The Mediterranean has long been a crossroads of trade and tourism, yet its deepest pocket, the Calypso Deep, seemed beyond the reach of day-to-day pollution. 



That hope ended earlier this year when researchers reported plastic bags, glass shards, and crumpled cans resting 16,770 feet beneath the waves in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Sea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ionian Sea</a>.



Their survey logged hundreds of items on the trench floor. By any measure, it is one of the densest concentrations of trash ever recorded in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-ocean-buffet-big-fish-are-surprisingly-reliant-on-the-twilight-zone/">dark zone</a> of the ocean.



The discovery arrives as global attention continues to focus on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprise-study-some-scientists-call-for-halting-ocean-plastic-cleanup-efforts/">plastic waste</a>. 



Videos of snagged sea turtles and bottle-strewn beaches have already ignited public concern, but those images barely hint at what sinks far below the reach of sunlight.



Now evidence from Calypso Deep shows that even the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/calypso" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean’s farthest recesses</a> are filling up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calypso-deep-is-full-of-plastic-waste">Calypso Deep is full of plastic waste</h2>



The team used the submersible <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSV_Limiting_Factor" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Limiting Factor</a> to reach the bottom of a kidney-shaped trench roughly 12.4 miles long and 3.1 miles across. 



During a 43-minute trek near the seafloor of the Calypso Deep, cameras captured thousands of objects per square mile, mostly plastic waste discarded by humans.



A single straight-line pass of 2,130 feet was enough to confirm that human trash blankets large stretches of the basin. Most pieces were flexible plastics; glass, metal, and paper rounded out the list. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/marine-trash_Calypso-Deep-region_Mediterranean_study-map_UBarcelona_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/marine-trash_Calypso-Deep-region_Mediterranean_study-map_UBarcelona_1s.webp" alt="(A) General location of the Calypso Deep (box) in the Ionian Sea. PP: Peloponnese Peninsula. (B) Close up and general bathymetry of Calypso Deep (box) and surrounding area. For depth ranges, see color scale. (C) Detailed bathymetry of Calypso Deep with depth contours in meters. The position of the deepest point is indicated by the white dot, while the dive area is indicated by the red dot. Credit: University of Barcelona" class="wp-image-1976573"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">(A) General location of the Calypso Deep (box) in the Ionian Sea. PP: Peloponnese Peninsula. (B) Close up and general bathymetry of Calypso Deep (box) and surrounding area. For depth ranges, see color scale. (C) Detailed bathymetry of Calypso Deep with depth contours in meters. The position of the deepest point is indicated by the white dot, while the dive area is indicated by the red dot. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Barcelona</figcaption></figure>



Even without animals caught on camera, the piles raise alarms because deep-sea communities recover slowly from disturbance.



Calypso Deep lies about 37 miles west of the Peloponnese coast inside the Hellenic Trench, a zone of steep, stepped walls prone to earthquakes. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-waste-rides-currents">Plastic waste rides currents</h2>



Weak currents, usually under 0.8 inches per second and rarely reaching 7 inches per second, let debris settle instead of sweeping it away.



“It comes from various sources, both terrestrial and marine. It could have arrived by various routes, including long-distance transport by ocean currents or direct dumping,” explains <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/directori/?accio=SEL&amp;id=v759w8s35bo5v72r&amp;lang=ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miquel Canals</a>, professor at the Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics at the University of Barcelona.



“Some light waste, such as plastics, comes from the coast and escapes to Calypso Deep, just about 37 miles away. Certain plastics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-bag-bans-have-drastically-reduced-ocean-pollution/">like bags</a>, drift just above the seabed until they are partially or completely buried or break down into smaller fragments," Canals continued.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/marine-trash_Calypso-Deep-region_Mediterranean_litter-photos_UBarcelona_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/marine-trash_Calypso-Deep-region_Mediterranean_litter-photos_UBarcelona_1s.webp" alt="Examples of identified litter items with category attribution per material type (cf. Table 2). (A) Plastic bag, J3. (B) Plastic heavy-duty sack, J36. (C) Plastic sheet, J67. (D) Plastic food container made of hard plastic, J225. (E) Plastic heavy-duty sack, J36. (F) Plastic bag, J3 (G) Cups and lids of hard plastic, J227. (H) Plastic rope &gt; 1 cm in diameter, J49. (I) Paper cartons/Tetrapak (non-milk), J151. (J) Metal drink can, J175. (K) Glass bottle. Note sediment shadow with side scouring downwards of the bottle J200. (L) Plastic drink bottle. Credit: University of Barcelona" class="wp-image-1976569"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of identified litter items with category attribution per material type. (A) Plastic bag, J3. (B) Plastic heavy-duty sack, J36. (C) Plastic sheet, J67. (D) Plastic food container made of hard plastic, J225. (E) Plastic heavy-duty sack, J36. (F) Plastic bag, J3 (G) Cups and lids of hard plastic, J227. (H) Plastic rope &gt; 1 cm in diameter, J49. (I) Paper cartons/Tetrapak (non-milk), J151. (J) Metal drink can, J175. (K) Glass bottle. Note sediment shadow with side scouring downwards of the bottle J200. (L) Plastic drink bottle. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Barcelona</figcaption></figure>



Rivers, wind, and ship traffic all feed the stream of refuse heading offshore. As algae and other organisms cling to floating polymers, the added weight turns buoyant scraps into sinking hazards. The trench’s closed shape then locks the pieces in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calypso-deep-as-a-plastic-graveyard">Calypso Deep as a plastic graveyard</h2>



Surface eddies often corral floating trash into the trench. When these eddies form over the Calypso Trench, some debris slowly falls to the bottom, aided by degradation and ballasting processes that increase its density. 



