Scientists have taken a close look at certain reef fish and found something that no one expected. These underwater inhabitants can shift their jawbones in more ways than just up and down. The fish use a quick jaw twist in order to feed more effectively.



Peter Wainwright from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a> and his colleagues discovered this unusual trait while studying the <a href="https://www.fishbase.se/summary/zanclus-cornutus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moorish idol</a> (Zanclus cornutus), a striking species known for its long dorsal fin and bold stripes. 



The experts saw swift sideways motions that differ from the typical jaw movements of most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-illuminates-fish-interactions-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> - a finding that might explain how certain fish became successful herbivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-the-jaw-twist-to-feed-better">Fish use the jaw twist to feed better</h2>



High-speed video helped <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418982122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> detect a rapid shifting motion in the mouth region of this coral reef species.



Two-dimensional footage does not capture the complexity of the action, so cameras operating at hundreds of frames per second were crucial for seeing the sideways glide that is rarely seen in vertebrates.



The research team examined the mouth structures using scans and dissections, and spotted the unique anatomical elements that permit the jaws to move in multiple directions without slowing down. "I thought, holy cow, that’s not something we expected!” said Wainwright.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-movement-helps-to-scrape-algae">Jaw movement helps to scrape algae</h2>



This side-to-side movement appears to boost the way in which the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-fish-populations-are-boosted-by-ocean-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> remove bits of algae from rocks on coral reefs. 



Many reef environments feature hard surfaces where edible plant material clings stubbornly, so efficient techniques for scraping and plucking food may be especially important.



Surgeonfish, which share a close kinship with the Moorish idol, also display a version of this sliding jaw function. This capacity helps them graze on tough patches of algae, which supports their diets and possibly contributes to the dominance of certain fish species in these habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-jaw-adaptations-for-targeted-grazing">Fish jaw adaptations for targeted grazing</h2>



These mouth maneuvers seem to offer a quick way to yank food free. Fish that rely on suction feeding typically aim for items drifting in the water, but <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226413625_The_trophic_status_of_herbivorous_fishes_on_coral_reefs_II_Food_processing_modes_and_trophodynamics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grazing species</a> face different challenges when their meals grow attached to stones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-coral-reef-fish-survive-in-the-worlds-warmest-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral</a>.



Lateral jaw movement might allow them to target specific chunks of algae, while leaving the rest of the body steady. 



Staying still in choppy waters can reduce energy waste, so subtle mouth motion alone may make feeding smoother and more successful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fish-feeding-affects-coral-reef-health">How fish feeding affects coral reef health</h2>



By adopting this method, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0801946105" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivorous</a> fish may help regulate algal overgrowth. Large algal blooms can sometimes crowd out coral species, so hungry fish that trim back the vegetation are often vital for the health of reefs.



“For Zanclus, this adaptation seems to relate to where they feed,” said Michalis Mihalitsis, now at the <a href="https://www.uog.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Guam</a>, who worked on the study. His comment highlights the link between physical traits and the specific environmental niches that fish occupy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-evolution-and-the-jaw-twist">Fish evolution and the jaw twist</h2>



Vertebrate <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7672094/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jaws</a> have undergone countless modifications since the first fish appeared, over 400 million years ago. Each structural shift opens up new dietary options, supporting the rise of new species with unique ways of eating.



Sideways jaw movement is familiar to mammals that chew the cud, such as cows and goats. In fish, this trait is much less common, making its discovery in the Moorish idol and <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/holomua/surgeonfish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgeonfish</a> particularly surprising.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-in-reef-research">Looking ahead in reef research</h2>



Scientists plan to explore whether other families of benthic-feeding fish also possess some degree of sideways jaw rotation. As more species are examined, other hidden techniques that have allowed various fish lineages to flourish could come to light.



Understanding fine-scale feeding approaches can reveal how fish keep reefs in balance. Each specialized adaptation for cropping algae may have influenced which species thrived in these colorful yet competitive underwater neighborhoods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-adaptations-impact-fish-feeding">Jaw adaptations impact fish feeding</h2>



Researchers are starting to see the big picture of how a single trait may drive broad ecological shifts. A fish that can chomp algae in a quick and strategic manner might help shape community dynamics, protect coral structures, and boost biodiversity.



This mouth movement breakthrough raises questions about what else fish mouths can do. It also shows how delicate mechanical tweaks can transform an animal’s role in its ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-jaw-structures">Future research on jaw structures</h2>



Future work could involve close analysis of mouth ligaments, muscles, and bone joints across diverse reef species. Pinpointing the underlying genetics might allow scientists to trace how such mobility spread among related fish groups.



New knowledge might spark investigations into how environmental pressures push mouth features to evolve. As climate change affects reef conditions, fish that are able to adapt their feeding methods could prove more resilient, and help preserve vital coastal ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-jaws-reveal-ecosystem-dynamics">Fish jaws reveal ecosystem dynamics</h2>



Exploring these jaw movements offers a view into the interplay of form and function within marine life. When tiny physical details align with dietary demands, entire ecosystems may shift toward richer variety or greater stability.



