Eels move in ways that seem to ignore the rules most vertebrates live by. They swim with flowing body waves, they can scoot across wet ground, and they often keep going even when the spinal cord is cut. 



According to a new paper, two simple body signals, stretch and pressure, help explain how that is possible.



Those signals are not fancy. Stretch tells the body how much each segment bends, and pressure reports forces on the skin from water or from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-eel-species-with-fang-like-teeth/">objects</a>. 



When these signals are fed into the spinal circuits that set a basic rhythm for movement, the eel’s whole body keeps time without micromanagement from the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-eel-movement">Secrets of eel movement</h2>



Kotaro Yasui is an assistant professor at Tohoku University’s Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science (<a href="https://www.fris.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FRIS</a>) and lead author of the study



“Our findings will help design highly adaptive robots capable of navigating complex and unpredictable environments,” noted Professor Yasui.



Most vertebrates walk or swim thanks to networks in the spinal cord called central pattern generator <a href="https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/introneuroscience1/chapter/central-pattern-generators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circuits</a>. 



These circuits can produce rhythmic muscle commands on their own, then shape that rhythm using feedback from the body. That is why the same overall plan can show up in animals as different as fish, salamanders, and mice.



Eels add a twist by leaning hard on two kinds of sensory input. Proprioception is internal sensing of stretch that tells a segment where it is in the cycle. Exteroception is sensing from outside the body, including water pressure on the sides of the fish or contact with a surface. 



Stretch sensitive neurons like the classic lamprey edge cells have long shown how such bending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">signals</a> can tune the spinal rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-robot-mimics-eel-movement">Flexible robot mimics eel movement </h2>



Yasui’s team built a mathematical model in which each body segment has a small local oscillator that produces a timing signal. They wired in two feedback loops, one for stretch and one for pressure, so the oscillators would be tugged into step by what the body feels.



The researchers tested the controller in two settings. First, they used computer simulations that generated body movements and force patterns. Then, they tried it on a physical eel-like robot made of flexible segments and equipped with skin-level sensors.



The same controller worked in both settings, and it produced stable swimming quickly, without central commands to lock the segments together.



The stretch loop had a special job. It sped up the time it took for a smooth traveling wave to appear from random starting positions. It also helped the body hold a strong stride once the pattern settled, even though that gain could cost a little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">energy</a> because the joints work harder during sharper turns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spinal-rhythm-and-sensory-feedback">Spinal rhythm and sensory feedback</h2>



The team asked a simple question. If the controller swims well, can it also crawl on land when the ground is dotted with obstacles? They ran the robot through a peg field where pushing and bracing matter more than glide.



Stretch feedback made the difference. With stretch only, the robot found traction on the pegs and made steady headway. 



Pressure alone did not help in that setting, which fits earlier <a href="https://jan.ucc.nau.edu/acg/publications/Pace_%26_Gibb_2011.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> showing that elongated fishes such as ropefish change their kinematics across water and land in specific ways, with long, slow, high amplitude body waves on land.



The results suggest continuity rather than a clean break between swimming and crawling in these fishes. 



The same spinal rhythm and sensory feedback can drive both swimming and crawling, as long as the environment provides the right reaction forces. The fish doesn’t need a separate land-based neural controller to move



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-spinal-injuries-teach-us">What spinal injuries teach us</h2>



The most striking tests involved spinal cord transection. The group measured swimming in live American eels before and after a complete cut around the middle of the body, then matched those tests with simulation and robot runs using the same controller.&nbsp;



The movement behind the injury kept a similar frequency and phase as the movement in front of it, which echoes decades old <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11744256/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> that eels can recover coordinated swimming after transection as regrowth advances.



In the model, that coordination did not need signals from the brain. It emerged when the local oscillators had some built-in tendency to tick on their own, and when stretch and pressure loops were strong enough. 



The body above the cut tugged the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/">body</a> below the cut into the same rhythm through passive motion and local sensing.



That simple recipe explains why eels can move immediately after injury while many amphibians and mammals cannot. If the posterior spinal cord cannot oscillate on its own, or if the feedback pathways are too weak, the two halves fall out of step and the body stalls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eel-movement-robots-and-evolution">Eel movement, robots, and evolution</h2>



Robots that move without legs need to live with uncertainty. Water currents change, floors are cluttered, and obstacles shift. Prior <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abf6354" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> has shown that proprioceptive feedback can entrain undulatory robots into reliable patterns despite turbulence and noise.



This study adds pressure sensing on the skin to that recipe and shows how a simple stretch rule helps robots use clutter for propulsion. That means eel-like machines could search pipes, navigate earthquake rubble, or inspect tanks without complex top down control.