Surface currents can also carry debris northward from the Adriatic Sea through the Strait of Otranto and from waters off northwestern Greece. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/marine-trash_Calypso-Deep-region_Mediterranean_3D-model_UBarcelona_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/marine-trash_Calypso-Deep-region_Mediterranean_3D-model_UBarcelona_1s.webp" alt="(A) 3D model generated from a subset of video frames by reference to a litter item of known size shown in B. The white dashed line in A represents the camera frames along the Deep Submergence Vehicle (DSV) Limiting Factor moving path, whereas the red dashed line represents the frames counted between two items identified on the seabed. (B) Accumulation of litter items in the inner Calypso Deep with a litter item of known size (12 cm) used as a reference for 3D model generation. Credit: University of Barcelona" class="wp-image-1976567"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">(A) 3D model generated from a subset of video frames by reference to a litter item of known size shown in B. The white dashed line in A represents the camera frames along the Deep Submergence Vehicle (DSV) Limiting Factor moving path, whereas the red dashed line represents the frames counted between two items identified on the seabed. (B) Accumulation of litter items in the inner Calypso Deep with a litter item of known size (12 cm) used as a reference for 3D model generation. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Barcelona</figcaption></figure>



The same circular flows that drive marine life cycles are now channeling waste into permanent graveyards at the very bottom of Earth's deepest bodies of water.



<a href="https://web.ub.edu/ca/web/actualitat/w/a-sea-of-rubbish-ocean-floor-landfills-?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earlier work in 2021</a> showed the Strait of Messina carrying the world’s heaviest load of undersea garbage, confirming that the Mediterranean is especially at risk.



“We have also found evidence of boats dumping bags of rubbish, indicated by piles of assorted waste followed by an almost straight furrow," said Canals, expressing his frustration.



That is why the bottom of the Calypso Deep is littered with humans' plastic waste, and also why the problem will do nothing but continue to worsen.



"Unfortunately, when it comes to the Mediterranean, it is fair to say that ‘not a single inch of it is clean.’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here?</h2>



Unlike beaches and coastlines, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/99-percent-of-the-deep-ocean-floor-has-still-never-been-seen-by-humans/">ocean floor</a> remains largely out of sight, making it difficult to build social and political momentum for its conservation. 



Yet what settles at the bottom can influence marine life, food webs, fisheries, climate feedback loops, and even geological stability.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mediterranean-nearly-lost-all-of-its-water-6-million-years-ago/">The Mediterranean</a> is an enclosed sea, surrounded by humanity, with intense maritime traffic and widespread fishing activity.



“Scientists, communicators, journalists, influencers - everyone with a platform - must work together. The problem is vast, even if it is not directly visible, and we cannot ignore it," Canals implored.



The trail of refuse from shorelines to Calypso Deep underlines a plain truth: plastics and other debris do not vanish once tossed aside. They ride currents, sink in stages, and ultimately collect in the planet’s most secluded hollows. 



The evidence provided by this research should galvanize global efforts - especially in the Mediterranean - to curb dumping, particularly of plastics, in line with the pending <a href="https://www.globalplasticlaws.org/un-global-plastics-treaty" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UN Global Plastics Treaty</a>.



From the North Atlantic’s first recorded litter in 1975 to the record densities documented across the Mediterranean today, the pattern remains the same - human waste reaches everywhere water flows.



We must do more, we must do better, and we must do it now.



-----



Thanks to the leaders of this research team - Miquel Canals of the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a>, Georg Hanke of the European Commission’s <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/about/departments-and-executive-agencies/joint-research-centre_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joint Research Centre</a>, François Galgani of <a href="https://www.ifremer.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IFREMER</a>, and Victor Vescovo of <a href="https://caladanoceanic.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caladan Oceanic</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X25000852">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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Scientists make disturbing discovery on the deepest parts of the seafloor: "Not a single inch of it is clean"

The Mediterranean has long been a crossroads of trade and tourism, yet its deepest pocket, the Calypso Deep, seemed beyond the reach of day-to-day pollution. That hope ended earlier this year when researchers reported plastic bags, glass shards, and crumpled cans resting 16,770 feet beneath the waves in the Ionian Sea. Their survey logged hundreds of items on the trench floor. By any measure, it is one of the densest concentrations of trash ever recorded in the dark zone of the ocean. The discovery arrives as global...

As cities around the world are experiencing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-setting-heat-waves/">record breaking summer temperatures</a>, a new study has found that climate models are drastically underestimating future warming trends and temperatures could double what has been predicted. 

An international team of researchers reviewed warm periods in Earth’s history over the past three and a half million years and compared carbon levels to current measurements in order to better understand the impact of even a two-degree temperature rise. 

The Paris Accord was formed under the goal of limiting global warming to below two degrees Fahrenheit. 

The results were published in the journal Nature Geoscience.

“Climate models appear to be trustworthy for small changes, such as for low-emission scenarios over short periods, say over the next few decades out to 2100,” Katrin Meissner, a lead author of the study, told <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/06/global-temperature-rises-could-be-double-those-predicted-by-climate-modelling">The Guardian</a>. “But as the change gets larger or more persistent ... it appears they underestimate climate change.”

For the study, the researchers studied the Holocene thermal maximum 5,000-9,000 years ago, the last interglacial period 116,000 to 129,000 years ago, and the mid-Pliocene which occurred three million years ago. 

Both the Holocene and interglacial warming was caused by changes in the Earth’s orbit, but during the mid-Pliocene, the atmosphere had similar levels of carbon dioxide to what we have today which makes it an excellent comparison for predicting future climate change. 

“During that time, the temperatures were much warmer than what our models are predicting and the sea levels were much higher,” said Meissner 

The problem is that warming today is happening at a faster rate than any of those ancient warming periods which could be one reason current climate models fall short. 

If temperatures were to rise by two degrees, the researchers said that it could submerge entire countries in the Pacific. 

The study shows that global climate change may be much more severe than any current models are predicting which further instills the need for worldwide policies that cap emissions to mitigate the impacts of global warming. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global temperature increases may double what models predicted

As cities around the world are experiencing record breaking summer...

Trump-era politics have put environmental policy on the back burner of national news, policy, and conversation. To many, his cutting of environmental regulations, monitoring, and funding (just to name a few of his environmentally deteriorating decisions) spell out doom for humanity’s race against climate change. However, new hope may be on the way to Congress. 

Last Tuesday, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, a young Latina democratic socialist, beat Joe Crowley, a longtime US representative and democratic party leader, in the New York primaries. It was a win that CNN deemed “the most shocking upset of a rollicking political season.” She is almost certain to continue on to Congress to represent the state’s overwhelmingly blue 14th district. Although we won’t speak on the rest of her policies, her environmental agenda which she dubs the “Green New Deal” could begin making the environment a political priority once again. 