Observations of how fish navigate algae-laden surfaces broaden our appreciation of the ties between animals and their habitats. Investigators plan to continue searching for morphological secrets that aid survival in the swirling waters of tropical reefs.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418982122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Fish use a 'jaw twist' to access more food on coral reefs

Scientists have taken a close look at certain reef fish and found something that no one expected. These underwater inhabitants can shift their jawbones in more ways than just up and down. The fish use a quick jaw twist in order to feed more effectively. Peter Wainwright from the University of California, Davis and his colleagues discovered this unusual trait while studying the Moorish idol (Zanclus cornutus), a striking species known for its long dorsal fin and bold stripes. The experts saw swift sideways motions that differ...

Australia’s long-lasting and severe drought, known as the “Big Dry,” has been persisting for years in some parts of the country and is devastating populations of Australia's iconic animals. 

The drought is shrinking greenery and with it, food and water for many animals like kangaroos, Koalas, emus, wombats, and echidnas. 

Unable to adapt to the drought while farmers work to reserve grazing areas for their livestock, wildlife in Australia are taking more risks, traveling farther, and venturing into more populated areas in search of food. 

As a result, wildlife rescuers are seeing an increase in traffic incidents from animal crossings and abandoned young. 

In the last three years, there has been a 20 percent increase in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emus-australian-drought/">wildlife traffic incidents</a>, according to insurance reports from Australia. 

Many drivers in North America don’t have to be reminded of the hazard of driving during peak deer season in the fall. 

Deer can do untold amounts of damage to a car, and in Australia, kangaroos pose a similar risk and drivers are being cautioned not to swerve when faced with a potential collision. 

“People don't want to hurt the animal because that's understandable, but sometimes you just need to learn you don't swerve, you just have to brake,” Australian farmer, Sandra Ireson, told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6340625/Perilous-times-Australia-wildlife-amid-severe-drought.html">Daily Mail</a>. “And you may have to injure the animal, which is disappointing but that's better than having a disastrous accident.”

The <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6340625/Perilous-times-Australia-wildlife-amid-severe-drought.html">Daily Mail</a> reported on the steep declines in wildlife populations due to the drought and stated that the animals are not able to adapt quickly enough to the changes. As a result, many populations are struggling to survive. 

Many animals are traveling outside of their known habitats and human-wildlife encounters are increasing. 

“We're finding a lot more wallabies with blindness because they're actually coming out into the open paddocks searching for food, and their eyes are unable to cope with full sunlight,” Rachel Walker, a wildlife rescuer told the Agence France-Presse. 

Since 2016, there has been a 52 percent increase in marsupial rescues, according to the rescue group <a href="https://www.wires.org.au/">WIRES</a>. 

In some parts of New South Wales, kangaroos have been particularly hard hit, with one ecologist reporting a 90 percent decline in the local kangaroo population. 

At this point, there is no telling when the big dry will be over, and climate change is projected to cause more droughts worldwide. 

With Australia's wildlife unable to cope with the changes, conservation measures will need to take into account wildlife populations as well as agricultural operations to preserve the country’s rich biodiversity while still allowing farming communities to keep their livelihoods.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Severe drought in Australia has led to serious declines in wildlife

Australia’s long-lasting and severe drought, known as the “Big Dry,”...

No need to feel guilty when you snack on "junk food" like fish sticks – at least, not on the environmental front. They’re surprisingly sustainable, according to a new study by the <a href="https://www.mcsuk.org/">Marine Conservation Society</a>.

The society has released a “Good Fish Finger Guide” on its website to help people choose snacks with the lowest negative impact on marine life.

“Consumers may not be aware that the majority of fish in retail own brand and branded fish fingers actually comes from sustainable sources,” said Rajina Gurung, a sustainable seafood advocate with MCS. “Some saver brands even turned out to be the most sustainable, showing that you do not have to pay a fortune for sustainability.”

Gurung and colleagues analyzed 48 different brands of fish sticks – called fish fingers in the UK – to determine what kinds of fish they use and where they get their supplies. 

They found that the fish sticks contained one or more of just four species: Atlantic cod, Pacific cod, haddock and Alaska pollock. The majority got their fish ingredients from sustainable sources, the study found.

So why don’t more customers know that? The problem is one of labeling, Gurung said.

Forty percent of the fish sticks brands didn’t have a credible eco-label, and only 19 percent included enough details for buyers to know where and how their fish ingredients were caught. But with a little digging, it wasn’t hard for Gurung and her team to find out more about their fish supplies.

“By and large most of the supermarkets and brands we were in contact with were forthcoming with providing the information regarding the origins of the fish within their fish fingers. We’re now considering focusing on other processed products that are available through retail or food service outlets,” she said. 

To find out more, visit the <a href="https://www.mcsuk.org/responsible-seafood/fish-finger-guide">Good Fish Finger Guide</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Save the oceans – eat more fish sticks

No need to feel guilty when you snack on "junk...

A new method of surveying whale populations using satellites could prove valuable for studying endangered whales in remote areas. 

As <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/whales-quiet-shipping-noise/">whales</a> face increasing threats from human activities, pollution, and climate change, it’s vital to monitor whale populations, especially those that are critically endangered. 

For example, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-atlantic-right-whales/">North Atlantic right whale,</a> of which there are thought to be only 450 left, is one of the most critically endangered large whale species on Earth. 

Monitoring these mega mammals is often easier said than done as many populations frequent inaccessible regions. 