There is also a story about evolution here. If a swimming controller can produce useful crawling when the environment offers something to push against, early vertebrates may have needed adjustments more than a full rewrite to move onto land. Flexible circuits and strong local feedback could have carried a lot of that load.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Biologists can now test specific predictions in the lab. For example, they can look for descending stretch pathways that echo the model’s anterior to posterior copy rule, and they can probe how pressure sensors along the skin tune rhythm in moving fish.



Engineers can search for energy savings by blending stretch rules that boost stride with rules that prevent excessive bending. They can also explore how to route around damaged links in a robot by letting neighboring segments pull each other back into rhythm.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422248122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



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Spinal secrets: What eels reveal about the origins of movement

Eels move in ways that seem to ignore the rules most vertebrates live by. They swim with flowing body waves, they can scoot across wet ground, and they often keep going even when the spinal cord is cut. According to a new paper, two simple body signals, stretch and pressure, help explain how that is possible. Those signals are not fancy. Stretch tells the body how much each segment bends, and pressure reports forces on the skin from water or from objects. When these signals are fed...

A team of Japanese whalers and scientists have successfully identified new subspecies of the short-finned pilot whale, a species of whale found all over the world from the Pacific and Indian to the North Atlantic Oceans. 

Although it’s often been thought that the short-finned was its own unique species, the team has actually identified two “forms” of short-finned pilot whales, which populate the Pacific off the coast of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/japan-commercial-whaling/">Japan</a>.

First is the “Naisa” form, which lives off the coast of Southern Japan and has a square-shaped head. And second is the “Shio” form, which lives off the coast of Northern Japan and has a round head.

"You can't manage animals globally without understanding their diversity," said lead author of the study Amy Van Cise, a postdoctoral scholar at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute</a> (WHOI). “If you think of a group of animals as a single species, and it turns out they're not, you could wind up accidentally losing an entire subspecies without knowing it.”

This study, published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>, is the first to examine the genetic diversity of these two forms of short-finned pilot whales.

Using marine mammal tissue archived at <a href="https://swfsc.noaa.gov/">NOAA's Southwest Fisheries Science Center</a>, Van Cise was able to examine the entire global population structure of the short-finned pilot whale. She was able to extract over 700 DNA samples from the tissue archives and successfully identified two subspecies of the short-finned pilot whale merely separated by the expanse of the Pacific Ocean.

"You would expect to see a different subspecies of whale in each ocean basin — the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific. That's pretty common,” Van Cise said. “But what we found was that short-finned pilot whales in the Atlantic are the same sub-species as those living in the Indian Ocean and western Pacific.” However, those short-finned pilot whales living off the coast of Japan differed from the root species.

To determine that the Naisa and Shiho forms were uniquely different from the rest, Van Cise used small portions of the whales’ mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to study each form’s genetic divergence from the pack.

It’s thanks to the mtDNA that scientists can now dig deeper into unique species that may have been previously overlooked. 

"[The Pacific expanse] seems to have separated these groups of whales for long enough that they diverged into two different types," she explained. "That means continents and land forms may not have been as significant a barrier as we thought to this species' evolution. Instead, the oceanic 'desert' in the Pacific might have been more important."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Dai Mar Tamarack

Researchers identify new subspecies of pilot whale in the Pacific

A team of Japanese whalers and scientists have successfully identified...

A new study has revealed that sponges provide a unique way for monitoring marine biodiversity. As the sponges filter-feed, the DNA left behind in the water from other animals is collected in their tissues. The researchers identified fish, seal, and penguin <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-woolly-mammoths-dna/">DNA</a> in sponges from the Antarctic and Mediterranean.

Study co-author Stefano Mariani is a marine ecologist and population geneticist at the <a href="https://www.salford.ac.uk/">University of Salford</a>.

"Sponges are ideal sampling units because you find them everywhere and in every aquatic habitat, including freshwater," said Mariani. "Also, they're not very selective filter-feeders, they don't run away, and they don't get hurt by sampling - you can just grab a piece, and they will regenerate nicely."

The researchers found that the presence of sponge DNA did not interfere with their ability to identify the DNA of other species caught within its tissue. By using a particular DNA primer, they were able to selectively amplify vertebrate DNA without amplifying the DNA of the sponge itself. This technique was combined with metabarcoding, which sorted through the DNA in the tissue sample and organized it into distinguishable species.

[caption id="attachment_1873415" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/sponge.jpeg"><img class="wp-image-1873415" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/sponge.jpeg" alt="" width="650" height="702" /></a> Sponge specimen, Aplysina aerophoba, Image Credit: A. Riesgo[/caption]

The team identified 31 taxa, which mostly consisted of fish. One sponge sample from Antarctica included DNA from Weddell seals and chinstrap penguins. The sample was ultimately linked to a specific region offshore of a penguin breeding colony. "This was a really exciting find and also makes a lot of sense, because the penguins would be in and out of the water a lot, eating, swimming, and pooing," said Mariani.