One of the best things about Ocasio-Cortez’s victory may be pushing tough environmental policies back onto the national stage. Especially when most sitting Democrats in congress have not been pushing the issue as aggressively as scientists deem necessary. In fact, Ocasio-Cortez’s plan is the only one that strictly abides by the scientific consensus on the timeline in which we must take action to prevent catastrophic climate events. Her plan would be the most progressive to date of any current congressperson. Will Congress be receptive to her ideas? It’s too soon to say, but environmental enthusiasts should take comfort that Ocasio-Cortez will help revitalize momentum toward environmentally conscious legislation. 

“We need more environmental hardliners in Congress,” she told <a href="http://inthesetimes.com/">In These Times </a>magazine last week. “We need a Marshall Plan for renewable energy in the United States. The idea that the Democratic Party needs to be moderate is what’s holding us back on this.”

Ocasio-Cortez’s environmental goal listed out in her plan is actually in agreement with the 1,400 U.S. mayors who pledged to convert their cities to zero-emission energy sources by 2035 after President Donald Trump pulled the United States out of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-decision-paris-climate-agreement/">Paris Climate Agreement</a>. However, this only accounts for 41% of the country’s electricity use; Ocasio-Cortez seeks to make that number 100% with her New Green Deal. 

With a degree in economics, her plan heavily relies on shifting economic structure to support sustainable energy sources.

“The Green New Deal we are proposing will be similar in scale to the mobilization efforts seen in World War II or the Marshall Plan,” she told the <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/">Huffington Post</a>. 

To put it simply, Ocasio-Cortez’s Green New Deal would follow in FDR’s footsteps of economic stimulus but be dedicated to building a more environmentally sustainable country, complete with modernized high-paying jobs for Americans whose livelihoods may be threatened by global climate change. 

“We must again invest in the development, manufacturing, deployment, and distribution of energy, but this time green energy,” she said.

The Green New Deal has many obstacles in its path before it might see the light of day, or more importantly floor of congress but hopefully the success of it’s championer will help inspire more Democrats and Republicans to take environmental policy seriously and incorporate it into their agenda’s. 

You can read Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez’s full plan below: 

In order to address runaway global climate change, Alexandria strongly supports transitioning the United States to a carbon-free, 100% renewable energy system and a fully modernized electrical grid by 2035. She believes renewable fuels must be produced in a way that achieves our environmental and energy security goals, so we can move beyond oil responsibly in the fight against climate change. By encouraging the electrification of vehicles, sustainable home heating, distributed rooftop solar generation, and the conversion of the power grid to zero-emissions energy sources, Alexandria believes we can be 100% free of fossil fuels by 2035.

Furthermore, Alex believes in recognizing the relationship between economic stability and environmental sustainability. It’s time to shift course and implement a Green New Deal – a transformation that implements structural changes to our political and financial systems in order to alter the trajectory of our environment. Right now, the economy is controlled by big corporations whose profits are dependent on the continuation of climate change. This arrangement benefits few, but comes at the detriment of our planet and all its inhabitants. Its effects are life-threatening, and are especially already felt by low-income communities, both in the U.S. and globally. Even in NY-14, areas like Throgs Neck, College Point, and City Island are being affected by erosion and rising sea levels. Rather than continue a dependency on this system that posits climate change as inherent to economic life, the Green New Deal believes that radically addressing climate change is a potential path towards a more equitable economy with increased employment and widespread financial security for all.

Climate change is the single biggest national security threat for the United States and the single biggest threat to worldwide industrialized civilization, and the effects of warming can be hard to predict and self-reinforcing. We need to avoid a worldwide refugee crisis by waging a war for climate justice through the mobilization of our population and our government. This starts with the United States being a leader on the actions we take both globally and locally.

--

By <a href="mailto:bianca@earth.com">Bianca Vierra</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Ocasio2018 Campaign

Ocasio-Cortez may make environmental policy a political priority

Trump-era politics have put environmental policy on the back burner...

Following the resignation of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) administrator <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epa-head-scott-pruitt-resigns/">Scott Pruitt</a>, Andrew Wheeler has been named as the agency’s new acting chief. Wheeler was formerly a lobbyist for Murray Energy Corporation, the largest underground coal mining company in the United States.

While his most recent job was as an energy lobbyist, Wheeler once worked as a legislative aide to Oklahoma Senator Jim Inhofe, who frequently refers to climate change as the “greatest hoax” ever.

President Trump announced the news on Twitter Thursday after accepting Pruitt’s resignation. Pruitt has been under scrutiny for ethical and spending issues, and is facing at least 13 federal inquiries.

“I have no doubt that Andy will continue on with our great and lasting EPA agenda,” tweeted the President. “We have made tremendous progress and the future of the EPA is very bright!”

There are many, however, who would argue that the EPA has not made progress under the guidance of Scott Pruitt, and these critics do not believe that the agenda will change much with Wheeler in charge.

Ken Cook, the president of the <a href="https://www.ewg.org/">Environmental Working Group</a>, said that “Scott Pruitt will go down in history as a disgrace to the office of EPA administrator.”

“He will forever be associated with extraordinary ethical corruption and the abuse of power for petty personal enrichments,” said Cook.

“Sadly, the ideological fervor with which Pruitt pursued the destruction of environmental regulations and the agency itself lives on in the Trump administration. So while Pruitt is gone, and good riddance, our resistance to all he stood for will continue undiminished.”

Wheeler will assume the responsibilities as acting EPA administrator on Monday, and will hold this position until a new administrator is officially appointed and voted in by the Senate. 

The move to appoint Wheeler as the EPA’s deputy administrator back in April, which made him second in charge, was controversial. The vote was narrowly passed in the Senate, and officials were highly divided along party lines - with every Republican voting in favor and all but three Democrats voting against Wheeler.

Wheeler is now first in charge, and for many Democrats, environmental activists, and others who were relieved to see Pruitt step down, the news comes as a disappointment. In fact, some believe that Wheeler is capable of following Pruitt’s itinerary, such as rolling back clean air and water regulations, in a much more calculated manner because he has more experience in Washington DC.