But now, researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> have conducted a study using high-resolution satellite images to track four species of whale. 

“Whales live in all oceans,” said Hannah Cubaynes, the lead author of the study. “Many areas are difficult to access by boats or planes, the traditional means of monitoring whales. The ability to track whales without traveling to these remote and inaccessible areas, in a cost-effective way, will be of great benefit to conservation efforts for whales.”

The study was published in the journal Marine Mammal Science, and already the research has helped identify ten inaccessible whale populations that would benefit from satellite monitoring.

The researchers used images from <a href="https://www.maxar.com/">Maxar Technologies</a>’ DigitalGlobe's WorldView-3 satellite to target the known regions where certain species of whale are concentrated. 

The researchers analyzed seven expansive open ocean images taken by the satellite covering 5,000 kilometers squared of the ocean’s surface in total. 

Southern right whales were observed via satellite off the coast of Argentina, humpback whales were monitored near Hawaii, fin whales were in the Mediterranean, and grey whales were recorded off the coast of Mexico. 

“This is the most detailed imagery of whales captured by satellites to date,” said Cubaynes. “It's exciting that the improved resolution (now at 30 cm) reveals characteristic features, such as flippers and flukes, which can be seen in the images for the first time.”

Some species of whale were easier to identify than others because fin and grey whales have distinct coloring that contrasts the color of their surroundings. Humpbacks, on the other hand, blend in more and also are more agile in the water. 

“This new technology could be a game-changer in helping us to find whales remotely,” said Jennifer Jackson, a co-author of the study. “Critically endangered whale populations like the Chile-Peru right whale (thought to winter in Patagonia) could really benefit from this approach.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists use satellites to monitor endangered whale populations

A new method of surveying whale populations using satellites could...

A new project called the <a href="https://www.earthbiogenome.org/">Earth BioGenome Project</a> (EBP) has been launched in an effort to find new ways of protecting <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/protecting-biodiversity-political-action/">biodiversity</a> while sustaining human societies. The goal of the project is to sequence the genomes of all the plants, animals, fungi, and protozoa on the planet over a period of ten years.

The experts behind the project wrote in <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">PNAS</a>:

“Powerful advances in genome sequencing technology, informatics, automation, and artificial intelligence have propelled humankind to the threshold of a new beginning in understanding, utilizing, and conserving biodiversity.”

“For the first time in history, it is possible to efficiently sequence the genomes of all known species and to use genomics to help discover the remaining 80–90% of species that are currently hidden from science.”

The scientists explained that the outcomes of the EBP will inform a broad range of issues, including the impact of climate change on biodiversity and the conservation of endangered species and ecosystems.

In collaboration with the Natural History Museum, the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> is leading the initiative. Dr Tim Littlewood is the head of the Life Sciences department at the museum. 

“Whether you are interested in food, disease, or speciation, the history of how every organism on the planet has diverged and adapted to its environment is recorded in its genetic makeup,” said Dr. Littlewood. “How you then harness that is dependent on your ability to understand it.” 


In PNAS, the researchers suggested that life on Earth still holds an incredible amount of untapped potential. 

For example, invertebrates such as sponges, mollusks, and cone snails have contributed to several drugs approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treating cancer, viral infections, and pain. Fungi are the basis for fermentation to produce wine, beer, and bread, while plants are the basis of major industries, such as food and rubber.

“Unimaginable biological secrets are held in the genomes of the millions of known and unknown organisms on our planet. This ‘dark matter’ of biology could hold the key to unlocking the potential for sustaining planetary ecosystems on which we depend and provide life support systems for a burgeoning world population,” wrote the scientists.

The data collected for the Earth BioGenome Project will be made freely available in public databases.

The initiative is detailed in the paper “Earth BioGenome Project: Sequencing life for the future of life,” which is published in PNAS.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sequencing the DNA of every living creature to protect biodiversity

A new project called the Earth BioGenome Project (EBP) has...

The scientists who engineered the program that led to Sarah Manning and her clonal “sis-strahs” on the hit show Orphan Black have nothing on the marbled crayfish Procambaria virginalis. They may have managed to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/clone-woolly-mammoth/">clone</a> two lines of humans, but this species of crayfish is the only species of decapod crustacean to obligately clone itself. It appears to have developed this bizarre ability as a result of a genetic accident, possibly in captivity. And its strange reproductive talents—aided by careless humans—have resulted in crustacean invasions on three continents.

The best evidence shows that the story begins in 1995. A German aquarist and biologist purchased a bag of what he was told were “Texas crayfish” at an aquarium show in Frankfurt. He soon found that the specimens that he purchased did not require males to breed, and were instead parthenogenetic. That is, the all-female population created viable eggs without sperm from a male. 

Though parthenogenesis occurs in some lower species of crustacean, such as Daphnia, it is nearly absent from the 15,000 species of decapod crustaceans, which include shrimp, lobsters and crabs as well as crayfish. Several other species of crayfish appear to be facultatively parthenogenetic. That is, they may clone themselves under certain circumstances. But P. virginalis appears to be the only obligate cloning species. It cannot reproduce in any other way. 