Next, the researchers plan to investigate the ability of other animals to act as DNA samplers, particularly in open waters where sponges are unavailable or inaccessible. According to Mariani, organisms such as jelly fish or salps may be better options in the open ocean. 

The ultimate goal of the research is to improve how environmental DNA is collected in order to better monitor biodiversity in areas that may not be suitable for other methods. "I am hopeful that this method will prove itself to be useful," said Mariani. "It's the quintessential environmentally friendly biodiversity assessment tool."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: A. Riesgo

Sponges pick up DNA from other sea creatures as they filter ocean water

A new study has revealed that sponges provide a unique...

Recent instances of elephant injuries illustrate harms of tourism industry. Elephants have long been a source of human fascination and admiration. The species is vastly intelligent, social and emotional, capable of activities previously believed to be unattainable to non-humans such as grieving the dead. This love for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/poaching-rates-elephants-not-safe/">elephants</a> brings countless tourists to elephant attractions, allowing them the opportunity to interact with the species firsthand.

The attractions may look idyllic to star-struck visitors, but they are often darker than they seem. Two recent cases of elephant injuries at wildlife attractions provide a small glimpse into an industry rife with concerns over animal welfare.

A<a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/baby-elephant-collapses-exhaustion-tied-16193114"> video</a> taken in May shows a one-year old elephant, strapped to his mother by ropes, collapse from exhaustion while his mother gives rides to humans. The young elephant struggles to get up while laying on the concrete ground before finally getting to his feet and continuing the elephant ride.

In April, footage of a young skeletal elephant performing tricks at a Thai zoo went viral. The elephant appeared to be in distress as he mechanically performed tricks during a show. Although animal activists worked to have the elephant moved to a sanctuary, he developed an infection in his digestive tract before he could be relocated. The infection left him so weak that his legs snapped, slowly killing him over the course of days, the animal advocacy group Moving Animals told<a href="https://people.com/pets/baby-elephant-dies-phuket-zoo-thailand/"> People</a>.

Both the incidents occurred in Thailand, a country that has emerged as a hub for elephant tourism. The country has a complicated relationship with domestic elephants. Elephants were used in the logging industry until logging was banned in 1989. After the ban took place, 2,000 mahouts were left to care for captive elephants who they had no immediate use for. The tourism industry quickly came in to fill this void.

There are now an estimated 200 elephant parks in Thailand. Many of them market themselves as “sanctuaries” and “refuges” despite<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-sanctuary-attractions-inhumane/"> rampant inhumane practices</a>.

As commonly seen in animal attractions, financial gain becomes a primary motivation, trumping the welfare of the stars of the show.

Elephant attractions routinely subject animals to cruel conditions such as abusive training practices, the use of chains and isolation from conspecifics. The attractions may also push the elephants to work long hours, interacting with<a href="https://d31j74p4lpxrfp.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/int_files/pdfs/taken_for_a_ride.pdf"> up to 1,000</a> tourists a day.

For unknowing tourists, it may be difficult to spot an inhumane elephant attraction. Attraction operators may allow the elephants to roam while tourists are visiting, keeping the chains and small enclosures hidden from the public. Operators may also tell tourists about how they rescue and rehabilitate injured and orphaned elephants.

This deception allows tourists to both have their up-close encounter with elephants and leave feeling that they had a fulfilling and meaningful experience.

If any good can come from the recent incidents of elephant injuries, tourists can see a snapshot into the consequences of elephant exploitation in the tourism industry.

While the issue is not as simple as casting all elephant attractions as cruel, tourists should conduct thorough research before visiting any animal attraction to ensure they are not supporting animal cruelty. With elephant tourism, the line between ethical and exploitative is difficult to decipher. 

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: deejungloei / Shutterstock

Recent instances of elephant injuries illustrate harms of tourism industry

Recent instances of elephant injuries illustrate harms of tourism industry....

Once, European wildcats could be found throughout England, Wales, Scotland and Cornwall. Now, after centuries of culling, there are only a handful of Scottish wildcats left – and not for long.

The Highlands population of cats are not interested in approaching humans – but have mated extensively with their domestic cats. The result is that most of the remaining Scottish wildcats are hybrids, leaving the group no longer viable, according to the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>.

So scientists are hoping to return European wildcats to Britain by breeding them in captivity, then releasing them into promising habitat in Wales, Devon and Cornwall.

“Wildcats look like the kitty at home but they are like leopards,” big cat expert Marianne Hartmann told <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk">The Guardian</a>. “I’ve been working with leopards for many years and the only difference is size, and that leopards can get tame. If you hand-raise lions or tigers, they remain tame for the rest of their lives. Wildcats cannot be tamed under any circumstances. This is very special.”

While the European wildcats look like larger versions of domestic cats, modern house cats descend from African wildcats. The European cats are much less friendly toward humans than their African cousins.