The <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/">Natural Resources and Defense Council</a> (NRDC), a nonprofit environmental organization, said in a press release:

“Andrew Wheeler is equally unqualified to serve as the nation’s chief environmental steward. Like Pruitt, this veteran coal lobbyist has shown only disdain for the EPA’s vital mission to protect Americans’ health and our environment. Make no mistake: we’ll fight Wheeler’s pollution agenda with the same vigor as we did Pruitt’s.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Former coal lobbyist Andrew Wheeler is the new EPA head

Following the resignation of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) administrator Scott...

Caves are very different than most natural environments.  In a cave, especially a large cave, there seems to be little daily change.  Ceaseless darkness is the norm. Temperatures vary slightly through the year.

According to the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/maca/faqs.htm">National Park Service</a>, temperature inside Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stays around 54°F year round.  There is less seasonal change inside a cave than the environment above. Water levels in caves do sometimes fluctuate but not as much as surface environments.  

Carlsbad Caverns lies beneath a section of the Northern Chihuahuan Desert but relative humidity within it’s ‘Big Room’ ranges from 87.5% in dry winter months to 100% in summer when there is less air exchange with the surface.  This is in an area that, according to the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/cave/learn/nature/weather.htm">National Park Service</a>, receives only 14.9 inches of rain annually, most of that during seasonal monsoons.  According to <a href="https://weatherspark.com/y/3672/Average-Weather-in-Carlsbad-New-Mexico-United-States-Year-Round">Weather Spark</a>, Carlsbad New Mexico, the surface town, has an average maximum of 13% relative humidity in August, the rainiest time.  Despite seeming static, caves do have wind, and the caver maxim when confronting a small passageway is ‘If it blows, it goes’.  The maxim means that if wind is blowing from anything from a small crack to a large opening, there is a cave passage on the other side.  The truth is though that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happens-to-wind-power-when-theres-no-wind/">wind</a> in caves is always more of a sigh than a raging storm. Some refer to the air exchange between a cave and the outside environment as the cave ‘breathing’.  

The most common cave, the classic cave with stalactites and stalagmites, is a solution cave made of limestone.  A solution cave is one created by the reaction of rainwater with the surrounding rock, which then dissolves into solution.  Limestone is reactive to even a little acid and rainwater is slightly acidic with an average pH of 5.6 as opposed to pure water with a pH of 7.  There are some odd caves that aren’t solution caves though. 

Lava tubes are one of the more interesting of caves.  When lava cools on the outside, the inside often remains liquid.  As the inner liquid of a lava flow moves, it sometimes leaves the hardened outer shell behind, creating a tube of rock.  Kazumura Cave of Hawaiʻi is a perfect example of a lava tube cave. Most lava tubes are rather small but surveyed at 40.7 miles, Kazumura is the world’s longest known lava tube cave.  

Other caves are formed by the slow erosion of ocean waves against cliffs, creating so-called sea caves.  Sea caves are relatively short in length but can be quite wide and open. 

Much like sea caves, other caves can be sometimes formed by normal, physical erosion.  I’ve explored some caves like this, carved out by streams flowing through mudstone. Caves made out of mudstone can be especially fragile and I’ve felt them partially collapse on me, luckily not injuring me.  Caves like this can also hold interesting trinkets imbedded in their walls, an example is a cave in western Colorado locally known as ‘Bone in the Wall Cave’... you can guess why. 

Classic caves are limestone.  The amazing thing is limestone is formed by oceans.  Shallow, warm oceans and sometimes lakes are the most common places where limestone forms.  Limestone is chemically Calcium Carbonate (CaCO2).  In the warm, shallow seas where limestone forms, there are many organisms that form shells from Calcium Carbonate.  The hard skeletons of coral polyps known as reefs are also Calcium Carbonate. 

It’s hard to say for certain, but it’s thought that the majority of limestone is formed from the deposit of animal shells over long periods of time that become a limestone formation. Limestone can also form from Calcium Carbonate precipitating directly from water but this is thought to be rarer than limestone from organisms.  Snails, clams and oysters all create shells mainly of Calcium Carbonate and no more than 2% protein which helps strengthen the overall shell. 

According to <a href="https://geology.com/rocks/limestone.shtml">geology.com</a>, limestone is still forming mainly in shallow waters between 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south latitude.  An example of limestone formation happening now is the Bahamas Platform where a reef system abundant with shelled animals is creating large limestone deposits.  The platform is a protruding shallow seafloor over 100 miles wide. 

Most caves start to form after the limestone deposits have been lifted above sea level.  It’s amazing how much change geological movement can make. The top of Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world at 29,029 feet above sea level in elevation, is a limestone containing seafloor fossils.  Why should it be surprising that caves in Texas, New Mexico or even South Dakota are made of seafloor sediments? In fact once North America was cut in half by a shallow ocean perfect for the creation of limestone, allowing for the eventual formation of enormous caves such as Jewel Cave or Carlsbad Caverns.

Even after the painstakingly slow process of limestone deposition and geologic uprising or drop of sea level that allows limestone to be exposed, caves must be carved out of it.  Small cracks and pores in limestone are the beginnings of caves. Rainwater trickles or seeps into these small flaws in a limestone deposit and slowly start to dissolve away the rock.  This slow process is what also creates aquifers, which are porous limestone ‘sponges’ surrounded by less permeable rock which traps water within them.

Eventually the slow action of water can carve out large passages through limestone and sometimes water levels drop or drain away, leaving the caves largely dry.  As water carves out caves, it also leaves small deposits of the dissolved limestone, sometimes in drips or runs, creating evocative cave formations. Stalactites and stalagmites are both created by dripping water.  Flow stone is the smooth, limestone formation covering most surfaces in undisturbed and intact caves. 

Caves also create strange life forms.  In the darkness, many blind and albino organisms evolve.  On a cave biology expedition I volunteered for in Arizona we used sweet potato to lure rare cave crickets out.  The crickets quickly ate the sweet potato and their orange, sweet potato filled stomachs were clearly visible through clear bodies.  Cave evolution is the evolution of economy. Without light, with less to eat, efficiency is of utmost importance. 

