to look at the three-dimensional structure of odontodes in Lophosteus at different stages of development. The study revealed that the appearance of odontodes were similar during early development, but they changed depending on whether they grew in the mouth or on the face of the fish. This finding indicates the presence of different chemical signals in each area directing odontode development. 

In the later stages, some dermal odontodes would move from the face to the mouth and begin to look like teeth, suggesting that both types are made by the same developmental system rather than by separate systems.

"In addition to casting light on the early evolution of our own teeth, our results point to a previously unrecognised evolutionary-developmental relationship between teeth and dermal odontodes," said study senior author Dr. Per Ahlberg. 

"This has potential implications for understanding the signaling that occurs during development and could inspire new lines of developmental research in other organisms."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish fossils provide new insight into the origins of teeth

The analysis of ancient fish fossils has revealed the developmental...

In a breakthrough study, experts at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Delaware">University of Delaware</a> have identified the powerhouse plants that are most critically needed to support food webs across the United States. The researchers have pinpointed the top plants in each bioregion, essentially creating a guide for restoring <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-that-eat-human-foods-are-altering-their-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> anywhere in the country.

According to the experts, caterpillars of the Lepidoptera species are the biggest moving forces that transfer energy up the food chain. The researchers explained that caterpillars and other insects need to be surrounded by native plants to thrive, particularly those that have evolved alongside insects over millions of years. 

The new study has revealed that only a few powerhouse plants support the majority of Lepidoptera, and that 90 percent of what caterpillars eat is created by only 14 percent of native plant species. Furthermore, only five percent of the powerhouse plants are responsible for 75 percent of food, and this pattern is consistent throughout the United States.

"Most people talk about a food chain as if it's linear. In a diagram, these connections look like a web rather than a simple chain," said study lead author Professor Doug Tallamy. "Take a keystone native plant like an oak tree. More than 500 types of caterpillars can eat that oak tree. That allows for a more complex and, thus, more stable food web."

While it has already been established that native plants are much better for an ecosystem than non-native plants, the new research zeroes in on the most important native plants.

"There are certain native plants, and there are actually not that many of them, that are doing the bulk of the work," said Professor Tallamy. "So, if you build landscapes without these powerhouse plants that support caterpillars, the food web is doomed."

Out of more than 2,000 plant genera in the mid-Atlantic region, the experts categorized 38 as powerhouse plants, including trees like native oaks and willows. Some of the herbaceous plants that made the list are goldenrod, asters, and perennial sunflowers.

Professor Tallamy was surprised by just how significant the difference was between powerhouse plants and other native species.

"The magnitude of the differences surprised us. It's not just a steady continuum where you have all of your native plants lined up and, from one plant to the next, there's a gradual decrease in productivity. It is extremely skewed toward these powerhouse plants."

While butterflies are known for their beauty, the tastier moth caterpillars do most of the work of transferring energy to predators. "You hear a lot about butterfly gardens. We need to think more about Lepidoptera gardens that include moths, who are the biggest driver of the food web," explained Professor Tallamy.

"Insects pollinate 90% of our flowering plants. Without insects, we'd lose these plants, which collapses the food web. We'd lose amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals and even some freshwater fish."

Insects are also a critical component of soil decomposition. They unlock dead plant and animal material and revive the nutrients in the soil. Fungi and bacteria also have this talent, noted Professor Tallamy, but they are significantly slower than insects.

"If insect populations continue to decline, the Earth will rot. Humans will not survive such a drastic change. Insects are essential not just to our well-being, but to our continued existence on Earth."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Powerhouse plants support insects and the entire food chain

In a breakthrough study, experts at the University of Delaware...

Evolution cannot keep up with the pace of global warming, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a>. After spending four years investigating how zebrafish adapt to warmer conditions, the researchers determined that evolution will not be swift enough to save some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-oak-tree-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">species</a> from the impacts of rising temperatures.
"It looks like evolution is slower than global warming in this case," said study senior author Professor Fredrik Jutfelt. "This is the largest artificial evolution experiment that has been performed on vertebrates with a focus on heat tolerance."

For the investigation, wild-caught zebrafish were bred based on their ability to cope with the most extreme conditions. Ultimately, the researchers followed about 20,000 individuals over six generations.