Hartmann is one of a number of scientists who have helped to reinvigorate species on the brink of extinction and reintroduce them to the wild. She helped to guide a successful project to reintroduce <a href="https://www.waldwissen.net/wald/tiere/saeuger/lwf_wildkatze_lockstock/index_EN">European wildcats to Bavaria</a>. 

Other recent projects:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-fisher-weasel-back/">Pacific fishers</a> were returned to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/mora/index.htm">Mount Rainier National Park</a> in 2016, after 70 years. The species had previously been reintroduced to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/olym/learn/nature/fisher-reintroduction.htm">Olympic National Park</a> and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/washington-fisher-restoration.htm">North Cascades National Park</a>.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Bison have been reintroduced to a few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-americas-prairies/">prairie ecosystems</a>.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-yellowstone-landscape-fear/">Wolves</a> were successfully returned to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/index.htm">Yellowstone National Park</a> in the 1990s.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Researchers at a U.S. university are considering whether an extinct tiger species could be revived and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-extinct-tiger-reintroduced/">returned to Kazakhstan</a>.</li>
</ul>
Britain has already had one success story. After a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eager-beavers-devon/">group of beavers</a> escaped captivity in Devon, local wildlife advocates requested to turn it into a trial reintroduction. The experiment has so far proved a success.

The team working on the European wildcat reintroduction plan acknowledged that residents of the target areas in Wales, Cornwall and Devon have valid concerns, especially the farmers.

But the cats could help control rodent and rabbit populations, the researchers pointed out. They don’t take larger prey like lambs, Hartmann told The Guardian, and when they take chickens, they go after one at a time, not several as foxes do. 

A breeding facility has already been set up in Devon, with three breeding pairs. Ecologist Derek Gow, who runs the facility and has been behind successful beaver and water vole revivals, is calling for a captive breeding program.

“We need to bring animals from Swiss and German zoos, build up a stock and have captive cats that are capable of producing 150 kittens a year,” he said. “I can produce 3,500 water voles a year if required. We’ve got the land to do it but we’ll find other project partners.”

The <a href="https://www.rzss.org.uk/">Royal Zoological Society of Scotland</a> is already breeding the European wildcats in captivity.

Hartmann warns fellow conservationists that the reintroduction will take a lot of effort.

“The wildcat was there historically, there is habitat left and the most challenging thing is the feral cats,” she said. “If you manage to control that, it can be a big success but a reintroduction is a lifetime’s work. It’s 20 to 30 years. It’s not just releasing animals.”

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

European wildcats could soon see a revival in Britain

Once, European wildcats could be found throughout England, Wales, Scotland...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> is the first produce evidence that chimpanzees hunt and eat freshwater <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/chimpanzees-go-freshwater-crab-fishing/">crabs</a> on a regular basis. Video footage captured in the Nimba Mountains of Guinea reveals that this behavior is more common among the female and infant <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-eat-tortoise-technique/">chimpanzees</a> than the males. 

"Our study is the first evidence showing that non-human apes regularly catch and eat aquatic fauna," explained study lead author Kathelijne Koops.

The team discovered that the chimpanzees consumed crabs all year long regardless of whether fruit was available, suggesting that the crabs are a top selection. According to the study authors, the chimpanzees searched for crabs in shallow streams by scratching along the riverbed with their fingers.

The researchers found no evidence that crab-fishing activities were related to the amount of monthly rainfall. In fact, the hunting behavior remained consistent throughout both dry and rainy seasons. 

The experts did find, however, that chimpanzees fished more often for crabs when they were eating fewer ants. This indicates that crabs and ants provide a similar nutritional value.

"Female chimpanzees and their offspring fished for crabs more often and for longer than adult males, which we had not expected," said Koops. The discrepancy may be explained by the fact that mothers and infants both need the essential fatty acids and micronutrients, such as sodium and calcium, that are provided by the crabs.

The research may shed new light on why aquatic fauna became more and more important as a source of nutrition in the course of human evolution. "These findings on wild chimpanzees contribute to our understanding of hominin nutrition," said Koops.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-human-evolution">Journal of Human Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Kathelijne Koops

Scientists discover first evidence of chimpanzees hunting and eating crabs

A new study from the University of Zurich is the...

As humans, it’s easy to ignore the spectrums of color that we can’t see but that define the world of the mantis shrimp or the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-vast-distances/">butterfly</a>. We also tend to think of the color blind as missing something vital of the world as it is. The same is true for sounds – whole ranges of noise are outside of the hearing of the average human, yet we go about acting like these noises simply don’t exist. Other animals are endowed with different hearing apparatus and so, not only do other creatures see the world differently, they also hear it differently.

The most obvious example that may come to mind is the silent dog whistle but it’s even more interesting looking at the low frequency sounds that animals use for communication.