It’s hard to imagine the lengths of time involved in the formation of a cave and it’s eerie life forms.  According to the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/cave/learn/nature/cave.htm">National Park Service</a>, it took Carlsbad Caverns between 4 and 6 million years to form.  The longer Jewel Cave of Jewel Cave National Monument started forming about 40 million years ago.  These things seem ancient and by human standards, they are but it’s important to keep in mind that the caves were talking about started growing long after the dinosaurs became extinct.  Compared to the estimated 4.6 billion years of the earth’s total age, 40 million is just a drop in the bucket. If you get a chance visit a cave. Stand in the dark and listen to near perfect silence and contemplate how old and vast your home really is.                

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

What really goes on inside the deepest of caves?

Caves are very different than most natural environments.  In a...

On Thursday, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) chief Scott Pruitt submitted his resignation after an unprecedented number ethical scandals plagued his tenure.

Pruitt, the former attorney general of Oklahoma, came under fire for excessive spending of taxpayer dollars for personal first-class travel, a condo rental from a Washington D.C. lobbyist, and the purchase of $43,000 soundproof phone booth for his own office.

In addition, Pruitt was said to have ordered his staff to attend to his personal tasks, including finding a six-figure job for his wife, according to the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/">Washington Post</a>.

But beyond his appalling use of funds, Pruitt was more widely criticized for prioritizing oil companies and profit over the health of the planet and future generations.

Just last week, a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/07/03/politics/scott-pruitt-mom-restaurant-confrontation/index.html">video</a> went viral online of a young mother confronting Pruitt at a restaurant holding her young child and urging the EPA head to resign.

"We deserve to have somebody at the EPA who actually does protect our environment, somebody who believes in climate change and takes it seriously for the benefit of all of us, including our children,” Kristin Mink told Pruitt to his face.

As we reported, the initial appointment of Scott Pruitt to run the EPA infuriated environmentalists, as Pruitt time and time again <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scott-pruitt-doubts-global-warming/">denied</a> the existence of climate change and questioned basic scientific facts about global warming. President Donald Trump’s decision to appoint Pruitt to run the EPA was widely viewed as a move to dismantle the organization and empower oil companies and fossil fuel suppliers.

During his time at the EPA, Pruitt ordered that climate change information be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-defense-fund-emails/">scrubbed</a> from the official website of the government agency. He also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pruitt-clean-power-plan/">oversaw</a> the repeal of Obama’s Clean Power Plan, which aimed to limit greenhouse gas emissions.

In one interview, Pruitt even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pruitt-global-warming-good/">suggested</a> that global warming might even be a good thing for the planet.

Shortly after the resignation was announced, Donald Trump tweeted, “I have accepted the resignation of Scott Pruitt as the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. Within the Agency Scott has done an outstanding job, and I will always be thankful to him for this.”

Meanwhile, environmental advocacy group <a href="https://environmentamerica.org/home">Environment America</a> released their own response.

“It took an endless stream of ethical lapses for Scott Pruitt to lose his job, but he never should have had that position in the first place, nor kept it as long as he did, given his actions to undermine core environmental protections such as clean air and clean water,” said Christy Leavitt, the senior director of <a href="https://www.environmentamericas.org/">Environment America’s</a> Campaign to Defend Our Environment.

“Presidents don’t always get a ‘do-over’ so soon after appointing cabinet secretaries who fail to properly serve the American people. We call on the president to remember that conservation is part of being conservative. And we implore him to honor the bipartisan history of environmentalism from Republicans Theodore Roosevelt and Richard Nixon through modern administrations by nominating a true protector of the environment – so that his children and grandchildren, as well as ours, can inherit an Earth worth inheriting.”

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By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

EPA head Scott Pruitt resigns after endless ethical scandals

On Thursday, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) chief Scott Pruitt submitted...

The Summer of 2018 is shaping up to be the hottest on record and global climate change is at the root of it.

It was recently reported by the <a href="http://www.noaa.gov/news/contiguous-us-had-its-warmest-may-on-record">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) that the contiguous United States had its warmest May on record, and now temperatures show no signs of cooling down. 

The heat has caused cracked roads and roof tiles in Britain to buckle, according to the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5916967/Global-warming-blame-heat-records-worldwide-experts-warn-heatwave-continue.html">Daily Mail.</a> Further north in Scotland, a record-shattering 91.8 degrees Fahrenheit was reported In Motherwell. 

In Ireland, Belfast created a new record for the United Kingdom overall with temperatures reaching 86.2 degrees Fahrenheit. While temperatures in the 80s and 90s are typical for many states during the summer months, the cooler, wetter climates in Ireland and the UK make the heat wave unprecedented. 

The country of Oman in the Middle East experienced the highest nighttime temperature on Earth at 126 Degrees Fahrenheit. 

Many cities are issuing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-waves-increase-mortality-rates/">heat warnings</a>, and already eight people have died due to the high temperatures in North America. 

While heat waves are common and not necessarily always attributable to climate change, this unusual bout of literal global warming is too extreme and too long to be simply explained by natural climate phenomena. 

“Summers keep getting hotter,” heat wave expert Friederike Otto of the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> told the Daily Mail. “Heatwaves are far more intense than when my parents were growing up in the 1950s. If we do nothing to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions, the kind of extreme heat we saw this past summer will be the norm when my young son is a grown man.”

In the US and Canada, a heat dome that has been lingering over the United States since June is part of the reason temperatures have been so stifling in that region. The dome is now predicted to spread even further throughout the week. 

As weather extremes become the new norm and countries around the world experience hotter and hotter summers, more severe hurricane seasons, and frigid winter cold snaps, it can only be hoped that policymakers will work quickly to cap emissions and combat climate change. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Record setting heat waves continue across the globe

The Summer of 2018 is shaping up to be the...

New research indicates that climate change and greenhouse gas emissions will continue to cause irreversible damage and mass bleachings in the Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral reef system in the world.

According the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/04/world/australia/great-barrier-reef.html?smprod=nytcore-ipad&amp;smid=nytcore-ipad-share">New York Times,</a> scientists are warning that The Great Barrier Reef could experience devastating bleachings every two years, a rapidly increased rate compared to current bleachings. 

A recent <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/CC_MVSA0147-Report-Great-Barrier-Reef_V4-FA_Low-Res_Single-Pages.pdf">report</a> published by the <a href="https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/">Climate Council</a> found that widespread coral bleaching only occurred every 27 years, but as greenhouse gas emissions have increased and with it global temperatures, bleaching events are occurring once every six years. 