"We see that zebrafish can develop heat tolerance, and we have developed lines of zebrafish that can better withstand the heat. That's good news," said Professor Jutfelt.

"The problem is that evolution takes many generations. Evolution only increased the heat tolerance in the fish by 0.04 degrees C per generation. This is slower than the warming experienced by many fish in many places."

Study lead author Rachel Morgan said that with the globe warming so fast, the fish may not be able to adapt to the warmest periods efficiently enough.

Evolution occurs when the best adapted individuals of a species produce more fertile offspring than the rest of the group. Over several generations, the adaptations accumulate and modify the species itself.

However, extreme heat can compromise the ability of fish to reproduce. Above a certain temperature, most of the fish die.

"How organisms adapt to these new conditions depends on their ability to withstand heat, to acclimatize, and the ability to pass on beneficial characteristics to the next generation," said Professor Jutfelt.

Prior to artificial selection, one group of zebrafish was exposed to two weeks in warmer water. The researchers wondered if evolution would increase their capacity to acclimatize, but they found that this was not the case. 

"Instead, the greater the ability of the fish to cope with the worst warm periods, the more their ability to acclimate decreased. So the gain in the form of higher heat tolerance was partly offset by a lower ability to acclimate. All in all, the rate of evolution was probably faster under the conditions in our laboratory than in nature," said Morgan.

"It's unlikely that some zebrafish populations, and other tropical fish species, will be able to cope with the temperatures that the planet may experience by the end of this century," said Professor Jutfelt. "Some species that already live at the limit of what they can tolerate may not be saved by evolution. That is surprising and sad, and it means it is important that we stop warming the planet."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Evolution is no match for global warming

Evolution cannot keep up with the pace of global warming,...

Common starfish will struggle to survive the extreme marine heatwaves that are expected to arrive by the end of this century, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/">British Ecological Society</a>. The experts found that starfish are already experiencing long-term health impacts from current <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/severe-marine-heatwaves-are-becoming-much-more-common/">heatwaves</a>.

Researchers at the GEOMAR Helmholtz-Centre for Ocean Research Kiel used experiments to simulate heatwaves of +8 °C, which are projected to occur by 2100. All of the starfish tested were killed. Furthermore, heatwaves of this magnitude are only one degree warmer than heatwaves that were recorded in 2018 in the Kiel Fjord, where the study was conducted.

The experts determined that present day heatwaves of +5 °C negatively affected starfish feeding. The starfish were able to recover if the event was short, but struggled to endure longer heatwaves and lost weight.

"Our findings showcase that extreme environmental conditions such as marine heatwaves may temporally exceed a species tolerance limit with potential implications for populations at these shallow coastal depths," said study co-author Fabian Wolf.

The researchers also tested the compounding effects of other extreme events. Heatwaves were followed by a simulated hypoxic upwelling event, which is when coastal seawater becomes colder, more saline, more acidic, and higher in CO2.

"During spring and summer, plankton blooms (which often benefit from global warming) sink to the sea's bottom as dead material. Here, bacteria degrade this material, consuming oxygen and producing carbon dioxide," said Wolf. "In coastal areas, particularly strong and persistent winds may push the surface water away from land, while deep (acidified and hypoxic water) is shoaled up the shores."

The experiments revealed that starfish were more affected by a hypoxic upwelling event if they had not experienced a heatwave first. This indicates that the initial stressor, the heatwave, may provide resilience for the starfish that enables them to better cope with the upwelling event.

"Our results emphasize that it is crucial to study different stressors in combination and not isolation as stressors naturally occur in succession, meaning that they are never independent of each other," said Fabian.

Common starfish are abundant in the Northeast Atlantic, where their ecosystems depend on them as a keystone species. For example, common starfish prey on blue mussels and control their population size.

"If the common starfish is lost from a relatively species-poor system, blue mussels may grow uncontrolled and form monocultures," said Wolf. "Other habitat-forming species like seagrass and seaweed could be lost in the process of blue mussel propagation."

"It must also be considered that other, non-native species may come and fill these gaps, as can be seen by several recently introduced crab species to the Western Baltic Sea that have blue mussels as their preferred prey."