Different sounds can serve different purposes. The high pitched ultrasound used by bats in echolocation is perfect for navigating at night because these noises are easily reflected back to the bats by objects in the environment. The mid-frequency noises that most animals use are perfect for relatively close communication through air. Communicating across long distances is something else, though.  

Low frequency noises, below the frequency that human ears can usually detect, are used by elephants to communicate over long distances. The infrasound frequencies are good for long distance communication because they travel well through objects instead of being reflected. Because they travel well through things such as heads, it’s also hard to tell what direction infrasound is coming from. 

We use the difference in time for a sound to reach one ear compared to the other as one way to determine where a sound is coming from. Since infrasound travels through the bone and tissue of our head, the sound reaches both ears at very close to the same time. For this reason, infrasound is good for long distance communication but not for locating individual animals. This also partially explains why we can’t hear infrasound but sometimes we can feel it.    

We don’t know what elephants are communicating about using infrasound. According to Cornel Lab’s <a href="http://elephantlisteningproject.org/all-about-infrasound/">Elephant Listening Project</a>, we do know that African elephants can communicate over very long distances.  Recorded elephant sounds played back were responded to by elephants on the savannah as far as 2 km away. Because it’s hard to play the sounds as loudly as elephants make them themselves, it’s estimated that elephants can actually hear each other as far as 4 km away, which means elephants can hear each other within a 50 km square area. 

The distances elephants can hear each other seem to be much shorter in tropical forests but this seems to be mainly due to background noise. When the forests are at their quietest, it seems that the infrasound can still be heard 3 km away. It’s possible that the elephants are even better at distinguishing between their own infrasound and background noise than we think, making it so they can communicate over longer distances in the forest. 

A report published in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4494393/pdf/animals-03-00349.pdf">Animals</a> also suggests that elephants could hear gathering thunderstorms more than 100 km away and could theoretically make their way towards them.  This would be an important skill to have at the end of the dry season in much of sub-Saharan Africa where water is an important limiting resource.  There is also anecdotal evidence that elephants in Thailand may have been able to detect a coming tsunami, according to <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/can-animals-predict-disaster-listening-to-infrasound/133/">PBS</a>. 

Other animals have shown their ability to detect coming storms from infrasound. Different studies reported on by <a href="https://www.kqed.org/science/25236/uc-berkeley-study-says-migratory-birds-use-infrasound-to-avoid-storms">KQED Science</a> show that birds can detect coming storms.  Some birds apparently even use the sound of coming storms from hundreds of miles away as cues to leave an area and start their migrations.  Other birds seem to use infrasound for communication. 

Research published in <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4090277?read-now=1&amp;seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">The Auk</a> found that cassowaries – large, flightless birds living in dense rainforests in Papua New Guinea and northern Australia – not only hear infrasound but can produce it as well.  Infrasound seems like the ideal way for the birds to communicate over long distances in dense forests and rough terrain. It’s possible that this long-distance communication is used to warn other cassowaries away or to attract mates.  Crocodilians seem to apply a similar strategy.

Many crocodilians perform what is known as a ‘water dance’ where they create infrasound that makes the shallow water over their backs ‘dance’ in interesting patterns. These noises are used along with grunts or roars and head slaps to the water by males to attract females. The combination of head slaps, roars and infrasound vary depending on the environment a crocodilian population has evolved to. Head slaps are useful in helping other animals to determine where a sound is coming from. 

Infrasound is more useful in making the sound travel long distances. So in large lakes, infrasound and head slaps are both very useful. In smaller ponds, head slaps are less useful. Vladimir Dinets, the scientist who made the discovery of variable crocodilian ‘songs’ depending on environment, describes the adventurous research in his book Dragon Songs.

<a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3680-tigers-use-infrasound-to-warn-off-rivals/">New Scientist</a> reports that tigers also use infrasound to attract mates and to warn other tigers off.  Baleen and Fin whales use infrasound. Research published in <a href="https://asa.scitation.org/doi/10.1121/1.4783845">The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</a> suggests that the whales use infrasound for long range communication, like many other animals.  

In the end, infrasound is still a relatively new field of study in animal behavior. The more we look, the more we find but there are still many unanswered questions like why or how this ability first evolved.  For now, we should be excited to learn that the world of sound, of voices is much broader than our human ears can detect. Animals all over the world are talking and we can’t even hear them. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer  

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Kletr

Many animals use infrasound to communicate over vast distances

As humans, it’s easy to ignore the spectrums of color...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> have investigated how the energy inputs of various caregivers may affect brain size and fertility among <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hunting-decline-mammals-tropical-forests/">mammals</a>. The study revealed that more paternal care is linked to a larger brain size in the offspring, while additional care and support for offspring outside of the biological parents is linked to higher fertility in the mothers. 

The investigation was focused on the data comparison of 478 different species, including lions, mice, meerkats, monkeys, and apes. 