By 2003, the so-called  “marmorkrebs”—German for “marbled crab,” after their marbled coloration—were no longer just an aquarium novelty. They had found their way into German waterways. A free-living population was discovered in southwestern Germany, presumably introduced by an overwhelmed hobbyist who did not know what to do with a tank full of crayfish that kept replicating themselves like mogwais under a sprinkler.

Following this alarming revelation, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/421806a">intensive studies</a> were initiated in an attempt to isolate the origins of these insidious creatures. They are believed to be an aberrant form of a U.S. species native to Florida and southern Georgia, the slough crayfish, Procambarus fallax—not Texan at all. Genetic analysis has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0467-9">confirmed their relation</a> and in fact, slough crayfish will mate with marbled crayfish in captivity. It just doesn’t do any good. The slough crayfish, which reproduces sexually in the wild, cannot successfully pass its genes along to the marbled crayfish. The marbled species already has more than enough of them. 

Unlike most animals, which are diploid, meaning that they possess two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent, the marbled crayfish is triploid. It possesses three sets of chromosomes, totalling 276. Two sets of 92 appear relatively identical and the third is slightly different. This may have occurred due to a mutation in which one parent passed down two sets of chromosomes instead of one or may have happened as a result of temperature shock in the egg stage, which can cause autotriplody. The species possesses 3.5 billion base pairs, making it larger than the human genome according to a recent study, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0467-9">the first to sequence a decapod crustacean genome</a>. 

<a href="https://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/2018/02/08/a-parthenogenetic-crayfish-reproduces-without-sex-is-it-a-new-species/">Some have questioned</a> whether this unique genetic status actually constitutes an incidence of speciation or not. P. virginalis does not occur in the wild—introduced or otherwise—in the U.S. And it cannot interbreed with P. fallax despite its possession of a similar genome. Yet, P. fallax is clearly the parent species and the two are nearly indistinguishable side by side. <a href="http://bio.biologists.org/content/early/2015/10/23/bio.014241">It has been proposed that epigenetic adaptations</a> have allowed the marbled crayfish to expand beyond its parents’ balmy range into the more temperate climes of Europe. 

This geographic separation and the inability to breed with the parent species do seem to support the notion that P. virginalis has in fact speciated. Whether a true species or not, its clonal habits should, at least per some versions of evolutionary theory, put the marbled crayfish at a disadvantage. It should be less able to adapt to disease and other environmental pressures due to its lack of genetic variation. Yet, its epigenetic capabilities have so far defied this rule of evolution. In fact, despite its genomic similarity, the marbled crayfish has demonstrated remarkable phenotypic variation, with different sized and colored specimens being found in different areas.

This evident flexibility has allowed the marbled crayfish to spread rapidly in the three decades since its introduction into the wild. Crayfish are omnivorous and eat voraciously, consuming anything from smaller fish, invertebrates, and their eggs to plants and debris. Their flexible diet makes them a prime candidate for invasion of new territories. The additional reproductive capacity of this species further increases its invasive potential. 

Over its three year lifespan, it may produce some seven batches of eggs, each containing hundreds of clones. The marmorkreb is now found in Sweden, Ukraine, Estonia, Croatia, Hungary, Italy, and the Czech Republic as well as in Germany. And populations have been found in Japan and Madagascar as well. These introductions, like any species invasion, are alarming for a number of reasons. In Europe, they may herald the out-competition of native species and the transmission of Aphanomyces astaci, known as crayfish plague. 

North American species are resistant to the pathogen, but it can devastate populations of crayfish in other parts of the world. Madagascar, a delicate island ecosystem already under threat, has seven native species of crayfish that may be quickly displaced by the rapidly reproducing marmorkrebs. 

The European Union <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32014R1143">banned</a> their sale and keeping in 2014, with exceptions for research. This research may be the saving grace of an otherwise pestilent species. Scientists have begun using the marbled crayfish as a model organism and have even used its epigenetic plasticity as a way of understanding cancer cells, which also survive by switching on and off various parts of the genome.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The strange problem of the self-cloning crayfish

The scientists who engineered the program that led to Sarah...

Earlier this week, China announced its decision to weaken a ban on the trade of rhino and tiger parts. Parts from the captive animals will now be legalized for specific scientific or medical uses. 

According to the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/">BBC</a>, tiger bones and rhino horns are used in China to treat a variety of medical conditions - such as fever, gout, insomnia, and meningitis - despite the fact that there is no scientific evidence to prove that they are effective for these ailments. 

Critics say that China's new legislation will not be easy to enforce and that it will lead to an increase in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/asian-lion-bone-market-poaching/">illegal poaching.</a>

Also this week, a major study by the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/">World Wildlife Fund</a> (WWF) has revealed that 60 percent of the world’s mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles have been wiped out since the 1970s as a result of human activities.

The WWF said in a statement that the move by China is an “enormous setback” to efforts to protect the animals. 

“Even if restricted to antiques and use in hospitals, this trade would increase confusion by consumers and law enforcers as to which products are and are not legal, and would likely expand the markets for other tiger and rhino products,” the WWF said.

Kate Brooks is the director of a new documentary film, The Last Animals, which will be released in the United States next spring. The film is focused on the efforts of activists who are fighting to end poaching and protect the world's remaining rhinos and elephants.