Even before common starfish are killed by heatwaves, weight loss will alter their foraging behavior. This is because starfish select their prey based on their own size - when they are smaller, they prefer smaller prey. 

The research will be presented at British Ecological Society's <a href="https://appliedecologistsblog.com/2020/12/14/our-guide-to-a-festival-of-ecology/">Festival of Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Common starfish may not survive extreme ocean conditions

Common starfish will struggle to survive the extreme marine heatwaves...

Salmon fisheries in the North Pacific are facing multiple challenges, including declining <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/proactively-planning-for-climate-change-can-protect-fish-and-fisheries/">fish</a> populations and climate variability. In a new study from the Portland-based <a href="https://www.wildsalmoncenter.org/">Wild Salmon Center</a>, scientists report that Indigenous fishing practices can help revitalize Pacific salmon fisheries.

"Salmon and the communities that depend on them have been pushed to the brink by two centuries of extractive natural resource management," said study lead author Dr. Will Atlas."But the tools, practices, and governance systems of Indigenous Peoples maintained healthy salmon runs for millennia before that. Their knowledge is still here."

For thousands of years, Indigenous communities around the North Pacific maintained sustainable salmon harvests. Before commercial fisheries took over, traditional fisheries used tools like weirs, traps, wheels, reef nets, and dip nets. 

"As they're currently built, mixed-stock salmon fisheries are undermining the biodiversity needed for Pacific salmon to thrive," said Dr. Atlas. "Luckily, we have hundreds of examples, going back thousands of years, of better ways to fish. These techniques can deliver better results for all communities."

Indigenous people focus on targeting salmon runs in river systems, rather than in the ocean. Selective fishing tools enable in-season monitoring, where the health of the salmon can be assessed in real-time, and non-target species can be released unharmed.

Study co-author Andrea Reid is a citizen of the Nisga'a Nation and an assistant professor of Indigenous Fisheries at the University of British Columbia's Institute for Oceans and Fisheries

"In my Nation, we use fish wheels, an ancient technology that used to be made out of cedar and natural fibers," said Professor Reid. "Today, we use modernized fish wheels to monitor, mark, and study the fish, to understand how they are doing in a rapidly changing world."

For many Indigenous communities, salmon are much more than just a source of food. They are at the center of creation stories, ceremonies, family structures, and cultural identity.

"The ancient relationship between Heiltsuk and salmon infiltrates every aspect of Heiltsuk life," said co-author William Housty, a member of the Heiltsuk Nation and Board Chair with the Heiltsuk Integrated Resource Management Department in Bella Bella, British Columbia. "Our modern-day management of salmon is based on the values of respect, reciprocity, and well-being."

"In an era of rapid global change, we must explore different salmon management approaches," said study co-author Dr. Jonathan Moore, a professor in Biological Sciences at British Columbia's Simon Fraser University. 

"By reinvigorating Indigenous practices, we can bring time-tested lessons to salmon fisheries and take a positive step toward recognizing the cultural fabric that has woven salmon and humans together for millennia." 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience">BioScience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Indigenous fishing practices are needed to revive salmon fisheries

Salmon fisheries in the North Pacific are facing multiple challenges,...

Rising temperatures, pollution, overfishing, and disease are all major threats to the survival of the world's <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-caribbean-coral-acropora-palmata-will-not-vanish-without-a-fight/">coral</a> reefs, which have been declining at an unprecedented rate over the last few decades. In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, researchers describe how Caribbean king crabs can provide the conditions needed for coral reefs to recover.

When the health of a coral reef is compromised, seaweed starts to move in and take over. Without an abundance of herbivorous fish available to limit the growth of the seaweed, it smothers the remaining corals and the reef collapses.

Mark Butler of Florida International University has been studying coral reefs and other habitats in the Florida Keys for more than 30 years. In collaboration with study first author Angelo "Jason" Spadaro and other colleagues, Butler recognized the potential for the Caribbean king crab to aid in the restoration of coral reefs. 

The Caribbean king crab not only eats seaweed at an extraordinarily rapid pace, but also eats types of seaweed that other species avoid. However, these crabs are not naturally present in large enough numbers to keep the seaweed under control. The researchers set out to investigate whether the presence of more of these crabs could restore the ecological balance of coral reefs.