"Both reproduction and brain tissue are energetically very expensive, and one way for females to reduce their cost is by distributing that cost over other individuals by sharing the burden of care," explained study co-author Dr. Sandra Heldstab. 

"Unlike previous studies, we distinguished between paternal and alloparental care because we expected there to be a difference between how reliable they are and in the effect they may have on brain size and fertility."

The research was based on the expensive brain hypothesis, which predicts that the brain will only evolve to become larger if the additional energy that is made available to a female through help with raising the offspring is predictable and constant.

"Paternal care is both reliable and stable; therefore we'd expect it to be associated with brain size," said Dr. Heldstab. "Additional care from individuals who are not the offspring's parents often fluctuates as they adjust their caring effort depending on both food availability and their own reproductive needs."

"This unpredictable type of care doesn't provide enough stable energy to affect brain size, but our findings suggest that the additional energy it does provide is associated with a significant increase in fertility, as females readily respond through litter size adjustments to variable amounts of energy inputs."

According to the researchers, the relatively high reproductive output and extremely large brain size of humans may be explained by multi-family cooperative parenting, which involves stable and reliable care by both parents and non-parents.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/265">Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Ricardo Reitmeyer

Mammal brain size and fertility is determined by the availability of caregivers

Researchers at the University of Zurich have investigated how the...

Years ago, on a cold night in the austral winter, I stood on a beach watching. Eventually the cold drove me back to my rental car to huddle in the interior and try to warm up for a while. When I felt warm again, I returned and started down a steep path towards the beach but as I walked, I saw a small creature startle and stumble backwards, tripping over itself. I stopped. I wanted to call out for the animal to wait, I was no harm but it was no use, I’d scared away the little bird I’d been waiting to see. 

I was in Tasmania and the bird I’d scared away was the little blue penguin (Eudyptula minor), also known as the fairy penguin. 

The fairy penguin is the world’s smallest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/penguin-foraging-behavior-habitat-health/">penguin</a> and the only one to visit Tasmania. The tiny penguin spends its days hunting for fish only to return after sundown to the land and a safe burrow where often a hungry chick waits. Unfortunately, like many of Australia’s wild animals, the fairy penguin has a population in decline.

So far, the fairy penguin is listed as a species of least concern on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22697805/132603951">IUCN Red List</a>, with an estimated population of over 460,000 individual birds. But the whole situation for the fairy penguin is a bit more complicated than the number of individuals in the species. The fairy penguin species is broken into different subpopulations and subspecies nesting in different areas. Some of these populations are doing better than others. The population of penguins on Australia’s Middle Island wasn’t doing so well.

Middle Island is an interesting place off the coast of southern Australia in Victoria near the town of Warrnambool. The island is quite small and rocky, if also beautiful. The relatively remote island seemed a perfect place to quietly harbor a population of penguins. Unfortunately, like other parts of Australia, foxes were introduced to Middle Island and wreaked havoc on the fairy penguin population. A penguin population of 800 was reduced to only 4 found by scientists due to foxes and incautious trampling of their burrows, according to <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35039105">BBC</a>. In the biggest kill, 360 penguins were found dead from foxes, not for food but apparently for the thrill of killing.

The European Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) was introduced to Australia in the 1800s by sport hunters, according to the <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/1910ab1d-a019-4ece-aa98-1085e6848271/files/european-red-fox.pdf">Australian government</a>. Within a hundred years, the clever fox had spread across the whole continent on their own. The unique geography of Middle Island allows the curious fox to cross from mainland Australia to the island at low tide with only a short swim. A natural build up of sand by sea currents slowly made the island more accessible. It was only a matter of time before foxes inhabited the fragile island and endangered its ecosystem. 

The solution taken up by most wildlife managers throughout Australia is to wage an all out war on foxes. Despite hunting, poisoning and trapping foxes, their numbers seem strong. According to a report form <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-03-07/fox-numbers-take-bite-out-of-australian-agriculture-economy/9485428">ABC</a> in 2018, foxes inhabit about two thirds of southern Australia. In one culling event, 701 foxes were killed in just two nights. 

Despite the slaughter and range of weapons available to humans, only Tasmania, an island state, successfully eradicated foxes. In fact, sometimes poisons meant for foxes kill dingos, one of the few Australian animals that actually competes with foxes and naturally curtails their populations. According to <a href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/extinction-countdown/poisoning-dingoes-has-domino-effect-on-australiae28099s-biodiversity/?redirect=1">Scientific American</a>, areas in Australia where dingos have been poisoned (on purpose) have more herbivore species like kangaroos but also more foxes. Beyond that, more grazing from kangaroos and wallabies reduced the amount of ground cover for small mammals to hide in, making them easier prey for foxes. 