In 2016 and 2017, the Great Barrier Reef experienced unprecedented reef loss and nearly a third of the reef’s corals died off. 

With that much damage, even if the reef recovers, it still has lost much of its coral diversity, and according to the New York Times, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-death-events/">Great Barrier Reef</a> will never look the same again. 

The Climate Council’s recent report is a stark warning and unless more is done to mitigate climate change and reduce emissions, any reef recovery efforts will be futile. 

“Unless drastic action is taken, extreme coral bleaching will be the new normal by the 2030s,” Lesley Hughes, an ecologist at the Climate Council, told the New York Times. 

Coral reefs play a vital role in ocean ecosystems and provide habitats for many marine species. As reefs experience frequent bleaching and die off, it threatens not only the genetic diversity of corals but also the fish and wildlife who depend on the reefs. 

The Great Barrier Reef is also a major draw for tourism and it generates billions of dollars in revenue for Australia. Many coastal communities next to vibrant reefs have similar dependencies on corals for tourism and fishing which is why coral conservation and recovery is so important. 

However, as the Climate Council report stated, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-protection/">conservation work</a> will only go so far unless climate change, the main threat to corals around the world, is dealt with on a large scale. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Great Barrier Reef could suffer mass bleaching every two years

New research indicates that climate change and greenhouse gas emissions...

Tropical forests are not only home to rare and incredible biodiversity, but are also home to many hundreds of thousands of people. Conservation policies can have a huge impact on local people, and a new study has demonstrated just how costly the new restrictions can be.

Among other donors, the World Bank has made a clear commitment to ensure that individuals who are negatively impacted by their projects are compensated. For the first time, researchers have analyzed this type of compensation scheme, and have found it to be inadequate.

The team of experts from <a href="https://www.bangor.ac.uk/">Bangor University</a> in the UK and the <a href="http://www.univ-antananarivo.mg/">University of Antananarivo</a> in Madagascar evaluated a new protected area and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) project in the eastern rainforests of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-toad-species-madagascar/">Madagascar</a>. The project, which is called the Coridor Ankeniheny Zahamena (CAZ), has been designed to protect high-profile biodiversity and mitigate climate change.

The researchers have found that restrictions associated with the project have brought very significant costs to local people, affecting an estimated total of up to 85 percent of local annual incomes. Compensation in the form of help with improved agriculture was offered to a small group of people, but none were fully compensated.


According to the researchers, approximately 27,000 people - who are all extremely poor - have been negatively impacted by the conservation project. 

Study co-author Dr. Sarobidy Rakotonarivo explained how real the costs of forest conservation have become. 

“Those who clear land for agriculture are often those that are most food insecure,” said Dr. Rakotonarivo. “Beyond the economic costs of not being able to grow food to feed their family, local people suffer from conservation enforcement. I have heard first hand reports of people being arrested and held in deplorable conditions for cultivating on forest fallow which they consider ancestral land. In a country where jail conditions are inhumane, this shows how desperate people are.”


While the compensation is very much appreciated, few have received it. Those who did receive help were not usually the most in need, and the value of the support was very low when compared to the costs of conservation.

“While our results show that policies which promise to compensate communities for the cost of conservation are not being met, this is not a case of corruption,” said Professor Julia Jones. “Money has not gone missing. The truth is that the world is not currently paying enough to ensure that poor local people are properly compensated. We show that if rich countries were willing to pay the full social cost of carbon, proper compensation could be affordable.”


The research team conducted in-depth interviews with 603 people from several communities. Over a period of more than two years, households were visited up to three times. 


“These are difficult results to present,” said Professor Jones. “I strongly believe that conservation of Madagascar's rainforests is hugely important for Madagascar and for the world and know many dedicated and extremely hard working people working in conservation in Madagascar. This is no criticism of them. However if the international community underpay for the true cost of conservation, then the rich world is essentially freeloading on extremely poor forest residents; gaining benefits while they bear the costs.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forest conservation measures can come at a high price for locals

Tropical forests are not only home to rare and incredible...

A new study published by the <a href="https://www.egu.eu/">European Geosciences Union</a> has found a shocking amount of oxygen loss in the Baltic Sea. While the region is home to the world's largest oxygen-deprived areas of water, known as dead zones, the loss of oxygen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-baltic-sea-future/">Baltic</a> coastal areas has been unprecedented over the last 1,500 years.

According to an international team of researchers, the main driver of oxygen loss in the Baltic Sea is human-induced pollution from fertilizers and sewage runoff.

The expansion of the so-called dead zones can have major consequences for the environment. In addition, the reduction of local fish populations is worsened.

Study co-author Tom Jilbert is an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> in Finland.

“The Baltic was strongly impacted by human nutrient inputs in the 20th century and is still experiencing the legacy of those inputs today,” said Professor Jilbert.

Despite recent efforts to reduce the release of polluting nutrients, the researchers said that they found “no evidence of recovery” in oxygen across the Archipelago Sea, which is a Baltic area between Finland and Sweden.

Study lead author Sami Jokinen is a researcher at the <a href="http://www.utu.fi/en/">University of Turku</a>.


According to Jokinen, warm waters are less effective at holding oxygen, which means that “global warming is likely to exacerbate oxygen depletion.”

“Climate change was not the main cause of the current dead zone, but it is an important factor delaying the recovery,” said Jokinen.

For their investigation, the team drilled and studied a sediment core from the floor of the Archipelago Sea with a length of four meters. The scientists observed how oxygen levels have changed in this area over the past 1,500 years. 

“The interesting finding from our study is that, in the coastal areas, oxygen loss in the modern period really stands out, due to the strong signal of recent human nutrient inputs,” said Professor Jilbert. 

The study revealed that oxygen levels were low during the medieval period as well, but the experts pointed out that oxygen loss has now become “unprecedentedly severe.”

According to the study, the oxygen loss began in the early 1900s. This dates back decades further than what was previously realized.


“This is surprising because the 1950s is often regarded as the period of rising oxygen depletion in the Baltic Sea, which has been linked to the substantial increase in human-induced nutrient loading around that time,” explained Jokinen.