"Experimentally increasing the abundance of large native, herbivorous crabs on coral reefs in the Florida Keys led to rapid declines in seaweed cover and, over the course of a year or so, resulted in the return of small corals and fishes to those reefs," said Butler. "This opens up a whole new avenue for coral reef restoration."

The research was focused on 12 isolated patches of coral reef, which were split into three groups: unmanipulated control reef, reefs stocked with crabs, and reefs where seaweed and algae were removed before crabs were introduced.

Initially, 85 percent of the reef was covered with seaweed. The addition of crabs helped to dramatically reduce the seaweed, dropping it to less than 50 percent coverage in the first year. 

"When Jason showed me the results he had compiled from our first year of experiments, I couldn't believe it - they looked too good," said Butler. 

"You should have seen the look on Jason's face when I said, 'Nobody will believe these results. We have to repeat the experiment for another year at another location.' Not exactly what a grad student wants to hear when trying to finish up! But we did it and the results were the same."

The second experiment produced similar results - the crabs alone reduced seaweed cover by about 50 percent. By scrubbing the reef first, seaweed declined by about 70 percent.

The findings show that herbivorous crabs can be used as an effective tool for coral reef restoration. According to the researchers, the crabs essentially improve the habitat conditions for corals and fishes.

"One wonders what the tropics would be like without the mind-boggling complexity and beauty of shallow coral reefs," Butler says. "For example, the third longest barrier coral reef in the world that fringes the Florida Keys now has less than two percent coral cover."

"Conquering the challenge of climate change coupled with local reef restoration, like development of stocking programs for herbivorous crabs, are immediately necessary to reverse this decline. Our findings mean little if they don't result in tangible new restoration efforts."

Butler said that coral nurseries have already been established to help restore the reef. To put their research into action, the team is trying to find the resources needed to set up nurseries to raise large numbers of crabs. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Caribbean king crabs can help restore coral reefs

Rising temperatures, pollution, overfishing, and disease are all major threats...

Sunflower sea stars may never recover from a marine epidemic that emerged in 2013, according to a population study led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. As a result of this research, the sunflower sea star has been listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

"These sea stars used to be easy to find and were a hit with students and divers because they are unforgettable - they can be as big as a trash bin lid with 20 slimy arms covered in suction cups," said OSU's Sarah Gravem, a research associate in the College of Science and the lead author on the study. "Unfortunately, your chances of finding one now are next to nothing in most of the contiguous United States - this listing is one step above extinction - and I don't think they're coming back without help like captive rearing and reintroduction and reducing direct harvest and accidental harvest."

Beginning in 2013, a disease known as sea star wasting syndrome caused catastrophic declines across populations of the sunflower sea star. The mysterious disease was characterized by twisted arms, lesions, deflation, and ultimately the loss of arms and death. The mass mortality event affected at least 40 different species of sea stars.

In collaboration with The Nature Conservancy and more than 60 institutions, the Oregon State team analyzed more than 61,000 population surveys from 31 datasets. The study revealed that sunflower sea star populations declined by an average of 90.6 percent. The team estimated that as many as 5.75 billion animals died from sea star wasting syndrome.

Furthermore, the researchers found no signs of recovery in any region in the five to seven years since the outbreak.

The sunflower sea star, Pycnopodia helianthoides, plays an important role in maintaining kelp forests and sustaining marine life along the West Coast from Alaska to Baja, California. 

The sea stars are vanishing from Mexico, as well as from the contiguous United States, according to the researchers. No stars have been spotted in Mexico since 2016 or in California since 2018.  

In the absence of sunflower sea stars, the purple sea urchins they prey on have exploded in numbers. The urchins are devouring kelp forests, which are already under severe threat from marine heat waves. 

"Because most people aren't out in the ocean every day, we don't realize how much it's being changed and impacted by humans," said study co-author Sara Hamilton.

"We need to think creatively about how to keep our ocean healthy. While drawing down carbon emissions is the most pressing need, rebuilding key predator populations, like the sunflower sea star, can be an important piece of the puzzle too."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/">The Nature Conservancy</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sunflower sea stars are vanishing after mass mortality event

Sunflower sea stars may never recover from a marine epidemic...