“Governments are increasingly acknowledging that there is a convergence between the criminal networks involved in wildlife trafficking, human trafficking, and drugs and weapons smuggling,” Brooks told <a href="http://time.com/5438770/illegal-wildlife-trade-last-animals/?utm_source=emailshare&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_campaign=email-share-article&amp;utm_content=20181031">Time</a>.

“The poachers themselves are disposable foot soldiers. It’s hard not to feel compassion for them too, knowing they are being exploited. But they are going armed into protected spaces and killing people, as well as animals.”

Brooks said that poaching is primarily an issue of organized crime. According to Time, the illegal wildlife trade is worth $23 billion a year, and is responsible for the deaths of 7,000 rhinos and 200,000 elephants in the last decade.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

China to weaken its ban on the trade of rhino and tiger parts

Earlier this week, China announced its decision to weaken a...

A new poll, commissioned by <a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/">World Animal Protection</a>, shows a meaningful shift in the way travelers view inhumane animal activities such as elephant rides, swimming with the dolphins excursions, and animal selfies.

For all ages, the poll found a 9 percent drop in the number of people who believe elephant riding is acceptable compared to three years ago. Over 80 percent of tourists stated they would prefer to view animals in their natural environment.

The poll also found that millennial travelers were the most compassionate age group. Jennifer Yellin, Senior Vice President at Northstar, a research firm that conducted focus groups for World Animal Protection said in a <a href="https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/next-generation-of-travellers-are-opting-out-of-harmful-animal-activities-694471931.html">press release</a>, "There is a relationship between age and travel activity choice when it comes to animal welfare. For example, people under 35 are more aware of animal cruelty issues. This age segment, more so than older travelers, voice greater interest in seeing animals in their natural habitats rather than forced interactions like swimming with dolphins."

Young people are known for their interest in traveling and enjoying experiences over material possessions. The desire to have exciting experiences can draw people towards inhumane animal attractions, which often promise hands-on opportunities to play with and take photos of wild animals. Despite this, young people seem to be conscientious of animal welfare when making traveling decisions.

Animal attractions are a common site throughout the world. To unsuspecting travelers, these attractions may seem like a safe haven for wild animals. After all, inhumane animal attractions often try to market themselves this way by using words such as “sanctuary” and by claiming they rescued the animals.

A<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0138939"> comprehensive study</a> that examined the welfare of animals in 24 different types of wildlife attractions found that 14 attraction types had negative animal welfare and conservation impacts including captive dolphin interactions, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/captive-elephants-shorter-lives/">elephant</a> parks, and tiger encounters.

The elephant parks in Asia are a particularly prominent animal attraction. There has been a<a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.org.au/sites/default/files/au_files/taken_for_a_ride_report.pdf"> 30 percent rise</a> in the number of elephant attractions in Thailand since 2010. These attractions offer opportunities to ride, touch and bathe elephants. 

According to<a href="https://www.worldanimalprotection.dk/sites/default/files/se_files/elephant_ride_report_a4.pdf"> World Animal Protection</a>, elephants used for rides undergo a cruel breaking-in process where they are isolated, restrained and struck at a young age to make them accept human riders. A<a href="https://animalnepal.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/report-an-elephant-is-not-a-machine.pdf"> survey</a> by Animal Nepal of 42 elephant safaris found that over 80 percent of the elephants lived in unsuitable conditions.

The new poll shows a promising change in consumer attitude towards animal attractions, especially among the new wave of travelers.

"It's very encouraging to know that young travelers are increasingly considering the wellbeing of animals in their plans.  We know that vacationers don't want to harm wildlife, in fact polling shows that most people participate in harmful wildlife attractions because they like animals.  This movement away from captive wildlife attractions is about education and working with travel companies to improve policies," says Josey Kitson, Executive Director of World Animal Protection Canada in the press release.

The poll comes a few years after TripAdvisor <a href="https://www.tripadvisor.com/blog/our-ongoing-commitment-to-animal-welfare/">announced</a> that they are no longer selling tickets to attractions where travelers can touch wild animals and Instagram <a href="https://help.instagram.com/859615207549041">announced</a> that wildlife hashtags will come with a notification warning about potential animal abuse.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Young people are increasingly rejecting inhumane animal activities

A new poll, commissioned by World Animal Protection, shows a...

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/massive-dinosaurs-sneak-prey/">dinosaurs</a> were a successful and dominant species for the 180 or so million years of their existence thanks to a combination of unique traits that provided an evolutionary advantage. 

One of these traits has to do with breathing, and a new study has unlocked the mysteries of how dinosaur lungs were especially suited to their low oxygen environment. 

Oxygen levels 65 million years ago were much lower than they are today, and reports have suggested that there was only half as much oxygen present in the atmosphere as there is now.

Surprisingly, even though there was little oxygen, dinosaurs were quick, agile, and ruled the food chain. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.manchester.ac.uk/">University of Manchester</a> examined the lung cavities of dinosaur fossils to better understand how dinosaurs were able to thrive on prehistoric Earth. 

The study, published in the journal Royal Society Open Science, shows that evolution outfitted dinosaurs with highly specialized lungs, similar to the lungs of birds today which provided maximum breathing efficiency. 