“On top of this, we found evidence of marked human-induced nutrient loading already at the turn of the 20th century, which likely stimulated oxygen depletion in coastal areas.”

Nutrient loading has long-term impacts, and makes it difficult to stop the ongoing spread of dead zones.

“The good news is that many countries in the Baltic catchment have taken significant steps towards nutrient loading reductions,” said Professor Jilbert. 

“In some coastal regions we are already seeing improvements. Better understanding of the balance between nutrient inputs and climate change will therefore help to guide management of the Baltic in the future.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.biogeosciences.net/">Biogeosciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Kari Mattila, The Archipelago Research Institute

Shocking oxygen loss in the Baltic Sea as dead zones expand

A new study published by the European Geosciences Union has...

Researchers are looking at ways to revitalize the agriculture industry so that crops are sustainable in their water use and continue to provide enough nutrients and food as demand continues to grow with population.

India is a country that already deals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/war-urbanization-global-malnutrition/">severe nutrient deficiencies</a> and 30 percent or more of its citizens are anemic. 

Water shortages and drier and drier monsoon seasons are also causing problems with water and crop shortages and by 2050, India is expected have 394 million more people to feed. 

A new study conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> examined ways to replace wheat and rice with other more nutrient-rich crops to see if it would impact water use and food demand. 

In the 1960s, India experienced a green revolution and a boom in rice and wheat production helped reduce hunger but the increase in crops and agriculture also increased water use and greenhouse gas emissions. 

The truth is that wheat and rice simply aren’t sustainable crops for India at this time as climate change and population increases continue to take hold. 

The Indian government is working to reduce malnourishment while improving water use and the new study examined ways to make this possible.

“If we continue to go the route of rice and wheat, with unsustainable resource use and increasing climate variability, it's unclear how long we could keep that practice up,” said Kyle Davis, the lead author of the new study. “That's why we're thinking of ways to better align food security and environmental goals.”

For the study, the researchers reviewed data on six major grain crops in India: rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet. 

Each crop’s water use and nutritional values were then analyzed and compared to see if any crops could be reduced or replaced. 

As rice and wheat are the least sustainable when it comes to water use and the nutrients they provide, the researchers found that if rice was instead replaced with maize or millet it would have a significant positive impact. 

The results show that replacing rice crops could reduce water demand by 33 percent and increase nutrient production or iron by 27 percent. 

Both replacing crops and working with genetic modification to increase calories and nutrients of the crops grown would help lessen malnourishment and food shortages. 

More research is needed before India makes any widespread policy changes, but the study shows that sustainable, nutrient-rich crops are a possibility for India in the future. 

“If the government is able to get people more interested in eating millets, the production will organically respond to that,” said Davis. “If you have more demand, then people will pay a better price for it, and farmers will be more willing to plant it.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Kevin Krajick

India needs to switch crops to feed quickly growing population

Researchers are looking at ways to revitalize the agriculture industry...

A recent study has found that wolves are flourishing in the human-free Chernobyl Exclusion Zone (CEZ). According to the investigators, the region is no safer for animals, yet some are thriving in the absence of humans.

The study reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-hunting-bears-wolves/">wolves</a> have quickly repopulated the contaminated zone since the nuclear disaster of 1986. With no threat of being hunted by humans, the wolves can enjoy an abundance of prey across the region that has been recovering for the past 30 years.

In 2015, a young male wolf was tracked at a distance of over 220 miles from his home, which is the farthest-known distance of any animal trekking out of the polluted site. 

The researchers put tracking devices on 14 grey wolves in the CEZ. While 13 adult wolves stayed close to home, the single juvenile set out on a journey. The young wolf was already 186 miles outside of the Exclusion Zone when his GPS collar stopped working.


Scientists believe that this could be indicative that the CEZ serves as a type of wildlife refuge, and future research will be focused on the migration of other animals outside of the zone. 

These studies may provide insight into how the fallout zone has impacted wildlife and will also inform experts on any potential genetic mutations that may spread into outside populations.

“It is worth exploring how the CEZ may serve as a source for some wildlife populations rather than a sink as has been previously suggested,” wrote the study authors.

“Considering the high population density of wolves specifically relative to neighboring uncontaminated reserves (up to seven  times greater), it is appropriate to speculate that wolves born in the CEZ regularly disperse into surrounding populations.”


Study co-author Michael Byrne from the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri at Columbia</a> told <a href="https://www.livescience.com/">Live Science</a>: “Instead of being an ecological black hole, the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone might actually act as a source of wildlife to help other populations in the region.”

“And these findings might not just apply to wolves - it's reasonable to assume similar things are happening with other animals as well.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/animal+sciences/journal/10344">European Journal of Wildlife Research</a>

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

With no humans in radioactive Chernobyl, wolves are in charge

A recent study has found that wolves are flourishing in...

“In the kingdom of consumption the citizen is king. A democratic monarchy: equality before consumption, fraternity in consumption, and freedom through consumption.”
-<a href="https://www.brainyquote.com/authors/raoul_vaneigem">Raoul Vaneigem</a>
It’s the most common of assumptions in America and other western democracies that a democracy is the best form of government.  It’s worth questioning any commonplace assumption because even if it turns out to be true, you find out why it is true. 

Countries like the United States and other western powers generally measure the success of their governance by two metrics.  First, success is defined by engagement and representation of ‘the people’ in government. This breaks down into voting and other human rights issues.  If a government is a successful constitutional democracy it means that basic human rights are guaranteed to all and all citizens (with a few exceptions) are allowed to participate in governance.  

Democracies have often fallen short of the ideal.  The 15th amendment to the US constitution, ratified in 1870, formally gave black men the right to vote.  Although formally allowed to vote, coercion, violence and other forms of discrimination made the reality fall far short of the guarantee of law.  In the US, it wasn’t until the 19th amendment was ratified in 1920 that women were given the right to vote.  Despite the fact that they lived in America long before those of European or African descent, Native Americans weren’t considered US citizens (or allowed to vote) until the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924.  It wasn’t until the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 that Native Americans were afforded many of the same rights as other US citizens. America certainly has improved on matters of human rights but it’s clear, especially now under the current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-policies-cost-deaths/">presidential administration</a> that it has a long way to go still.  The same is true of many democracies. Australia has treated indigenous people and refugees equally dismally throughout history as one of many examples.