Planning ahead for warming <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ocean-pollution-threatens-the-health-of-more-than-three-billion-people/">ocean</a> waters will help both fish and fisheries withstand the impacts, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>. Proactive strategies to cope with climate change could also help prevent future conflicts over ocean uses. 

"Sticking our heads in the sand doesn't work," said study lead author Professor Malin Pinsky. "Effective ocean planning that accounts for climate change will lead to better safeguards for marine fish and commercial fisheries with few tradeoffs."

On all seven continents, plans are underway for how parts of the ocean could be dedicated to energy development, fishing, conservation, recreation, and other uses. However, these efforts do not usually take the potential impacts of climate change into consideration.

As ocean waters continue to warm in the coming decades, many commercially valuable fish species are expected to move hundreds of miles north to find cooler temperatures. This shift, which is already underway, will cause major disruptions to commercial fisheries and complicate international fisheries conflicts.

The Rutgers team analyzed the costs and benefits of planning ahead for the impacts of climate change on marine species. The experts used a computer model to simulate the ocean planning process in the United States and Canada for conservation zones, fishing zones, and wind and wave energy development zones. 

The researchers also accounted for nearly 12,000 different projections of the movements of 736 fish species around North America through the end of this century. 

"We were worried that planning ahead would require setting aside a lot more of the ocean for conservation or for fishing, but we found that was not the case," said Professor Pinsky. 

"Instead, fishing and conservation areas can be set up like hopscotch boxes so fish and other animals can shift from one box into another as they respond to climate change. We found that simple changes to ocean plans can make them much more robust to future changes. Planning ahead can help us avoid conflicts between, for example, fisheries and wind energy or conservation and fisheries."

Professor Pinsky noted that while this study was focused on long-term changes, many fisheries decisions are focused on near-term changes - one to a few years ahead. With this in mind, the researchers are currently testing whether they can forecast near-term shifts in where fish will be found to help fisheries adapt more easily.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Proactively planning for climate change can protect fish and fisheries

Planning ahead for warming ocean waters will help both fish...

Dog owners are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes if their dog has <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hot-baths-help-lower-risk-factors-associated-with-type-2-diabetes/">diabetes</a>, according to research from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en">Uppsala University</a>. The researchers report that they found no evidence of a shared risk of diabetes among cats and cat owners. 

Previous studies have suggested a link between obesity in dog owners and their pets, which indicates that these pairs may share common health behaviors like physical activity levels. 

More than 400 million people have type 2 diabetes and this number is expected to increase in the coming decades. The projected increase is partly tied to rising rates of obesity.

The study was focused on Swedish veterinary insurance records combined with Swedish population and health registers. From this data, the researchers extracted information on pet owners throughout the country. Overall, more than 175,000 dog owners, nearly 90,000 cat owners, and all of their pets were included in the study.

The analysis revealed that owning a dog with diabetes was associated with a 38-percent higher risk of type 2 diabetes. This estimate did not significantly change after the team adjusted for a range of other risk factors.

The risk of developing diabetes was also 28 percent higher in dogs with an owner who had type 2 diabetes compared with dogs with an owner who did not have type 2 diabetes. 

"Our results indicate that a dog with diabetes in the household might signal an increased risk of the dog owner developing type 2 diabetes as well," said study co-senior author Beatrice Kennedy. 

"We have not had access to information about household lifestyle behaviours, but we think the association might be due to shared physical activity patterns and possibly also shared dietary habits as well as shared risk of adiposity. If shared exercise habits are indeed a key factor, it might further help explain why we don't see any shared diabetes risk in cat owners and their cats."

Because this was an observational study, the underlying cause between the shared risk of diabetes was not established. In addition, the analysis was limited to pet owners with the financial resources to obtained veterinary insurance and who received drug treatment for their diabetes.

Regardless, the researchers say this was a robust study showing that owning a dog with diabetes was associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in the owner, which could not be explained by socioeconomic circumstances.

"Humans and dogs have lived together for at least 15,000 years, and continue to share their everyday lives for better or worse," said study co-senior author Professor Tove Fall.