“Birds and mammals are highly active and evolved a way of living that requires a lot of oxygen, so their lungs are complicated,” Robert Brocklehurst, the lead author of the study told <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2183495-bird-like-lungs-may-have-helped-dinosaurs-rule-the-world/">New Scientist</a>.“Lizards and snakes have simpler lungs – they don’t need to get a lot of oxygen out of the air because they’re not doing anything with it.”

If the very first dinosaurs evolved lungs that were more bird-like, the researchers say that it could help explain the prosperous reign of the dinosaurs. 

The researchers first examined the empty chest cavities of an alligator and ostrich, both of which have ancestral ties to the dinosaurs but who’s lung structures are very different. 

An alligator’s lung cavity is smooth but for the ostrich, its lung cavity is furrowed, rigid and provides a lot of support. 

“The ribs are very much embedded in the lung tissue, and that gives it a lot of structural support,” says Brocklehurst.

Next, the researchers took CT scans of 29 bird, 16 dinosaur species, and four alligators to compare lung cavities, and the dinosaur lung structure was much more similar to that of birds. 

“We thought maybe some of the dinosaurs would have lungs more like birds, and some would be less similar. But basically everything just looked like the birds,” said Brocklehurst. “I was a bit surprised at quite how similar to birds some of the early dinosaurs were.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaurs had special lungs to survive in air with little oxygen

The dinosaurs were a successful and dominant species for the...

A new study has revealed that over 100 working dogs have tested positive for a potentially deadly tropical disease that is spread by a blood-sucking triatomine, or “kissing bug.” The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dogs-diagnose-malaria/">dogs</a> were on duty for the United States federal government when they contracted the disease, which could become a threat across the country.

The canines have been infected with the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, which causes Chagas disease and may lead to heart problems and even death. Chagas was once confined to Mexico, Central America, and South America, but has now moved into regions of the U.S.

Alyssa Meyers is a PhD candidate at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a> who presented the findings.

“We were surprised to find that so many dogs, including those working outside of the kissing bug range, had been exposed to the parasite T. cruzi, and were exhibiting heart abnormalities associated with the disease,” said Meyers.

The T. cruzi parasite is transmitted through the feces of kissing bugs, and infected humans or dogs usually show signs of a fever and fatigue. However, even infections that produce no symptoms can cause heart complications, such as an enlarged heart, followed by sudden death.

According to Meyers, kissing bugs thrive in locations with high concentrations of hosts, leaving dogs in training facilities at a higher risk for exposure. Dogs being conditioned for homeland security are trained at facilities in Texas and Virginia - two states that are known to have populations of kissing bugs that carry the Chagas parasite.

“From previous studies we knew that shelter and stray dogs were at risk for exposure, likely because of their time spent outdoors, and perhaps the dogs working along the U.S.-Mexico border who spend long hours outside often at night might be equally exposed,” said Meyers. “We were not expecting infection in dogs that spend most of their time working along the border with Canada or in airports in Nebraska.”

After evidence of Chagas emerged in dogs working on the Mexican border, Meyers and the Texas A&amp;M team collaborated with experts at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to collect and test blood samples from 1,660 working dogs in 43 states. The canine duties included border patrol, search and rescue, detecting drugs and explosives, and helping to guard federal buildings. 

The testing revealed that 121 dogs, which represented over seven percent of those tested, had antibodies to T. cruzi that indicated an ongoing infection. Many of the infected dogs showed signs of heart abnormalities that are associated with Chagas and can be fatal.

Meyers said that uncertainty about where the infected dogs picked up the parasite makes it difficult to clearly estimate the human risks. Most of the human cases that have been diagnosed in the U.S. are believed to have originated in Latin America, but cases of locally-acquired infections have been documented in many southern states including Arizona, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Texas. 

Meyers added that the discovery of Chagas infections in working dogs does not necessarily mean there is an increasing threat to people. 

“A positive dog usually signals that infected kissing bugs are in the environment,” said Meyers. “But the risk to humans is likely not equal to dogs, in part because dogs have a tendency to eat bugs that could be infected with the parasite and dogs spend more time outdoors.”

Furthermore, while kissing bugs in Mexico and Central America have been found to infest houses, studies show the varieties found in the U.S. are less likely to invade homes, which significantly lowers the risk of human exposure.

The research was presented at the 67th <a href="https://www.astmh.org/annual-meeting">American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (ASTMH) Annual Meeting</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Federal working dogs are testing positive for a dangerous disease

A new study has revealed that over 100 working dogs...

Most animals are hurt primarily by habitat loss.  Trees are cut down; prairies are plowed into fields, poisons leak into water.  

Sometimes the situation is different.  Sometimes the trees are left as pillars of an empty cathedral, bathed in eerie silence.  So is the case with the Atlantic Forest of eastern Brazil and Paraguay. With less name recognition and much less land size than other iconic forests, the Atlantic Forest is often overlooked but it’s an amazing place quickly being emptied of its wondrous inhabitants.  Hunting is one of the major causes of biodiversity loss there, and in some areas many of the trees are left standing, the habitat though shrunk is somewhat intact.

The Atlantic Forest of Brazil is very different from the region’s more famous <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/president-brazil-amazon-rainforest/">Amazon Rainforest</a>.  For starters, the forest is located on the Atlantic side of Brazil, a place easier to access than the remote interior, also a region more heavily populated.  