The second metric of success that most western democracies use is the metric of economics.  Economic wealth is a hallmark of capitalism, which is as influential an idea on our government and society as democracy, perhaps more so.  Free market economics is what determines the wealth and thus social standing of everyone in America. 

As far as overall economic wealth, America has done well.  According to <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/MKTGNIUSA646NWDB">a recent report</a>, the US Gross National Income for 2016 was almost 19 trillion dollars.  <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GNI_(nominal,_Atlas_method)_per_capita">Wikipedia</a> lists the US as 6th in the world on terms of GNI alone.  Part of the problem is that GNI is deceptive and has little to do with equality, justice or overall happiness.  

I visited Equatorial Guinea (EG) a few years back and spent five months there.  In EG I saw a world of extremes. On the one hand, there were fancy modern skyscrapers being built in the city, but on the other,  there were villages with no electricity or running water, connected to the outside world only by foot paths. Yet Wikipedia lists Equatorial Guinea as 73 in the world in terms with GNI, not too far from Mexico at 67. Much further down the list is Madagascar with a GNI at 178 in the world.  Having spent months in all three countries, I found that many in Equatorial Guinea have much more in common with people in Madagascar than Mexico in terms of affluence. 

Between Equatorial Guinea and Madagascar with a GNI rating of 127 in the world is Bhutan.  Bhutan is an interesting case because it is the only country with a GNH or Gross National Happiness rating as a measure of successful governance.  It’s worth noting that Bhutan is officially the Kingdom of Bhutan and is the last Buddhist monarchy in the world. The phrase ‘gross national happiness’ was first coined in 1972 by King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, when he stated, “Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product.”  Since it was first voiced the philosophy of GNI is one of measuring other aspects of development and well-being beyond economics. <a href="http://theconversation.com/us">The Conversation</a> sites that more than 50% of Bhutan’s land is protected in national parks while 80% is covered in natural forests and reforestation efforts are increasing that amount.  This makes sense as ‘Ecological diversity and resilience’ is listed as one of the 9 components of Bhutan’s GNH. Other parts of the GNH can easily be connected to a healthy environment.  

Psychological wellbeing, health and living standards are all connected to the environment in one way or another.  A large part of Bhutan’s success in maintaining a healthy environment is related to religion, early animist beliefs were replaced largely by Buddhism and both religions acknowledge sentience in other organisms.  Snow Leopards of Bhutan often prey upon yaks that some herders depend upon for their livelihood. Compensation for yak predation is paid by the government and small amounts of income are generated through ecotourism.  Tourism in Bhutan though is severely limited, costing $200-250 per day to visit and certain areas are restricted. Tourism limitations are part of keeping the culture of Bhutan intact and healthy, rather than being swamped with globalism as many other places are.  Beyond religion and culture, I believe one reason Bhutan is so successful in preserving culture, religion and environment is because it is a monarchy. It’s hard to imagine a democracy doing as well.

The United States has pioneered the way in many aspects of environmentalism.  Teddy Roosevelt and others like him created a national park system that has been admired and emulated across the world from Europe to Africa.  Even extreme environmental movements such as Earth First! were founded in America and have a distinctive American flavor.  Yet much of what Teddy Roosevelt did seems to some to push the boundaries of democracy.  National monuments are created by executive order as are national forests. In many ways this land conservation is the backbone of American environmental policy.  When it comes to using executive orders, Teddy Roosevelt is quote in an article in <a href="https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1623&amp;context=jleg">Journal of Legislation</a> as saying, 

“…I declined to adopt this view that what was imperatively necessary for the Nation could not be done by the President, unless he could find some specific authorization to do it.”

Many presidents since Roosevelt have been accused of abusing power, often when declaring national monuments, including President Obama.

It seems apparent that a healthy environment is in the best interest of the people.  Public lands likewise seem part of the greater good. It’s not apparent however that in all cases without coercion would the people themselves invest in this greater good.  Often politicians working together have a hard time passing big environmental law. One individual working on what he or she knows is right can be convinced more easily to embrace environmentalism.  

In a paper originally published in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278093251_Tendencies_Towards_Environmental_Autocracy_and_Technocracy">Ethical Perspectives</a>, Stijn Neuteleers discusses the ideas of autocracy and democracy in regards to environmental goals.  For the proponents of large scale geoengineering projects to control climate change, autocracy seems the best form of government to achieve those goals.  Some environmentalists (including myself) consider geoengineering ideas nightmarish. Neuteleers quotes André Gorz in Political Ecology: Expertocracy versus Self-Limitation and article published in New Left Review:

“The ecological movement was born long before deterioration of the environment and the quality of life raised the question of human survival. It was born originally out of a spontaneous protest against the destruction of the culture of the everyday by the apparatuses of economic and administrative power. By ‘culture of the everyday’ I mean the whole self-evident collection of intuitive knowledge or vernacular know-how (in the sense given to this term by Ivan Illich), the habits, norms and modes of conduct that enable individuals to interpret, to understand, to assume responsibility for the way they inhabit the world that surrounds them (Gorz 1993, 57). The underlying motivation is always defence of the ‘life-world’ against the rule of the experts, against quantification and monetary evaluation, against the substitution of mercantile, dependent, client relations for the individual’s autonomy and capacity for self-determination”

This view promotes ideas opposite of those who think an autocracy or monarchy is able to promote environmental ideas through simple fiat.  Instead we are left pondering ideas that the heart of environmentalism is connected deeply to ideas of freedom and self-determination. Indeed for many, myself included, the ideal goals of environmentalism is a free self-determining global environment.  It’s good to remember that some of the best governments for the environment were those of hunter gatherer groups. Largely these groups are loosely governed with few formal laws or governing bodies. To have free species, we must have a free environment, to do that we must also be free.              

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Which forms of government are best for the environment?

“In the kingdom of consumption the citizen is king. A...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

[sendtonews key="fxH3eJHEkQ-2010196-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

[sendtonews key="Ccjk8KEMzv-2550719-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

[sendtonews key="6SdlLLbt0t-1988946-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NTU...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

[sendtonews key="gRpsplpwpe-2251464-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

[sendtonews key="yPSXGZek1I-2312529-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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