Fencing has also been used as a method to control foxes in Australia and proven to be useful but it could also potentially impact native wildlife as well. With very few successes to learn from in fox control or protecting wildlife from them, conservationists working on Middle Island tried something novel to protect the fairy penguins.

The <a href="http://www.maremmaclub.com/maremma-faq.html">maremma</a> is a large, white fluffy breed of dog. Maremmas are an Italian breed, originally bred to guard sheep from the likes of wolves and bears. Interestingly, maremmas have been used to guard other animals as well, such as chickens. A chicken farmer with the eccentric name of Swampy Marsh suggested using one of his maremma guard dogs named Oddball to protect the penguins. Immediate success in penguin protection was realized with the introduction of Oddball and since that first trial more than 10 years ago, more maremma guard dogs have been used to protect the penguins. When the dogs have been on duty, they were amazingly effective, with no penguins killed under their watch. The penguin population flourished and rose to 200 birds. An adorable fictionalized <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3401748/">movie</a> about the penguins and Oddball was made in 2015, boosting tourism to the area. Unfortunately, this is only part of the story.

<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-10/penguins-killed-by-fox-victoria-middle-island/8794828">ABC</a> reported in 2017 that 70 penguins were killed, mostly eaten by a fox attack on Middle Island. This comes at a time when the penguin population was at 182 birds, a large growth from its low point but still devastated by a loss of 70. The maremmas had been off duty because of rough tides and bad weather. It was assumed that the conditions made the island impossible to access for foxes as well, unfortunately the conservationists learned they were wrong the hard way. 

Now, maremma dogs and volunteers will always be either on the island or the beach in front of it to keep foxes at bay. Despite the recent setback, the maremma program is a success in showing that non-lethal predator control can sometimes be more effective at protecting populations of native wildlife. It’s truly astonishing that guard dogs can protect penguins from foxes better than snipers, poisons and traps. For those who are interested, tourists can even <a href="http://www.warrnamboolpenguins.com.au/meet-the-maremmas">meet the maremma dogs</a> on educational tours and support penguin conservation.           

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer                    

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Kamala Sakornmaneesup

Guard dogs help protect fairy penguins from vicious fox attacks

Years ago, on a cold night in the austral winter,...

Rocky Mountain spotted fever may boast one of the more interesting disease names to stick it out to the 21st century, but unfortunately it is still a potentially fatal illness spread through tick bites. A pathogen known as Rickettsia bacteria is the true cause behind Rocky Mountain spotted fever, as well as several other human and animal infections. Now, new research has found that this bacteria is found in wild boars, hunting dogs, and hunters in Brazil.

The majority of Rickettsial infections are transmitted through ticks, fleas, mites, or lice. Rickettsia rickettsia, the main pathogen causing spotted fever in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-increase-temperatures/">Brazil</a>, is spread to humans through Amblyomma ticks. 

Despite the prevalence of this disease, not many studies have been done on the occurrence of ticks and Rickettsia in wild boar populations, or how boars could be spreading the bacteria to humans.

A new study from the <a href="https://www.ufpr.br/portalufpr/">Federal University of Paraná</a> in Brazil involved researchers collecting blood samples and ticks from 80 wild boars, 170 hunting dogs, and 34 hunters in southern and central-western Brazil from 2016 through 2018. The blood samples were tested for anti-Rickettsia antibodies and tick species were identified, with some ticks being tested for Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia.

Out of the 80 boars tested for anti-Rickettsia antibodies, 58 were positive (72.5%). For the both the hunting dogs and hunters tested, just over 14% were positive in each group. Luckily, none of the ticks tested for Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia were positive. 

Given these results, it’s clear that boars could be the main culprit in the spread of this bacteria, however, not many studies have been done on the occurrence of ticks and Rickettsia in wild boar populations, or how boars could be spreading the bacteria to humans.

“Wild boars may be carrying and spreading capybara ticks from their original habitats to other ecosystems,” the researchers postulate. “These results may provide important findings for public action planning to prevent neglected vector-borne diseases in overlapping areas of wild boars, hunting dogs and hunters.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Ondrej Prosicky

Wild boars may be responsible for spreading tick-borne bacteria

Rocky Mountain spotted fever may boast one of the more...

African mole-rats have an unbelievable tolerance for pain which allows them to burrow next to venomous ants and eat roots that other animals would avoid. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.mdc-berlin.de/">Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine </a>(MDC) and the <a href="https://www.up.ac.za/">University of Pretoria </a>in South Africa isolated the genes that are directly responsible for pain insensitivity in mole rats. 

Published in the journal Science, the results help show the underlying genetic mechanisms that make some mole rats less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-tree-shrews-spicy-peppers/">sensitive to pain</a>.

“The insights provided by our studies of these animals should help, among other things, in the development of new pain-relieving drugs,” said Gary Lewin who first discovered the extent of mole-rat pain tolerance back in 2008. 