The area of the Atlantic Forest was first colonized in the 1500s and it’s much closer to large human population hubs than western Brazil.  In fact, the Atlantic Forest is the first environment encountered by Portuguese colonists upon arrival in Brazil. Over 85 percent of the Atlantic Forest has been destroyed.  The remaining portion of the original forest still stands but suffers from over-exploitation.  What is called the Atlantic Forest is actually a mix of different habitat types.

The ‘forest’ can be Restinga forests, which are usually dominated by densely growing, short shrubby trees that stabilize normally windblown coastal dunes.  Restinga forests also sometimes grow in clumps of taller trees amidst the dunes, creating a savanna-like habitat. There are also seasonal tropical moist forests, which can vary from lowland to submontane and montane depending on the elevation the forest is found at.  Tropical moist forests of course are much hotter in their lowland incarnations than their montane forms at higher elevations. There are also dry Atlantic Forests that transition between the moist forests and the Caatinga desert to the northeast as well as the Cerrado savannas to the east of the forest.  The whole of the Atlantic Forest habitats is incredibly biodiverse and very unique. 

According to <a href="https://www.globalspecies.org/hotspots/display/1">Global Species</a>, the Atlantic Forest contains 20,000 plant species, 40 percent of which are found nowhere else on earth.  There are also 950 bird types found in the Atlantic Forest, including a few threatened parrot species. Some of the better known animals still living in the Atlantic Forest include Golden Lion Tamarins, a small orange monkey that as a child I wanted to trade my brother for on a trip to the Denver Zoo.  The monkey has a small, remarkably human-like dark face surrounded by a mane of leonine hair. According to the <a href="https://www.denverzoo.org/animals/golden-lion-tamarin">Denver Zoo</a>, by 1971 there were only 200 Golden Lion Tamarins left in the wild.  Smithsonian’s <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/golden-lion-tamarin">National Zoo</a> reports that now there are approximately 3,200 Golden Lion Tamarins in the wild, a third of which are descended from captive breeding programs.  Despite the rise in population, there are still too few of the tamarins to feel secure in their future and some animals of the Atlantic Forest are doing much worse.

<a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/09/180925140428.htm">Science Daily</a> reported last month on new research from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> that tells the story of the decline of the Atlantic Forests, which originally measured about 1.1 million square kilometers (approximately 272,000,000 acres).  The forest is now merely 0.143 million square kilometers in size. Because the size is smaller, proximity to humans and developed areas has an increased impact on species living in the remaining forest; this is called edge effect.  

The new research on the Atlantic Forest was carried out by Dr Juliano Bogoni of the <a href="http://www5.usp.br/english/?lang=en">University of São Paulo, Brazil</a>, Professor Carlos Peres from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA), and collaborators from the <a href="http://structure.ufsc.br/">Federal University of Santa Catarina of Brazil</a>.  The researchers analyzed populations of 500 mammals found in the Atlantic Forest region.  The results showed marked declines in many mammal populations, but some groups declined more than others.  

Among the most negatively impacted were large predators like jaguars and pumas as well as larger herbivores.  This trend has been shown in other parts of the neotropics. A classic example is Barro Colorado, an island in Panama that was created by flooding when the Panama Canal was created.  Barro Colorado is the location of the Smithsonian’s Tropical Research Institution and one of the most intensively studied places in the tropics. Jaguars and other large predators were some of the first to leave the island after it was created, changing the dynamics of a once larger piece of forest.  These examples from the tropics show the limitations of setting aside pieces of land for the protection of large mammals. Edge effects aren’t the only problems facing the small pieces of Atlantic Forest left though. 

<a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/09/180912202418.htm">Science Daily</a> reported on another piece of research in September.  The research, carried out by Tiago da Silveira Vasconcelos of São Paulo State University, Brazil and others, looked at the potential future of frogs and toads in the Atlantic Forest region.  There are currently 550 known species of frogs and toads known in the Atlantic Forest, 80 percent of which are found nowhere else on earth. Researchers looked at the distribution of 350 species in the Atlantic forest and another 150 species in nearby habitat.  With data in hand, researchers then made estimations as to the future for these species taking into account climate change predictions. 

Some species in the Cerrado area near the Atlantic Forest look like they’ll fare well in the future of a warmer climate, their habitat may even expand.  The expansion of one habitat comes at the cost of others though. 10 percent of frog and toad species in the Atlantic Forest may face extinction in the time period between 2050 and 2070.  As even more species go extinct in the Atlantic Forest, the empty quiet among the trees becomes more eerie. Even if some of the forest itself may remain intact in protected areas, too much may already have been destroyed to save more than the shadow of a once healthy ecosystem in the Atlantic Forest.                

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

What remains of the Atlantic Forest after destruction, exploitation

Most animals are hurt primarily by habitat loss.  Trees are...

While not quite as big as a full-grown elephant, the long-extinct elephant bird was a behemoth of an animal.

Some species of elephant bird were 10 feet tall and weighed 1,000 pounds, but the birds were driven to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/warming-mountain-birds-extinction/">extinction</a> due to hunting, habitat loss, and changes in climate. Elephant birds lived on the Island of Madagascar and went extinct anywhere from 500 to 1,000 years ago. 