"In this unique study, we show that there might be common lifestyle and environmental factors that influence the risk of diabetes in the household, both in the dogs and in their owners."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs share an increased risk of diabetes with their owners

Dog owners are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes...

Since 1996, a transmissible cancer has been wiping out Tasmanian devils in alarming numbers. But now, a new study from <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> offers hope that the infectious <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/substituting-plant-foods-for-red-meat-reduces-the-risk-of-heart-disease/">disease</a> will not push the animals to extinction, as was predicted about ten years ago.

While most cancers remain confined in the body, the cells of devil facial tumor 1 (DFT1) can be transferred to new hosts through biting. These tumor cells are able to resist the Tasmanian devil's immune defenses and establish a new tumor that is usually fatal. 

A research team led by WSU biologist Andrew Storfer has used genomic tools of phylodynamics, which are typically used to track viruses such as SARS-CoV-2, to trace DFT1.

The results of the groundbreaking analysis suggest that the spread of the Tasmanian devil facial tumor disease is slowing down to the point that each infected animal is infecting only one additional individual or less.

"It is cautiously optimistic good news," said Storfer. "I think we're going to see continued survival of devils at lower numbers and densities than original population sizes, but extinction seems really unlikely even though it was predicted a decade ago."

The disease is still very deadly to Tasmanian devils who contract it, which usually occurs through biting and scratching during fights with infected animals. The cancer has reduced populations by as much as 80 percent since it was first discovered.

However, DFT1 appears to be reaching an equilibrium, according to the current analysis as well as evidence from previous field studies. The researchers say that, armed with this new evidence, managers should re-consider the practice of releasing captive-bred devils into the wild.

"Active management may not be necessary and could actually be harmful," said Storfer. "It looks like the devil populations are naturally evolving to tolerate and possibly even resist the cancer. By introducing a whole bunch of genetically naïve individuals, they could breed with the wild individuals, basically mix up the gene pool and make it less well-adapted."

The captive-bred individuals who have developed no resistance to DFT1 could also increase transmission of the disease among different groups of devils.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

 ---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tasmanian devils are overcoming a deadly pandemic

Since 1996, a transmissible cancer has been wiping out Tasmanian...

"Coldspots" provide more opportunity for the rapid diversification of plants and animals than hotspots, according to a study led by <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a>. The researchers found that new species evolve much more slowly in biodiversity <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-hotspots-are-shrinking-in-the-andes-mountains/">hotspots</a> like the Amazon rainforest than what was previously thought. 

The experts also determined that places without a lot of species, like mountaintops and deserts, provide the right conditions for new species to develop. 

Even though coldspots may be extreme with unstable environments, they are also relatively empty, giving plants and animals the space they need for expansion. By contrast, the researchers report,  biodiversity hotspots are the result of the gradual accumulation of species over time.

Study senior author Robb Brumfield is the LSU College of Science Associate Dean of Research &amp; Administration and a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences.

"Our results reveal a model in which species are forming faster in environmental extremes but have accumulated in moderate environments to form tropical biodiversity hotspots," explained Professor Brumfield.

For their investigation, the researchers analyzed samples maintained by natural history museums. The LSU Museum of Natural Science and its frozen tissues collection, which is the oldest and largest of its kind in the world, contributed tissues for 747 of 1,287 bird species that were included in the study. 

"The remarkable sampling in this study comes from 40 years of fieldwork by curators, students, staff and others, who spent huge amounts of time and money, and risked their personal health, collecting specimens from around the world," said study co-author Professor Fred Sheldon.

Based on the DNA analysis of museum tissue samples from 24 countries, the experts mapped the genetic relationships of a predominant group of tropical birds called the suboscine passerines. These birds are so abundant that they represent about one of every three bird species in the American tropics. Suboscines have a wide variety of both characteristics and habitats, which include forests, mountains, and deserts.

"This shows that conservation efforts to save the rapidly changing tropical landscape need to focus not only on the species-rich Amazon, but also on regions that are less diverse but contribute disproportionately to the generation of new species, like the wind-swept, cold puna of the Andes Mountains," said Professor Brumfield.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants and animals evolve faster in coldspots than in biodiversity hotspots

"Coldspots" provide more opportunity for the rapid diversification of plants...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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