For the study, Lewin and colleagues tested pain tolerance in naked mole-rats and eight related species of mole rats. 

The mole rats were exposed to diluted hydrochloric acid, capsaicin, and allyl isothiocyanate (AITC). Each substance is known to cause a burning sensation when it touches the skin of humans and mammals. 

Mole rats are naturally exposed to some of these substances which are found in the roots and tubers they forage for and eat. 

The researchers injected the substance into the paws of the rats, and three mole-rat species were unphased by the hydrochloric acid. Two of the species in the study did feel the capsaicin solution but only one species, the highveld mole-rat, was unaffected by the AITC. 

“This was a thrilling finding for us,” says Lewin. “AITC attacks amino acids in the body and can thus destroy proteins. That is why all the other species we know avoid coming into contact with the substance.” 

After establishing which species were impervious to which substances, the researchers collected sensory tissue from the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia from all nine species in the study.

Gene sequencing technology allowed the researchers to compare gene activity and isolate two altered genes in the highveld rat. 

The genes contain the blueprint for the ion channels TRPA1 and NaV1.7, which are known for their role in pain sensitivity and perception.

Substances like AITC activate these channels, and in highveld rats, the TRPA1 channel is completely switched off. 

The researchers also found that pain sensitivity could be “turned on” again in the mole-rats. 

“From the thousands of genes we were looking at, we had obviously found the very gene responsible for the highveld mole-rat’s remarkable pain resistance,” said Lewin. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Dewald Kleynhans, University of Pretoria

African mole-rats are insensitive to pain thanks to a special gene

African mole-rats have an unbelievable tolerance for pain which allows...

A new study led by Timothy Jones of the <a href="https://depts.washington.edu/coasst/what/vision.html">University of Washington’s citizen science program COASST</a> and Lauren Divine from the <a href="https://www.kucb.org/term/aleut-community-st-paul-island-s-ecosystem-conservation-office-eco#stream/0">Aleut Community of St. Paul Island Ecosystem Conservation Office</a> reports that climate change is most likely partially responsible for a mass starvation-based die-off of puffins in the Bering Sea.

Rising ocean temperatures have caused massive shifts in sea ecosystems, and thus damaged the natural predator-prey cycle within the Bering Sea. 

For four months, Jones, Divine, and their colleagues tracked the die-off of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/puffins-migrate-struggle-breeding/">puffins</a> as well as the Crested auklet on St. Paul Island.

In October 2016, community and tribal members of St. Paul Island collected 350 emaciated carcasses, most which were in the stressful process of molting. 

A lack of food resources due to rising ocean temperatures — which affect the amount of plankton and therefore fish for puffins to eat — before the molting process may have led to the birds’ demise.

The team estimated that between 3,150 and 8,500 birds could have died during the event.

"This paper is a successful application of citizen science in the real world,” Divine said in the paper, published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0216532">PLOS One</a>. “Island residents collected high quality data in real time and provided COASST with a detailed context for their analysis. Without the positive and mutually beneficial relationship built over years of collaboration, this massive die-off of Tufted Puffins would have gone unreported in the scientific community."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Nick Pecker/Shutterstock

Climate change may be to blame for mass die-off of puffins in the Bering Sea

A new study led by Timothy Jones of the University...

The population of seabirds on a British island has made an impressive recovery after a project was launched to eradicate thousands of rats that were eating all the bird eggs. 

In less than two decades, the number of puffins on Lundy Island has bounced back from less than 20 to 375 birds. The project has also boosted the population of Manx shearwaters from hundreds to thousands. 

According to the <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/">Royal Society for the Protection of Birds</a> (RSPB), the total number of seabirds on Lundy has tripled to 21,000 in the 15 years after the rats were removed. The RSPB, which is a wildlife charity in the UK, said the initiative has been a great success. 

"This study clearly shows how quickly and positively seabirds respond to the removal of non-native predators," said Helen Booker, who is RSPB's senior conservation officer. "Of course, we had anticipated major population increases when the project was launched, but the scale of this recovery has far exceeded our expectations."

In 2003, efforts were launched to get rid of the rats on Lundy Island in a collaboration among the RSPB, Natural England, the Landmark Trust, and the National Trust. Ever since the island was declared free of rats, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/balloons-biggest-threat-seabirds/">seabird populations</a> have been steadily increasing. 

"It is exciting to see this level of recovery in Manx shearwaters, one of our most important seabirds," said Dean Jones, who is the warden on Lundy Island. "In spring the island comes alive at night with the sound of these amazing birds."

"The increases in puffins, guillemots and razorbills is also very encouraging for the future of seabirds on Lundy and we are maintaining our vigilance to ensure rats cannot return to the island."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Johnny Giese

Seabirds have recovered on British island after predatory rats were removed

The population of seabirds on a British island has made...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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