Very little is known about these massive creatures, but a recent study of elephant bird skulls has yielded some surprising revelations, including that the birds were likely nocturnal. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin </a>conducted a study examining elephant bird skulls and compared them to other close relatives of the extinct species. 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 

“Studying brain shape is a really useful way of connecting ecology -- the relationship between the bird and the environment -- and anatomy,” said Christopher Torres, the leader of the research. “Discoveries like these give us tremendous insights into the lives of these bizarre and poorly understood birds.”


[caption id="attachment_1861448" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/elephant-bird.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861448" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/elephant-bird-833x1024.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="860" /></a> Image Credit: John Maisano, University of Texas at Austin Jackson School of Geosciences[/caption]

Because so little research exists on the birds it was assumed that elephant birds were similar to large flightless birds alive today like the emu. 

The researchers analyzed the skulls from two species of elephant bird and used CT-imaging to create a digital brain reconstruction called an endocast. An endocast is a 3D model of the space within a cavity. 

Bird skulls wrap tightly around their brains and so endocasts provide researchers with an in-depth look at the different regions of the brain and its shaped. 

The elephant bird endocasts were then compared to endocasts of several close relatives of the species including the Kiwi, a flightless bird native to New Zealand. 

The optic lobe of the elephant bird was very small which came as a surprise to the researchers. It was similar to that of a Kiwi’s optic lobe, which suggests that the elephant bird was nocturnal and had limited vision. 

“No one has ever suspected that elephant birds were nocturnal,” said Torres. “The few studies that speculated on what their behavior was like explicitly assumed they were active during the day.”

The endocasts also gave the researchers a clue as to where the elephant birds lived as the larger species of bird had a large olfactory bulb which suggests that it lived in forests. 

The study sheds new light on a long since extinct bird, and by taking a closer look at the species researchers can get a better idea of what life was like on Madagascar long ago.  

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: John Maisano for the University of Texas at Austin Jackson School of Geosciences

Elephant birds were likely nocturnal, new research shows

While not quite as big as a full-grown elephant, the...

A new study has revealed that insect repellents containing picaridin are potentially lethal to salamanders. For the first time, the researchers have found that the presence of these repellents in surface waters are actually increasing the numbers of adult <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/florida-drone-combat-mosquitoes/">mosquitoes</a> by killing off salamanders, which provide mosquito control by feeding on the larvae.

Insect repellents are developed to defend against mosquito-borne diseases like dengue, Zika, and West Nile virus. The researchers set out to investigate the impact of two common insect repellents on salamander and mosquito larvae.

Study co-author Emma Rosi is a freshwater ecologist at <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a>.

“Use of insect repellent is on the rise globally,” said Rosi. “Chemicals in repellents enter aquatic ecosystems through sewage effluent and are now common in surface waters. We set out to understand the impact of repellent pollution on both larval mosquitoes and the larval salamanders that prey on them.”


The study was focused on Repel 100 Insect Repellent, which contains DEET, and Sawyer Premium Insect Repellent, which contains picaridin. In a lab, mosquito larvae and spotted salamander larvae that had just hatched were exposed to three varying concentrations of the chemicals, as well as a control treatment.


“The concentrations in our experiments are conservative; we prepared them based on unadulterated commercial formulations, not concentrations of pure active compounds,” said Rosi.

The mosquito larvae were not affected by the treatments and matured without any limitations. However, after four days of exposure to the repellent with picaridin, salamanders began to display signs of impaired development such as tail deformities. By day 25, between 45 and 65 percent of salamander larvae exposed to picaridin died.

“Our findings demonstrate that larval salamanders suffer severe mortality and developmental deformities when exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of commercially available repellent containing the active ingredient picaridin,” said study co-author Barbara Han.

“The expediency of salamander mortality was disconcerting. When studying the effects of a chemical on an amphibian, we usually look for a suite of abnormalities. We couldn't collect these data because the salamanders died so quickly.”

Standard tests known as LC50 tests are used to define a chemical's environmental toxicity. Based on one life stage of a single species, these tests measure how long it takes for half of a test population to die with increasing exposure to a chemical over four days.

Study co-author Alexander Reisinger is an assistant professor at <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida, Gainesville</a>.

“We observed heavy salamander mortality with picaridin, but not until after the fourth day of exposure. By the LC50 measure, picaridin would be deemed ‘safe,’ but clearly, this is not the case. If a substance doesn't kill organisms within the first few days of exposure, it can still be toxic and have ecological impacts,” explained Professor Reisinger.


Study lead author Rafael Almeida is a postdoctoral researcher at Cornell University who conducted the research as a visiting PhD student at the Cary Institute. 

“The amount of repellents entering waterways peaks seasonally. If amphibians are exposed during a sensitive life stage, entire cohorts could perish. The population would not have a chance to recover until the following year. Meanwhile, mosquitoes would continue to reproduce. It suggests a negative feedback loop,” said Almeida.

“The effects of repellents containing DEET and picaridin need to be studied further to determine the extent to which these chemicals disrupt aquatic ecosystems and potentially increase mosquito-borne disease risk worldwide.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Biology Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: John P. Clare

Insect repellent is killing salamanders that control mosquito numbers

A new study has revealed that insect repellents containing picaridin...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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